Library of Linguistics

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All these reasons justify the establishment of a new forum which is devoted to all areas of Arabic linguistic studies. It is also hoped that this Series will be of interest not only to students and researchers in Arabic linguistics but also to students and scholars of other disciplines who are looking for infor• mation of theoreti~al, practical or pragmatic interest.

The Series Editors

ii Saudi Arabian Dialects Library of Arabic Linguistics

Series editors Hasan Bakalla King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Bruce Ingham School of Oriental and African Studies, University ofLondon

Advisory editorial board Peter F. Abboud University ofTexas at Austin M.H. Abdulaziz University ofNairobi Yousif El-Khalifa Abu Bakr University of Khartoum Salih J. Altoma Indiana University Arne Ambros University ofVienna El Said M. Badawi American University in Cairo Michael G. Carter University of Sydney Ahmad al-Dhubaib King Saud University (formerly University of Riyadh) Martin Forstner Johannes Gutenberg University at Mainz Otto Jastrow University of Erlangen-Nurnberg Raja T. Nasr University College of Beirut C.H.M. Versteegh Catholic University at Nijmegen Bougslaw R. Zagorski University ofWarsaw

iv Theodore Prochazka Jr

Saudi Arabian Dialects

Monograph NO.8

~l Routledge ~ ~ Taylor & Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORK First published in 1988 by Kegan Paul International

This edition first published in 20 I 0 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX 14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© Theodore Prochazka Ir 1988

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 10: 0-7103-0204-5 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978-0-7103-0204-5 (hbk)

Publisher's Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original copies may be apparent. The publisher has made every effort to contact original copyright holders and would welcome correspondence from those they have been unable to trace. For Helen

Editor's Note

It is now almost fifty years since Jean Cantineau produced his i~portant description of a number of dialects of the Syrian desert, "Etudes sur quelques parlers de nomades arabes orientales". In this he was able to use data obtained in the northern desert to project back into the and make a historical statement of the way in which these dialects had resulted from a succession of emigrations over a period of perhaps seven hundred years, bringing with them the results of a continuous process of linguistic change taking place within the peninsula. Cantineau was not alone in treating these northern dialects. Landberg had described the dialect of the cAnizah tribes in 1919 and 1920; Wetzstein also had worked on tribal dialects in 1868; and Montagne worked on material from the Jazrra Shammar in 1935. Cantineau, however, was the first to make statements about the interrelation of the individual dialects to each other. The dialects of southern Arabia were well covered by Landberg for the Hadhramo~t and Dathina (1901, 1905, 1909 and 1913), and Rhodokanakis for Zufar (1908-11), and Jayakar for (1889), but this still left central Arabia, e.g; the districts of Sudair, al-cAri9h, Qa~im and Jabal Shammar, very thinly covered. Since then T.M. Johnstone produced a number of works which helped to elucidate the geographical distribution of various sound changes within the Arabian peninsula, in particular his work on the Gulf dialects (1963, 1965 and 1967), on the dialect of cUnaiza (1967) and on a dialect of the south central Najdi type (1962 and 1964). More recently work on the dialects of the peninsula has con• tinued with Abboud on the dialect of Hail (1964, 1979) and MajmaCa (1978); Prochazka (1981), al-Tajir (1982) and Holes (1980) on the dialects of . A1-Sasi (1971) and Scnreiber (1971) have pub• lished on the dialect of Mecca. The writer also has worked on the dialect of Mecca (1971), the dialects of the northeastern area bordering on (1982), and on the dialect of the Mu~air (1979) and phafir (1982) . The present work by Prochazka is the first general survey of the dialects of Saudi Arabia covering a wide range from north to south ix in one volume, and as such is an important contribution to the recording of linguistic variation in that vast region. It is particularly strong in covering a number of localities in the southwest not attested in previous work, and it is the first lin• guistic study of the dialect of the Ruwala bedouin of the northern desert. It follows in spirit and in form the work of Cantineau, presenting the material within a morphological framework, listing reflexes of the earlier common Arabic form. The work reveals a major division into two areal blocks: (i) the southern ~ijaz and Tihamah and (ii) the Najdi and Eastern Arabian dialects. Interestingly this corresponds to the older cultural division into Greater (stretching up to just south of Mecca in the region of the Hudhail tribe) and Najd (including all of Central Arabia except the coastal region). The north Arabian area represented in Prochazka's material by the Hail and Ruwaili dialects shows a northward expansion of the Najdi type. It is also note• worthy that the dialect of . and Najran, though within the old area of Greater Yemen, are Najdi in character. Rabin, in his clas• sic study of pre-Islamic dialects, Ancient West Arabian (1951. p.25), states:

The little we know of the Northern Yemenite dialects rather tends to suggest that there was a continuous chain of dialects from south to north without any clear dividing line between Yemen and Hijaz.

On this basis it would seem that the Najdi linguistic area has expanded southward into the area of Bisha and Najran, probably since the beginning of the Islamic era, corresponding to the diminution of the political and trade importance of the Yemen region. The dialect of Hail and Jabal Shammar, as revealed by Prochazka's material and that of earlier writers such as Abboud and Montagne, both in its geographical position and in some of its linguistic characteristics, reflects the dialect of the ancient Tayyi C tribe. Rabin mentions certain features common to the old Tayyi C dialect and that of the Jabal Shammar today, including the preservation of the -t of the feminine suffix in nouns, the dropping of the -t of the feminine plural ending -at, and the occurrence of the form -ah for the 3rd f.s. objective suffix. He also mentions that at an earlier time before the Islamic period, it is likely that the Tayyi C were culturally and linguistically more important and perhaps controlled the Syrian desert area up to the settled lands. This again reflects what Cantineau has suggested for the Shammar in the seventeenth century. This type of study of linguistic variation seems to point to a degree of permanence of cultural regions within the Arabian penin• sula as indicated by dialect in which, although the linguistic features characterizing the regions may change, the actual con• figuration of the region remains.

Bruce Ingham Series Co-Editor x Contents

Acknowledgements xvii Transcription and transliteration xix

INTRODUCTION 1 Dialects of the Southern Hijaz and the Tihamah 3 Najdi and Eastern Arabian dialects 7 Kind of dialect and how collected 9 Grouping the dialects 10 Presentation of the material 12

1 PHONOLOGY 14 A The phonemes 14 Consonants 14 Vowels 17 Emphasis 20 B Stress 20 C The syllabic stretch C1 aC 2 aC 3V(C) 22 D Prosthetic vowels 22

2 THE VERB: GENERAL 24 A The conjugations 24 B The perfect inflexional endings 24 C Remarks on the endings -in and -an 25

3 THE STRONG VERB 27 The simple verb 27 The perfect 27 A facala 27 B faCila 30 Verbs having a back fricative for a first radical 31 The imperfect 32 Imperfects having a back fricative for a first radical 36 The imperative 37 The participle 40 xi Derived themes 40 The perfect 40 The imperfect 45 The imperative 50 The participle 52 The verbal noun 52

4 GEMINATE VERBS 55 The simple verb 55 The perfect 55 The imperfect 56 The imperative 57 Derived themes 58 The perfect 58 The imperfect 59 The imperative 60

5 THE WEAK VERB: HAMZATED VERBS 61 The simple verb 61 The perfect 61 The imperfect 63 The imperative 65 Derived themes 66 The perfect 66 The imperfect 66 The imperative 67

6 THE WEAK VERB: VERBS INITIAL w 68 The simple verb 68 The perfect 68 The imperfect 69 The imperative 71 Derived themes 73 The perfect 73 The imperfect 73

7 l'HE WEAK VERB: VERBS INITIAL Y 75 The simple verb 75 The perfect 75 The imperfect 75 Derived themes 76

8 THE WEAK VERB: HOLLOW VERBS 77 The simple verb 77 The perfect 77 The imperfect 79 The imperative 82 Derived themes 83 The perfect 83 The imperfect 86 The imperative 88 xii 9 THE WEAK VERB: VERBS FINAL Y 90 The simple verb 90 The perfect 90 The imperfect 92 The imperative 95 Deri ved themes 96 The perfect 96 The imperfect 98 The imperative 100

10 DOUBLY WEAK VERBS 104 Verbs initial hamza and final y 104 The perfect 104 The imperfect 104 Verbs initial wand final y 105 The simple verb 105 Derived theme 106 Verbs-medial hamza and final y 106 Verbs medial y and final hamza 107 The participle 109

11 QUADRILITERAL VERBS 110 The strong verb 110 The weak verb 111 Weak second radical 111 Weak fourth radical 113

12 THE PASSIVE VERB 115 A The perfect 115 The strong verb 115 The simple verb 115 Derived themes 116 Geminate verbs 116 The weak verb 117 Hamzated verbs 117 Verbs initial w 118 Hollow verbs 118 Verbs final y 119 B The imperfect 120 The strong verb 120 The simple verb 120 Derived themes 121 Geminate verbs 121 The weak verb 121 Hamzated verbs 121 Verbs initial w/Ho11ow verbs 122 Verbs final y 123 13 THE PRONOUNS 125 Independent pronouns 125 Suffix pronouns 126 The negative particle ~ + pronoun 127 Distribution of the suffix pronouns 128 Occurrence of anaptyctic vowels 129 xiii 14 THE SUFFIXATION OF VERBS 132 A The strong verb 132 The simple verb 132 The perfect 132 Reflexes of Cl.Ar. faCala 132 Reflexes of Cl.Ar. facalat 134 Reflexes of Cl.Ar. facalD 137 Reflexes of Cl.Ar. faCila 138 Reflexes of Cl.Ar. facilat 139 Reflexes of Cl.Ar. facilu 140 The imperfect 141 Verbs with stem vowel u 141 Verbs with stem vowel i 141 Verbs with stem vowel a 142 Verbs having a back fricative for a first radical 143 The imperative 143 Imperatives with stem vowel u 143 Imperatives with stem vowel i 144 Imperatives with stem vowel a 146 The participle 148 Derived themes 149 The perfect 149 The imperfect 153 The imperative 154 B Geminate verbs 157 The perfect 157 The imperative 157 C The weak verb: hamzated verbs 158 The perfect 158 Disyllabic pattern 158 Monosyllabic pattern 159 The imperfect 161 The imperative 161 D The weak verb: hollow verbs 163 The perfect 163 The imperfect 166 The imperative 167 Imperatives derived from verbs of the type y(i)suf 167 Imperatives derived from verbs of the type y(i)bIC 169 E The weak verb: verbs final y 169 The simple verb 169 The perfect 169 Verbs of the pattern C1aC 2 a 169 Verbs of the pattern C1aC 2 i/C 1 iC 2 i 173 The imperfect 175 Verbs of the pattern ya/iC 1C2 i 175 Verbs of the pattern yaC 1C2 a 175 The imperative 175 Forms derived from ya/iC 1C2 i imperfects 175 Forms derived from ya/iC 1 C2 a imperfects 177 Derived themes 179 The perfect 179 The imperfect 179 The imperative 179 xiv F Doubly weak verbs 182 Reflexes of Cl.Ar. ra?a 182 The perfect 182 The imperfect 183 Reflexes of Cl.Ar. ja?a 184 The perfect 184 The imperfect 184 G Non third person verbs 185 2 m.s. 185 Verbs ending in -VCt 185 Verbs ending in -CVt or diphthong + Ct 186 1 c.s. 188 Verbs ending in -VCt 189 Verbs ending in -Cvt or diphthong + Ct 189 Verb + two suffix pronouns 190

15 THE SUFFIXATION OF NOUNS 192 A Nouns ending in consonants 192 Forms corresponding to Cl.Ar. faCal and faCalah 192 Reflexes of Cl.Ar. faCal 192 The hamzated form ?ahal 194 Reflexes of Cl.Ar. faCalah 195 Reflexes of Cl.Ar. mafcalah 197 Reflexes of Cl.Ar. mafacil 197 Nouns ending in single consonants 198 Nouns ending in consonant clusters 200 B Nouns ending in vowels 203 C Nouns with two radicals 204 D Other nouns 205 Parts of the human body that come in pairs 205 Reflexes of Cl.Ar. ?ab and ?ax 207

16 THE SUFFIXATION OF PREPOSITIONS AND OTHER FORMS 210 A Prepositions 210 a Reflexes of Cl.Ar. li• 210 Consonant + 1 + suff~x 211 Consonant cluster + 1 + suffix 212 Vowel + 1 + suffix 213 The imperative 215 The simple verb 215 Theme VIII 216 Verb + suffix + 1 + suffix 216 b Reflexes of Cl.Ar. bi- 218 c Reflexes of Cl.Ar. min 219 d Reflexes of Cl.Ar. Can 219 e Reflexes of Cl.Ar. maCa 220 f Reflexes of Cl.Ar. cala 220 g Reflex of Cl.Ar. ?i11! 221 h Reflexes of Cl.Ar. warl!i?a 221 i Reflexes of Cl.Ar. f1 221 j Reflexes of Cl.Ar. tahta 222 k Other particles 222

xv B Other forms 222 a The form C~d + independent pronouns 222 The form Cad + suffix pronouns 223 b The reflexes of CI.Ar. qad 223 c The particle taww 224 d The interrogative particle kann• 224 e The reflexes of CI.Ar. ?inna 224 f Conditional particles 224 Forms with deictic functions 225 a The form hat 225 b The form hak 225 c The form duk 226 d The forms ?ar- and ?ir• 226 e The forms ?irg and ?ing• 226 f The form Bi- 226 g The forms cayin and xayyil 226 h Other forms 227

BIBLIOGRAPHY 229

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 236 ARABIC SECTION

MAPS I Saudi Arabia 4 2 The Southern Hijaz and the Tihamah 6

xvi Acknowledgements

I want to thank the following persons who have made this book possible: ~RH Prince Khalid al-Fai~al Bin cAbd al-cAzlz, Prince of the cAsir Province, who kindly gave me permission to travel throughout his province on several occasions, whose guest I was in 1978, and who showed interest in my research; HRH Prince Fawwaz Bin cAbd al-cAzlz, Prince of the Makkah Province, for permission to engage in research in the area of al-Qunfidhah; HH the late Amlr Turki al-SudairI, Amir of the Jlzan Province, and HH al-Amlr MUQammad b. Turkl al-SudairI, whose guests my wife and I were; Colonel Musacid b. Khalid al-SudairI, and HH al-Amlr Nasir b. Khalid al-Sudairl, whose guests we were in Najran; al-Amlr cAbdallah b. Mishcan al-HizzanI, formerly Amir of Bal-Ahmar; Al• Amlr Ibn Khathlan, Amir of Bal-Asmar; al-Amlr Sacud al-Tammami, Amir of Rufaidah, then Amir of al-Nimas, as well as his son Musacid b. Sacud al-Tammami; al-Amlr Mavmud al-Nayif, Amir of Bani cAmr. then Amir of Bal-Ahmar; al-Amlr Muhammad al-Zaid al• Muhanna, Amir of Bal-Qarn. . I am indebted to the late Professor T.M. Johnstone, who saw the beginnings of this work and suggested that I write a book. I particularly want to thank Dr Bruce Ingham, co-editor of the Library of Arabic Linguistics, with whom I had many stimulating conversations on Arabic dialects and dialectology in general, and Dr MUQammad ~asan Bakalla for his encouragement and for having accepted this book for publication. My thanks are also due to Mr Ibrahim ~amid cAbd aI-KarIm for having translated that part of the English introduction which forms the Arabic introduction to this book, and the Department of Geography of the King Saud University for having drawn the maps. I also wish to thank Dr MaJ;lmud Ismacil al-~ini (Sieny); HE Dr Mul].ammad Sacid al-QaQtani. President of King Faisal University, who offered me a travel grant to in March 1979; Dr Orner Abdelrasoul. I am profoundly grateful to the following persons who helped me tirelessly by giving me the linguistic information included in this book: Messrs Ibrahim al-Sayyid (Abha); Ahmad Muhammad al-Subayyil (al-Qa~lm); Jabir al-Ghamidl (Ghamid); Jibril Muhammad aI-Bar Ba xvii Sahi (Sabya); Khalid al-TaQi~i (~ayil); Khalid al-Hizzani (Riyadh); Rajab al-Yami (Najran); Rashid Muhammad al-Jamil (~ayil) with whom I started on my first Najdi diale~t and who for innumerable sessions patiently answered my questions; SacId al-GhamidI (Ghamid); Salim b. cAbdallah al-QauzI (al-Qauz); Sulaiman Salim al-Haushan al-RwailI (RwaiII); SamI Salman Muhammad al-cUlaiw and his cousin Hasan Tahir Muhammad al-cUlaiw (Hofuf); cAbd al-cAziz Shaclan (Sudai~); Salih b. Muhammad Khushail and his brother cAmir (BIshah), who also offer~d us·their hospitality; cAbd al-Ra~man Abu Milhah (Abha); cAbd al• cAzlz cAli Mul~im al-Ahmari (Bal-Ahmar); cAbd al-Wadud ZakrI (Sabya); cAbdallah Abu Dahish ai-ShihrI (Ta~Umah), and his father, who also offered us their hospitality; cAbdallah cAbd aI-KarIm Al Muhammad (Riya~h); cAbdallah cAlI Ahmad ShiblI (Sabya); cAbdallah Mukhaimir al-QarnI (Bal-Qarn); Dr cAbdallah al-Mubarak (Hofuf); Messrs cAlI ~uwais (Bal-Qarn); cAwa~ ~amad cAlI al-QauzI (al-Qauz), who with his family went out of his way to make our stay comfortable and interesting; MuJ;1ammad Sacld al-Dammas (Ghamid); the late MuJ;1ammad C Abdallah "CUj aim" al-QahtanI (Rufaidah); Muhammad CAbdallah Al Zulfah (Rufaidah), who with his brother Husain cAbdallah Al Zulfah, presently Amir of al-Madhdhah, offered kind hospitality; MUJ;1ammad cAbd aI-Rahman al-WuhaibI (al-QasIm); Muhammad cAlI cAlwan (Abha), who with his father introduced me to cAsir, as well as his cousin IbrahIm cAlwan for our travels, and his uncle aI-Husain b. Jabir for his hospitality in Rijal Almac on two occasions; MUJ;1ammad cAlI Furaidan (Hofuf); MUcZI ~asan MalikI (al-Qahabah); Manic cAll b. Nattash Al Zumanan (Najran); MahdI Abu MadlnI (Rufaidah); Maijan ~usain Huwaimil al-Rwaili (Rwaili) for his untiring help springing from his interest in his own heritage. I also want to thank the many individuals whom itis impossible for me to thank by name who helped me in the many villages I visited. I want especially to thank my wife, Dr Helen Prochazka, who was able to offer many valuable comments, having become familiar with my research over the years. Above all she showed great patience. I dedicate this book to her.

xviii Transcription and transliteration

Consonants

; ? (' ) c:f> d

~ b II t

c..:.:..> t j; t5 (z) 6 e (th) C l/ j G g (gh) L,. I: c....!> f e- x (kh) 0 q ) d c!J k :, '1\ (dh) J 1 ) r ( m

.) z c:> n

c.f s <5 h

d oS (sh) ) w d .s CS y

Vowels

Short: u, i, a, e (The symbol a - a central mid• Long: u, I, a, e, 0 vowel - is used occasionally Nasal: U to represent a glide vowel, Diphthongs: aw (aw) • ay (ai) often at morpheme boundary.)

The Latin letters in the table reflect the accepted pronunciation of Classical (Modern Standard) Arabic, and are so used in the transcription of the corpus and of examples drawn from other dialects. Sounds for which no equivalents exist in Classical Arabic, e.g. 6, C, g, g, etc. are discussed in Chapter 1. The transliteration of titles of books and articles, and of proper nouns, however, follows the generally accepted system which gives "KhathCam" and not "Xaecam". These alternative forms are in par• entheses in the table. Wherever possible, proper nouns are classicised, e.g. "Bal-Qarn" and not "Bal-Garn", except for forms used by others, e.g. "{{sana" rather than "{1asanah". xix

Introduction

Up to now, relatively little has been done in the field of Saudi Arabian dialect studies, particularly of book length. There are two studies of the Harbi dialect: one, theoretical, by Hamza Qublan al-Mozainy, Vowel Alternations in a Bedouin Hijazi Arabic Dialect (1981); and the other, descriptive, by Alayan Mohamed il-Hazmy, A Critical and Comparative Study of the Spoken Dialect of the Tribe in Saudi Arabia (1975). Mahmoud Esma'il Sieny's The Syntax of Urban Hijazi Arabic (1978) deals with the Arabic spoken in the urban centres of Jiddah, Makkah and Madinah, and shows the overall unity of these dialects. Muhammad Hasan Bakalla's The Morphological and Phonological Components of the Arabic Verb: Meccan Arabic (1979) is a generative study of the said dialect. Mention should be made of Abdallah Abbas Nadwi's PhD thesis, A Study of the Arabic Dialects of the Belad Ghamid and Zahran Region of Saudi Arabia (1968), which unfortunately is riddled with careless errors and misunderstandings to such a degree that it is an unreliable guide and work of refer• ence. Peter Fouad Abboud's PhD dissertation, The Syntax of , is based on the dialect of Hayil. A number of articles have been written dealing with specific linguistic problems relating to individual dialects or groups of dialects. Abboud's "The Verb in Northern Najdi Arabic" (1979) is a morphological study of the verbal and suffix systems in the ~ayil dialect; his "The Vowel of the Imperfect Prefix in Najdi Arabic" (1978) concentrates on the dialect of MajmaCah in Sudair; also to be noted are his "Verb Suffixation in Najdi Arabic" (1975) and "Some Features of the Verbal System of Najdi Verbs" (1971). Bruce Ingham has "Notes on the Dialect of the Mutair of " (1979), which discusses certain morphological features, such as inflexional endings and suffix pronouns; and "Some Characteristics of Meccan Speech" (1971). T.M. Johnstone's "Aspects of Syllabica• tion in the Spoken Arabic of cAnaiza" (1967) discusses the vocalic change a>i in the dialect of cAnaiza in al-Qa~im and formulates rules for that change, which is also of fundamental importance for the understanding of Najdi dialects in general. Also by Johnstone are "The Affication of 'kaf' and 'gaf' in the Arabic Dialects of

1 2 Introduction the Arabian Peninsula" (1963); "Some Characteristics of the D5siri Dialect of Arabic as Spoken in " (1961) and its sequel "Further Studies on the Dosiri Dialect of Arabic as Spoken in Kuwait" (1964). Walter Lehn in his "Vowel Contrasts in Najdi Arabic" (1967) compares certain vocalic phenomena in the dialects of Shaqrah, cAnaiza and Riyadh. On the lexical level are found R. Hunter Smeaton's Lexical Expansion due to Technical Change as Illustrated in the Arabic Dialect of al-Hasa, Saudi Arabia (1973), and my own "Architectural Terminology of the Saudi Arabian South-West" (1978). There are also language teaching materials. The textbook Spoken Arabic (Saudi) by Merril Y. Wagoner et al. (1977) was written by Aramco's Training Department and was intended to represent the Arabic spoken in eastern Saudi Arabia. Margaret K. Omar's Saudi Arabic, Urban Hijazi Dialect (1975), written for the Foreign Ser• vice Institute, is a systematic presentation of the said dialect. Of utmost importance to this book is Jean Cantineau's "Etudes sur quelques parlers des nomades arabes d'Orient" (1936-7). His description of the Rwaili and al-Qasim dialects which I also cover convinced me of the reliability of his material. I was also able to check the phonetic accuracy of his description of the Syrian dialect of al-Raqqah. On the other hand, despite the wealth of material he collected, Cantineau did not see some of the fundamental mechanisms of the Najdi dialects, namely the change a to i in open syllable and the syllabication of the faCalat/h pattern. It was another thirty years or so before these phenomena were formulated by Johnstone for the dialects of C Anaiza and applicable to the Nadji dialect group as a whole. Alois Musil's Manners and Customs of the Rwala Bedouins (1928) is an important source of semantic information, but the author's transcription system tends to confuse certain fundamental linguis• tic facts. J.J. Hess's Von den Beduinen des inneren Arabiens (1938) contains linguistic information on the CUtaibah tribe. A. Socin's Diwan aus Centralarabien (1900-1) is a large collection of poems composed in Najdi dialects, but the material is not of direct linguistic relevance as, despite Socin's grammatical com• ments, the poetic language involved obscures the dialect differ• ences to a great extent. Bruce Ingham's very important study North-East Arabian Dialects (1982) covers dialects both inside and outside Saudi Arabia. It emphasises the geographic'al and social setting of the dialects treated and includes numerous texts. Some linguistic features occurring in the Southern Hijaz, e.g. the definite article ?im- and the 2 f.s. suffix pronoun -i~, are mentioned passim by Muhammad cUmar RafIc in Fi Rubu c cAsir (1953) and by ~amad al-Jasir,'Fi Sarat Ghamid wa-Zahran (1971). The Eastern Arabian dialects can be grouped separately from the Najdi ones as Johnstone has shown. Some of the distinguishing features of these dialects are: the imalah of the reflex of the Classical Arabic ?alif maq?iirah , e.g. mise (= Cl.Ar. masa) "he went", and the reflex of the Classical Arabic ?alif tawIlah, e. g. the 3 f.s. suffix pronoun -he, and the 1 c.pl. suffix pronoun -ne, features not found in Najdi dialects; the non-occurrence of simi C type verbs; yi5zin/yiizin versus yazin "he weighs" of Najdi; the 3 Introduction occurrence of -ay (f.s.) and -aw (c.pl.) as imperative endings regardless of morphological class, unlike the Najdi dialects, in which imperative endings are simple vowels or diphthongs, depending on morphological class; the imperative stem sirb- as opposed to -~rub- "drink" in Najdi when followed by vowels. A feature first noted by Johnstone peculiar to Eastern Arabian dialects is the opposition between the quality of the vowel of the inflexional pre• fix and the quality of the stem vowel in simple imperfect verbs, e.g. yaktib "he writes" and yi~rab "he drinks". On the other hand, the other dialects do not have this opposition, and invariably have ya- (Rwaili, ~ayil, al-Qa~im, Najran, Blshah), or yi- (Riyadh), regardless of conjugation class. Standing outside the scope of this book are the Urban Hijazi dialects of Makkah, Madinah, Taif and Jiddah, which are more akin to the dialects spoken in Africa, especially in the . More• over, they have been studied by others. Regrettably it proved impossible to cover either the dialects of the Northern Hijaz, such as those of al-cUla and Tabuk, or the Shrci dialects of the Eastern Province.

This book The aim of this book is to study the morphology of a number of Saudi Arabian dialects. The aspects concentrated upon are verbal inflexions on one hand, and the suffixation of verbs, nouns, prepositions and other particles on the other. My research started originally in Riyadh in 1973 as a study of two dialects, Abha and Vayil, but as work progressed and I came into contact with an increasing number of dialects, it became apparent, with the encouragement of others, that I should write a book rather than the series of articles I had envisaged. The present book is the result of those efforts, and its aim is to give a broad picture of the dialects of Saudi Arabia. The dialects presented here have been divided into two groups:

i the dialects of the Southern Hijaz and the Tihamah ii the Najdi and Eastern Arabian dialects

The dialects of the Southern Hijaz and the Tihimah The dialects covered are all spoken by sedentary populations living in villages and towns between the border of North Yemen in the south, and regions about 250 km south of Taif in the north. The area comprises the southwest of Saudi Arabia and can be divided into three parts: the highlands, the Tihamah valleys below the Hijaz escarpment, and the lowlands of coastal Tihamah on the Red Sea. This division has a bearing on the population distribution of the area. Some of the highland tribes are, north to south: Zahran, Ghamid, KhathCam, Shumran, Bal-Qarn, Bani cAmr, Bani Shihr, Bal-Asmar, Bal-A~mar, cAsir, and in the Jlzan Province. Also in the highlands, but at the western edge of the Najd plateau, are the two tribes of and QaQ1an that extend towards Central Arabia. Some of the tribal subgroups belonging to Qap~an are: Rufaidah, cAbldah, BanI Bishr and Wadicah. These highland ~

Tribes ______(ASIR RWALA Cities ,Towns, ______Doha .Jawf Villages Country, Regions ___ HIJAZ

P/Y"l.rc-."" & Ily WILD 'Iy-1~

.':Iayil ~-1-9 RASHAYDA

.Buraidah ~1>-\"- 'ttitM. ·Anaizah ~0'. ~V SUDAIR Hofuf .Madinah .Riyadh ·AI Kharj )''.. . f;/ARB , ___ ~buzabl~ .. 1 ~'- ~ MANA?~__ ------1 ~ SAUDI ARABIA , " , .~akkah ,I Taif I .,. ",-.,Np..SIP• I . I GHAMID Bishah p..1:' I Dr ~ f\L "-,,UBB/'.rI // -.,Np..OI /// // 'ASTR ------.Abha YAM r---- / .Najran / / / ...._-- ....,... // o 200kms / ! I " , / " / I / I /

Map 1 Saudi Arabia 5 Introduction tribes extend over the escarpment down into the Tihamah valleys and are distinguished from the highland ones by being called cAsir Tihiimah "the cAsTr of the Tihamah", or by the areas that they occupy, such as Tihamat cAsTr "the Tihamah of the cAsir"; Tihamat Qa\ltiin "the Tihamah of the Qa~!an"; Tihamat BanT Shihr "the Tihamah of the Bani Shihr", etc. The people of all the tribes are predominantly a~ricultural, but some are nomadic, especially in the Tihamah, such as the cAslri tribe of the Rablcah wa-Rufaidah. In many respects, however, the people of valley Tihamah have more in common with the highlanders than with the people of coastal Tihamah, this being most clearly reflected in their architecture. Some of the important settlements of valley Tihamah are the villages of Rijal and al-Shicbain whlch belong to the tribe of the Rijiil Almac and further north the villages of Ma~ayil and (Barig). Between valley Tihamah and the Red Sea Coast are found market hamlets such as A~ad Tharban, Jumcat Rabicah, Khamis ~arb, and Thuluth BanI clsa which are frequented by bedouins. Coastal Tihamah presents a great contrast to the other regions of the southwest. Separated from valley Tihamah by a barrier of sand, it has its own distinct mater• ial culture. In these parts are found the ports of al-Qunfidhah and Jizan; the villages of al-Qauz and al-~abII; the area of ~ali with the villages of al-~ulb and Kiyad; then southwardsl Jlzan, the vill• ages of aI-Darb, Umm al-Khashab, ?abya, and Abu cArTsh. This coastal area has in places extensive fields of sorghum and millet. The tribal affiliations in coastal Tihamah seem to be different from those of valley Tihamah and the highlands. The climate of the Tihamah as a whole is hot while that of the highlands is moderate. The appellation Southern Hijaz is used in a broad geographical sense, as a continuation of the Northern Hijaz north of Taif, the two together being the mountain range between Jordan and Yemen. The word al-~ijaz is used by the local population of the southwest in a more localized and relative sense. For example, the lowland people of Rijiil Alma c and the people living on the plateau (al• sahl) will refer to the mountainous regions above them as al-~ijaz, which seems to have a synonym in another name, aI-Sarah. It should be noted that "cAslr" may refer to two entities: the tribe of cAslr settled around Abha, and the cAsTr province which covers a large part of the southwest. The dialects covered from these regions are the following:

I Al-Qahabah: a village belonging to the Bani Malik in the Jizan province 2 Rufaidah 3 Abha: the capital of the cAslr province 4 Bal-A~mar: the lingu!stic items in this study originate mainly from the village of Al Tajir in Wadi CIbil. 5 Tanumah: a region belonging to the BanT Shihr; the linguistic material comes from the village of al-~afQah 6 Bal-Qarn: the material comes mainly from Sabt al-CAlaya, the administrative centre of this region 7 Ghamid: the material is drawn from the subsections of the BanI cAbdillah and the BanI ~ubyiin 8 AI-Qauz 9 ~abya Map 2 The Southern Hijaz and The Tihamah

Tribes ______QAHfAN Towns,Villages ___ Talf Country, Region __ TIHAMAH o I

...... " .Bishah " " " . ~"." .... :. AI Qunfldhah' BAL-QARN :. " ~ BANI 'AMR <" , 11: '« ~ I-Nlma. 0: ~ § :....\ .S'~~ . J: , ~ ~ % B~L-ASMAR; '\ ~ : c:::.. BAL -AHMAR y.. . Ma~iyll. • ~ ASIR CI) 0 ~ . Red Sea· 1> _ t ~ RUFAIDAH RIJAL" L-SUDAH. KhemIs Mushait ALMA ...... BANT BISHR • :t. Abha~...... 'ABTDAH ~ Zahrin ": .. ! .... : YAM .Umm al Khaehab .,abyi - Najran.

Jizin

6 7 Introduction

There are also a few examples given from the highland dialects of the Bani cAmr and BanI Bishr, as well as examples from the village of Rijal, the Ma~ayil area and the market of Khamls ~arb in the lowlands.

The Najdi and Eastern Arabian dialects The dialects in this group are spoken in the rest of Saudi Arabia which, generally speaking, is better known than the southwest. The area is bounded by the Hijaz on the west; North Yemen, South Yemen and' Oman on the south; the Gulf states on the east; and Iraq and Jordan on the north. This vast region is an alternation of areas of hard and soft ground. There are mountains too, but not of the massive proportions of the Hijaz: the Tuwaiq range of central and southwest central Saudi Arabia and Jabal Shammar in the north. Deserts, the huge Empty Quarter in the south, and the Great NafITd Desert in the north, are linked by a relatively narrow strip of sand, the Dahna. Where water is available, villages and towns are found, like the string of settlements stretching from the Wadi al- region, al-Aflaj, al-~au~ah, to Riyadh, then on to Sudair and al-Qa~im. The NafUd lies between the towns of ~ayil to the south and al-Jauf to the north. Large oases supporting towns and villages are Najran in the southwest, BIshah in the central southwest, al-Kharj in the centre, and al-Hasa, with the town of Hofuf, in the east. The nomadic bedouins occupy large areas within which they move. Among the bedouin tribes are the Yam of Najran; the already men• tioned Qap~an and Shahran; the great northern tribes of the Rwala and Shammar; the CUtaibah and ~arb trihes in the west; the Mu~air in the northeast; the , cAwazim, and in the east. The dialects covered from these regions are as follows:

1 Rwaili 2 Hayil 3 Al-Qa~rm: the material originates from Bukairiyyah and BadayiC 4 Sudair: the material is drawn from the speech of the village of Tuwaim 5 Riyadh 6 Hofuf 7 Bishah 8 Najran

The term "Najdi" is used here in " linguistic, not in a geographical sense. Geographical Najd refers broadly to Central Arabia, and "Najdi" dialects are spoken there. These Najdi dialects, however, are spoken well outside geographical Najd, as far as the Syrian Desert.

I have funded the research for this book myself. I did not ask for any institutional financing, but His Excellency Dr Mu~ammad Sacid al-QaQtani, Rector of King Faisal University, offered me a travel grant to Abha in March 1979. Any other aid was in the form of hospitali ty, given both officially and unofficially. His Royal 8 Introduction

Highness Prince Khalid al-Fai~al kindly encouraged my research by granting me his permission to travel freely through his province. As a result I was guest of the amirs of the region who, besides offering me their hospitality in the form of food and lodging, also arranged for me to meet the local people. I visited the southwest six times in all: summer and autumn of 1973, summers of 1974 and 1975, and spring of 1978 and 1979, spend• ing altogether a total of five months in the area. On my first two trips I flew to Abha from Riyadh. The summer trip in 1973 gave me my first impressions of the area around Abha, while in the autumn I accepted an invitation to visit Rijal Almac in the lowlands. Although Rijal Alma c lies just below the Abha escarpment, at that time the only way to reach the village was on unpaved roads and tracks by way of aI-Darb near the Red Sea coast. In 1974 I went alone by jeep from Riyadh to Abha via Taif. The stage of the journey between Taif and Abha took me a day and a half because part of the way was still unpaved. That summer I spent most of my time commuting from Abha, where I was staying, to Rufaidah in Qa~tan, together with my wife who had flown in from England to join me. We also had the opportunity of visiting the surrounding areas, including al-Nimas in Bilad BanI Shihr, the mountainous region of al-Sudah above'Abha; Bilad BanI Bishr in Qat~an; and Najran, where we were guests of the Sudairi family. An excellent paved road stretching from Bilad Bal-Asmar to Najran made driving easy. In 1975 my wife and I again drove to the southwest, but by a different route from that taken the previous year. We drove through Sudair and al-Qa~im, round the Madinah by-pass, to Yanbuc and Jiddah, on paved roads. From Jiddah southwards to the port of al-Qunfidhah the roads consisted of tracks through salt flats (~abakhah) and we were guided by our host Mr CAwag ~amad al-Qauzi. We spent two weeks in the village of al-Qauz, southeast of al• Qunfidhah, a fertile region (al-khabt) with fields of sorghum, millet and vegetables. While in al-Qauz we visited the surround• ing areas: the market town of Kiyad and al-~ulb in HaIr, and the market of Thuluth Bani cTsa. Leaving al-Qauz with a guide, we drove across the sand to the market of KhamIs ~arb and on through the rocky foothills, through Atad Tharban and Mafraq al-Ajaridah to Bariq. Here our guide left us, and we carried on to Matayil, Rijal Almac and aI-Darb, where the tarmac road began, to take us through Umm al-Khashab to Jizan, with short visits to ~abya and Abu cArfsh. From Jizan we drove up to Abha, on tarmac only until just beyond aI-Darb. Having reached Abha again we drove directly to Zahran in the north, then headed south once more, stopping on the way in villages in Ghamid and Bal-Qarn. From Bal-Qarn we made a detour east through Wadi Shuwa~ (Shwa~) to visit Bfshah. When we rejoined the main road we continued south, staying in al-Nima~, Tanumah and Abha. My wife then flew back to Riyadh and I spent the rest of the trip in Rufaidah, Sarat cAbidah, Bal-Ahmar and Bal-Asmar, from where I drove back to Riyadh through Tiif. In April 1978 I stayed in Abha for two weeks as Prince Khalid's guest. In this relatively short space of time I was able to collect a considerable amount of information. 9 Introduction

Kind of dialect and how collected Ideally a dialect should be collected entirely in the area of the speakers, who should be unaffected by outside speech habits, but these conditions were not easy to meet. Firstly, to most people morphology, especially to those ignorant of it, is a very tedious subject and it is not always possible to sustain a speaker's inter• est and attention, particularly when the investigation aims at coverage in depth. To a speaker, the Arabic word lahjah "dialect" means first of all vocabulary, which he is happy to provide as he appreciates the researcher's interest in his customs which are tangible and easily described, but when he finds out that by lahjah something different is meant, namely the subject presented in this book, his interest often quickly wanes. Some of the short• comings in this study can be attributed to this. Secondly, the remoteness of some of the dialectal areas was a limiting factor, although not being able to visit and stay in all the regions did not in the end prove to be a major obstacle to a good understanding and coverage of the linguistic features sought. In fact my preferred method of collecting linguistic information was to work as intensively as possible with informants from the dialectal areas based in Riyadh and Dammam and later to check the data thoroughly and add to it in the field. One reason for adopt• ing this approach was the fact that in the field the speakers always had their own social responsibilities and commitments in addition to showing me around and entertaining me most hospitably. In Riyadh or Damman on the other hand, both the speaker and I were in a normal working environment where planned sessions were possible. The information presented here was collected by means of ques• tionnaires prepared individually for each dialect. The emphasis was first on verbal conjugations, then on suffixation. The first questionnaire for a dialect always included those forms which to my mind served to identify the salient features of the dialect, with respect to inflexion, independent and suffix pronouns, and syllabic structure. On the basis of this first questionnaire subsequent ones were designed to give more comprehensive coverage. Gathering dialectal information in the field is not merely a question of finding a good and patient speaker. The matter is complicated by the fact that the linguistic situation in Saudi Arabia is in a state of flux. The government has embarked on an intensive education programme aimed at building up the primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education. This means that Classical (Modern Standard) Arabic is spreading throughout the country. with attendant influences on the linguistic habits of the population. Furthermore, the expansion of existing urban centres, the creation of new ones, and current construction of a network of roads linking previously remote areas have brought about greater mobility and contact between people of different regions. Other contributory factors are radio, television and newspapers. All these changes are leading to a gradual levelling of the forms of spoken Arabic in Saudi Arabia, and the consequent loss of local features. This is particularly true of the speech of the younger generation and on a number of occasions speakers referred me to their elders. most noticeably in respect of vocabulary. I found 10 Introduction that it was still relatively easy to elicit morphological data, although even here external influences were felt to some degree. In the end it is up to the dialectologist himself to evaluate the material he has collected and decide which features are peculiar to a given dialect. This is not done haphazardly and arbitrarily, but only after careful scrutiny of the material. Such an operation is difficult if the researcher is covering only one dialect and also if he is not familiar with the broader picture of the dialects of the surrounding areas, and beyond. In my case, my concentration on a variety of dialects in different geographical areas has enabled me to feel to a great extent what is doubtful, or impossible in a dialect, but of course gaps and misunderstandings do occur, as happened on a number of occasions. Nevertheless, rechecking the information often results in a more faithful rendering of a dialect. Information that does not seem to belong to a dialect is frequently the outcome of importation and is significant as it points to linguistic change. In a number of instances such information was included as it was felt that by omitting it the dialect would be distorted, as indeed it would also be distorted by an indiscriminate inclusion of such forms. A case in point is the reflex of Classical Arabic wa~ala "to arrive" which is a form new to parts of the southwest, and it is therefore included, especially given its importance in the formation of the imperfect. The aim here is to present a balanced picture and the dialectologist's experience should be his ultimate gUide. The dialects were studied in the following locations: i al-Qahabah Jizan Rufaidah Rufaidah, Dammam Abha Abha, Riyadh Bal-AJ.1mar Bal-AQ.mar, Abha Tanlimah Taniimah, Riyadh Bal-Qarn Bal-Qarn, Abha Ghamid Riyadh, London al-Qauz al-Qauz, Riyadh, London ~abya Abha, Dammam ii Rwaili Riyadh, London l;Iayil Riyadh, Dammam al-Qa~im Dammam Sudair Riyadh Hofuf Riyadh, Dammam Najran Najran Bishah Blshah

All the dialectal areas covered in this book were visited, except al-Qahabah, the Rwaili area and ~ayil.

Grouping the dialects The division between the dialects of (i) the Southern Hijaz and the Tihamah and (ii) the Najdi and Eastern Arabian dialects is based on the treatment of the reflexes of the Classical Arabic patterns (a) ClaC2aC3(a) (faCal(a)) and (b) C1 aC 2aC 3at/h (facalat/h). 11 Introduction

In the dialects ot group ti) pattern (a) is ClaC2aC3 whereas in those of group (ii) it is C1 iC 2aC 3 under certain definable condi• tions. Pattern (b) is ClaC2aC3at/n/h or ClaC2C3at/h in the dialects of group (i), whereas in those of group lii) the pattern is CIC2ilaC3at/h or CliC2C 3 at/h. To this should be added the occur• rence of verbs of the type yhazim as opposed to yi{lzim "he ties" in dialects of group (i). The dialects in each of the two groups are distinguished below in line with their most salient features.

(i) The dialects of the Southern Hijaz and the Tihamah

The dialects of Rufaidah, Abha, Bal-A~mar and Tanumah can be grouped together on the basis of sarb as opposed to sirib "he drank" elsewhere (except al-Qahabah). The dialect of Rufaidah would seem to represent a branch of this group by having kala instead of ?akl "he ate" found in Abha, Bal-Ahmar and Tanumah. The non-occurrence in Rufaidah of the reflex of the Classical Arabic verb ra?a "he saw" which is found in Abha, Bal-A~mar and Tanumah is another feature. The Bal-Qarn dialect has the 3 m.s. suffix pronoun -uh/-uh/-hu: siriban (and ~iribat) "she drank", eil "he ate". The Ghamid dia• lect distinguishes gender in the third and second persons plural of the inflexional endings and personal pronouns, whereas dialects mentioned previously have common plurals: siribat "she drank", k'il "he ate"; the inflexional endings -ta- (2 m.s.) and -tu- (1 c.s.) before suffix pronouns; the occurrence of two consecutive suffix pronouns, e.g. -kumuha (kum + hal. The highland dialect of al-Qahabah in the extreme south has the verbs ra~ib "he rode" and ?acal "he ate", and distinguishes gender in the third and second persons of the inflexional endings and suffix pronouns. The Tihamah dialects of al-Qauz and ~abya are grouped together. Some of their distinctive features are the following: hun "they (c.pl.) versus hum or him in the highlands; the 3 m.s. suffix pronoun -uh; the imperatives gill and ?am¥ah versus gul "say!" and ?imt "go!" in the highlands. As far as the differences between the dialects of al-Qauz and ?abya are concerned the following remarks can be made: the occurrence of the 2 f.s. inflexional ending -ti in al-Qau~ and -tin in ~abya; katabat in al-Qauz and katbat in ~abya; kil in al-Qauz and kin "he ate" in ?abya. Stress in ?abya tends to fallon the ultimate or penultimate syllable whereas in al-Qauz it may recede as far as the antepenultimate.

(ii) The Najdi and Eastern Arabian dialects The dialects in this group, especially the Najdi ones, appear on the whole uniform in morphological structure, if compared to the dialects of the Southern Hijaz and the Tihamah. Among the Najdi dialects, the subgroup that stands out is the Shammari dialects of the north which have been discussed by Cantineau, Johnstone, Abboud and Ingham. They are represented here by the dialects of ~ayil and al-Qa~rm. The main distinguish• ing features of the Shammari dialects are the suffix pronouns -uh (3m.s.), -ah (3 f.s.) and -an (1 c.s.) as opposed to -ih/-ah, 12 Introduction

-ha and -ni respectively elsewhere in the Najdi subgrpup. Some of the main differences between the dialects of ~ayi1 and a1-Qa~rm are: the 2 m.s. suffix pronoun -ak in ~ayi1 and -ik in a1-Qa~lm; the 2 m.p1. suffix pronoun -kam in ~ayi1 and -kum in a1-Qa?lm; ktubeh in ~ayil and ktibat "she wrote" in al-Qa~lm; kala in l;Iayil and ?akal "he ate" in a1-Qasim. The non-Shammari diaiects were labelled cAnazi by Cantineau after the cAnazeh tribe. Johnstone refers to Eastern Arabian as cAnazi. For want of a more specific term the same appellation is adopted in this book. In this group is found Rwaili, some of the distinguish• ing features of which are: the regular occurrence of verbal forms stressed on the penultimate syllable when the f.pl. inflexional ending -in is added; ?ikal "he ate"; yigif "he stops" as opposed to yagaf "he stands" elsewhere. The dialect of Sudair as discussed by Abboud has the 2 m.s. perfect ending -ta, and the pattern dxal "he entered", but the examples in this study have -t and kitab "he wrote". These dialects distinguish gender in plural inflexional endings and suffix pronouns, unlike the dialect of Riyadh which has only common plurals in these forms. The dialect of Bishah bears close resemblance to that of Riyadh. The dialect of Najran in the south has three short vowel phonemes, u, i, a, as opposed to two short vowel phonemes i, a elsewhere (except possibly Blshah); the 2 f.s. suffix pronoun -i~; smic/~imCat "he/she heard" as opposed to simi C "he heard" and samCat/smaCat of the other Najdi dialects; gulhant/gult as opposed to gilt "you (m.s.) said".

The presentation of the material The linguistic material is organized in the following manner: (1) A short chapter on phonology, including observations on syllabication and stress. (2) The morphology of the verb. For each class the simple verbs and derived themes are given. As far as possible the simple verbs are conjugated in full for the perfect, imperfect and impera• tive. The derived themes are given partial paradigms to illustrate significant stems, but their imperatives are given in full. For all classes, aspects and moods additional examples are given whenever available. Where the main paradigms are given, the meanings of the verbs are translated into English in 3 m.s. or the imperative, e.g. katab Ruf "he wrote"; yuktub Ruf "he wri tes"; ?uktub Ruf "write!"; ~rf Ruf "he was seen". Additional forms which appear under the heading "other examples" are given in the infinitive, e.g. tarak Ruf "to leave"; yuxruy Ruf "to go out"; ?uskub Ruf "to pour"; gil Ruf "to be said". (3) The suffixation of verbs, nouns, prepositions, and some particles. Each class is treated separately. Attention is devoted to the relationship between the syllabication of verbal and nominal stems + suffixes and the shape of the suffixes.

Although the book is a synchronic study of the dialects, the classification of some forms reflects a diachronic approach with respect to verbal conjugations. For instance the verb kala "to eat" of some dialects is included under the initial hamza verbs, 13 Introduction alongside the truly hamzated verb ?akal, instead of being placed under the final y verbs of the type ma~a "to go". Similarly, the form wamin "to feel safe" is included alongside ?amin, and ?fbyaf} "to become white" is classified under strong verbs. This approach to classification allows for greater ease of perception of linguis• tic change within the conjugation system of Arabic dialects as a whole. The trea~ment of suffixation on the other hand emphasizes the relationship of stem and suffix on a purely synchronic level, and kala appears under mata type verbs. The (i) dialects of the Hijaz and the Tihamah, and (ii) the Najdi and Eastern Arabian dialects are always presented together when a paradigm is introduced, so that visual comparison is immediately possible. References

Contents

ARABIC SECTION MAPS I Saudi Arabia 2 The Southern Hijaz and the Tihamah xvi 222 222 223 223 224 224 224 224 225 225 225 226 226 226 226 226 227 229 236 4 6 Bibliography

Abboud, Peter Fouad (1964) The Syntax of Najdi Arabic PhD dissertation, University of Texas, Austin Abboud, Peter Fouad (1971) "Some features of the verbal system of Najdi verbs" Proc. of the XXVII Int'l Congress of Orientalists, 157-8, \'Iiesbaden Abboud, Peter Fouad (1975) ~ "Verb suffixation in Najdi Arabic", in "Etudes arabes et is1amiques, II - 1an~ue et 1itt~rature", I, Actes du XXIXe congres international des orientalistes 1-5, Paris Abboud, Peter Fouad (1978) "Vowel of the imperfect prefix in Najdi Arabic", in M.A. Jazayeri, E.C. Po1ome, W. Winter (eds) Linguistic and Literary Studies in Honor of Archibald A. Hill vol. II, Descriptive Linguistics, 129-38, Lisse Abboud, Peter Fouad (1979) "The verb in northern Najdi Arabic" Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 42/3, A1-Akwa c , I. (1942) 466-99 "Notes on the study of the Arabic of Yemen" Tarbiz (in Hebrew), 13, 165-77 A1-Akwa c , I. (1968) Al-amthal al-yamaniyyah maC muqaranatiba bi-na~a'iriha min al• amthal al-fu~pa wal-amthal al-Carnrniyyah fi al-bilad al• Carabiyyah, Cairo AI-Ali, Monira Dawod (1981) A critical and comparative study of contemporary Arabic fairy tales, c~lected from women mainly in the Wadi Fatima, near Mecca, MPhi1 dissertation, Leeds University • Baka11a, Mohammed Hasan (1979) The Morphological and Phonological Components of the Arabic Verb. Meccan Arabic, Beirut

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