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Battery Storage Systems 1 Battery Storage Systems 2 White Paper #1 – Draft 3 Topic: Battery Storage Systems 4 Authored by: 5 1 1 Battery Storage Systems 2 3 CONTRIBUTORS 4 5 IEEE Smart Grid Battery Storage Working Group 6 7 Chair 8 9 Wei-Jen Lee IEEE Industry Applications Society 10 11 Members and Contributors 12 13 Merlinda Andoni IEEE ABCD Society 14 Salam Bani-Ahmed IEEE ABCD Society 15 David Flynn IEEE ABCD Society 16 Balint Hartmann IEEE ABCD Society 17 John Hewson IEEE ABCD Society 18 Josh Lamb IEEE ABCD Society 19 Afshin Majd IEEE Industry Applications Society 20 Valentin Robu IEEE ABCD Society 21 Mehrdad Rostami IEEE ABCD Society 22 Chris Searles IEEE ABCD Society 23 Sima Seidi IEEE ABCD Society 24 Istvan Taczi IEEE ABCD Society 25 Istvan Vokony IEEE ABCD Society 26 Gaetano Zizzo IEEE ABCD Society 27 28 Staff 29 30 Phyllis Caputo IEEE Smart Grid 31 Angelique Rajski Parashis IEEE Smart Grid 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 2 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2 3 IEEE Smart Grid Initiative brings together IEEE’s broad array of technical societies and 4 organizations through collaboration to encourage the successful rollout of technologically 5 advanced, environment-friendly and secure smart-grid networks around the world. As the 6 professional community and leading provider of globally recognized Smart Grid information, IEEE 7 Smart Grid Initiative is intended to organize, coordinate, leverage and build upon the strength of 8 various entities within IEEE with Smart Grid expertise and interest. Additional information on IEEE 9 Smart Grid can be found at http://smartgrid.ieee.org. 10 3 1 Table of Contents 2 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 6 3 2. Overview of the Energy Storage Technologies ......................................................................... 7 4 2.1. Lead acid batteries ............................................................................................................ 7 5 2.2. Nickel–Cadmium batteries ............................................................................................... 8 6 2.3. Nickel–metal hydride batteries ........................................................................................ 8 7 2.4. Lithium-ion batteries ........................................................................................................ 8 8 2.5. Flow batteries ................................................................................................................. 10 9 2.6. Sodium–sulfur batteries ................................................................................................. 11 10 2.7. Sodium-nickel-chloride batteries ................................................................................... 11 11 2.8. Electric double layer capacitors ..................................................................................... 11 12 2.9. Comparison of battery storage technologies ................................................................. 12 13 3. Current Applications of Battery Storage ................................................................................. 16 14 3.1. Transmission level ........................................................................................................... 16 15 3.1.1. Current Installations and plans ............................................................................. 16 16 3.1.2. Area of Applications ............................................................................................. 17 17 3.1.2.1. Integration of Distributed Renewable Energy Sources .......................... 17 18 3.1.2.2. Merchant Electricity Storage .................................................................. 17 19 3.1.2.3. Transmission upgrade deferral and congestion relief ............................ 18 20 3.1.2.4. Energy arbitrage ..................................................................................... 19 21 3.1.2.5. Load following ........................................................................................ 19 22 3.1.2.6. Power quality improvement ................................................................... 20 23 3.1.2.7. Power reliability ...................................................................................... 20 24 3.1.2.8. Ancillary services .................................................................................... 20 25 3.2. Distribution level ............................................................................................................. 23 26 3.2.1. Current activities .................................................................................................. 23 27 3.2.2. Area of applications ............................................................................................. 24 28 3.2.2.1. Distribution upgrade deferral ................................................................. 24 29 3.2.2.2. Voltage excursion support ...................................................................... 24 4 1 3.2.2.3. Grid support ............................................................................................ 24 2 3.2.2.4. Duck curve improvement ....................................................................... 25 3 3.2.2.5. Microgrid/Nanogrid development ......................................................... 28 4 3.2.2.6. EV battery and charging station ............................................................. 31 5 3.3. Residential level ............................................................................................................... 35 6 3.4. Transportation ................................................................................................................. 39 7 4. Potential Solutions to the Energy Storage issues ................................................................... 47 8 4.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 47 9 4.2. Generation ....................................................................................................................... 47 10 4.2.1. Renewable Energy Storage Units ....................................................................... 47 11 4.3. Transmission .................................................................................................................... 48 12 4.4. Distribution ...................................................................................................................... 49 13 5. Electrochemical energy storage and safety ............................................................................ 52 14 5.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 52 15 5.2. Reliability and aging ........................................................................................................ 52 16 5.3. Effects of scale ................................................................................................................. 53 17 5.4. Lithium-ion systems ........................................................................................................ 53 18 5.4.1. Risks associated with batteries .......................................................................... 53 19 5.4.2. Classification of failures ...................................................................................... 55 20 5.4.3. Criteria for initial failure ..................................................................................... 55 21 5.5. Criteria for cascading propagation .................................................................................. 58 22 5.6. General battery hazards and other chemistries ............................................................. 60 23 5.7. Risk assessment of arcing ................................................................................................ 61 24 Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 67 25 Recommended Standards/Regulations/Government Policies ............................................... 67 26 5 1 1. Introduction 2 Electrical power infrastructures are changing dramatically around the globe due to smart 3 grid initiatives, the establishment of renewables and the resulting distributed nature of creating 4 electricity, the need for independent microgrids to ensure grid reliability, new demands from 5 end users, the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as well as the capability to 6 accommodate mixed energy resources. As a result, the power network faces great challenges in 7 generation, transmission and distribution to meet new and many times unpredictable demands 8 of providing coherent electricity supply. Electrical Energy Storage (EES) has been considered a 9 game-changer with a number of technologies that have great potential in meeting these 10 challenges. According to the U.S. Department of Energy the suitability of a storage technology is 11 determined primarily by its power and energy capacity and the rate at which these can be 12 stored and delivered. Other characteristics to consider are round-trip efficiency, cycle life, 13 calendar life, safety, reliability, effect on the environment and ramp rate (how fast the 14 technology can respond to a command). 15 However, the wide variety of options and complex performance matrices can make it 16 difficult to appraise
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