ugo
de Groot, a Passionate ThinkerThinker
Hugo de Groot (1583-1645), better known as Grotius,Grotius, is oneone ofof thatthat selectselect band ofof DutchmenDutchmen whowho cancan boastboast an an enduring enduring world-wide world-wide reputation. reputation. Internationally he will always bebe regardedregarded asas `the'the father father ofof international international law', whateverwhatever footnotesfootnotes modernmodem scholarshipscholarship maymay addadd to to that that description. description. It is a titletitle hishis countrycountry hashas frequentlyfrequently mademade greatgreat play play with with in in this this century. century. And for the ordinary Dutchman too Grotius'Grotius' namename lives lives on, on, though though in in quite quite another context: his spectacularspectacular escape fromfrom LoevesteinLoevestein prisonprison hiddenhidden inin a bookcase, the brainwave ofof his stout-hearted wifewife MariaMaria vanvan Reigersberch.Reigersberch. As so ofoftenten happens, history'history's s verdictverdict onon GrotiusGrotius representsrepresents aa narrowingnarrowing andand therefore a distortion of thethe reality.reality. TheThe manman himself,himself, whilewhile flattered,flattered, wouldwould be at least asas muchmuch astonishedastonished atat thethe esteemesteem inin whichwhich hehe isis currentlycurrently held.held. He himself expected to achieve lastinglasting famefame forfor hishis historicalhistorical writings,writings, andand especially for his account of the Dutch Revolt.Revolt. ButBut manymany ofof his his contempo-contempo raries, too,too, would be surprisedsurprised atat ourour judgement.judgement. HisHis reputationreputation inin hishis ownown country was inseparablyinseparably linkedlinked toto thethe RemonstrantRemonstrant conflicts,conflicts, whilewhile inin England, for instance,instance, untiluntil wellweIl intointo thethe lastlast centurycentury he he waswas known known primar- primar ily as an advocateadvocate ofof thethe restorationrestoration ofof church church unity,unity, againstagainst thethe historicalhistorical Hugo de Groot at ageage 15.15. trend. He is 'Iele miracle Grotius lived at a crucial time inin history.history. HisHis lifelife parallelsparallels thethe intenseintense d' hollande'hollande' and proudly shows the commemorative social struggle that wouldwould bringbring togethertogether thethe fledglingfledgling EuropeanEuropean nationsnations medal he received from in the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) which, after a century of chaos, shap the hands ofofthe the French in the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) which, after a century of chaos, shap- King (engraving by ed the modernmodem system of sovereignsovereign states.states. ThisThis struggle, struggle, whichwhich ledled toto thethe J. de Gheyn II).n). St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in France, to the fallfall andand executionexecution ofof Grand Pensionary Oldenbarnevelt in Holland, and which finally embroiled Europe in the Thirty Years' War,War, alsoalso formedformed thethe backgroundbackground toto Grotius'Grotius' endeavours. For his life waswas defined byby hishis deepdeep socialsocial commitment.commitment. Single- Single minded zeal characterised hishis wholewhole lifelife — - as his mottomotto' 'ruit ruit hora'hora' ('time(`time flies')flies') bearsbears witness.witness. ForFor thisthis missionarymissionary spiritspirit therethere waswas alwaysalways soso muchmuch toto do, so much that still had toto be finished. Restless activity isis the hallmark of his life andand,, predictably, as his years increaseincrease soso doesdoes hishis dissatisfactiondissatisfaction andand impatienceimpatience with the tepidtepid responseresponse whichwhich hishis missionmission encounteredencountered andand thethe resistanceresistance his works provoked; impatience,impatience, inin thethe end, withwith thethe very human shortcomings of his closeclosest st friends and family. He is weighed down by the
255255 many practical problemsproblems — - political,political, financial oror organisational organisational — - which, in-in
tentionally or otherwise, impedeimpede thethe carryingcarrying outout ofof his his grandiosegrandiose plans.plans.
Ideals and RoweverHowever learned Grotius may have been, however impressive his scholarlyscholarly principles works, it would be wrongwrong toto regardregard himhim solelysolely asas aa scholar. scholar. AtAt each each cross- cross
roads in his careercareer thethe roadroad toto aa quietquiet academicacademic lifelife andand thethe snugnesssnugness ofof
a university was open to him. ButBut hehe nevernever chosechose thatthat path,path, nono mattermatter how how
predictably difficult the alternative. HisRis charactercharacter cancan bebe seenseen particularlyparticularly clearly in the one choice which in his day dominated thethe liveslives ofof man-in-the- man-in-the
street and intellectual alike: thatthat ofof religion.religion. InIn thisthis respectrespect Grotius Grotius shows shows
himself the exactexact oppositeopposite ofof his his fellow-humanist fellow-humanist fromfrom thethe Southern Southern
Provinces, JustusJustus Lipsius, Lipsius, who who was was — - atat leastleast in in public public — - extremely flexible: flexible:
a Lutheran in Jena, a Roman Catholic in Leuven, a Calvinist inin Leiden. AfterAfter
escaping from Loevestein GrotiusGrotius spentspent almostalmost 2525 yearsyears inin exile, exile, mainly mainly in in
France, waiting for the day he could return. ButBut neitherneither thethe pensionpension grantedgranted
him by Louis milXIII nornor thethe kindredkindred spiritsspirits inin CharentonCharenton couldcould deflectdeflect himhim
from his chosen way and convert himhim toto PopePope oror Calvin.Calvin. ThisThis adherenceadherence to to
his principles —- oftenoften described as stubbornstubborn —- barredbarred him, and soso alsoalso hishis wife and children, from aa lifelife moremore appropriateappropriate toto hishis universallyuniversally acknowl- acknowl
edged, much sought-aftersought-after and trulytruly exceptionalexceptional talents.talents. TheThe dramadrama ofof Grotius' lifelife was,was, therefore,therefore, thethe resultresult ofof his his ownown choicechoice inin followingfollowing aa self- self imposed ideal. But the magnitude of thisthis idealideal isis typicaltypical ofof the the man:man: reuni-reuni fication of the churches, constructionconstruction ofof a a universaluniversal systemsystem of of law, law, integra- integra
tion of the classical andand Christian pillarspillars ofof Western Western civilisation. civilisation. Like Like many many
before and afterafter him, Grotius had to learn aa harshharsh lesson:lesson: socialsocial idealsideals tendtend
not to be compatible withwith aa peacefulpeaceful familyfamily life.life.
The development of this ideal was byby itsits naturenature aa process process ofof gradual gradual
awakening. ItIt took shape,shape, notnot surprisingly,surprisingly, inin Loevestein.Loevestein. ItIt represents represents
The spectacular escape fromfrom Loevestein prison hidden in a bookcase, as pictured in an t18th-century 8th-century engraving.
256 Hugo de Groot, a Passionate Thinker 2 Hu^ a de Gr , a Passionate Thinker Grotius' conclusionsconclusions after after ten ten yearsyears ofof front-line front -line engagement engagement in in the the political political and social hurly-burly. HollandHolland waswas hishis teacher,teacher, butbut his his conclusionsconclusions related, related, rightly, to thethe European socialsocial systemsystem ofof which which the the RemonstrantRemonstrant riots riots were were one consequence. The greatgreat ideasideas came,came, therefore,therefore, afafterter the years of thethe 'Dutch`Dutch miracle', afafterter all its literary, scientificscientific andand (less(less durable)durable) politicalpolitical triumphs. They came out of thethe years of exile andand long-drawn-outlong -drawn-out socialsocial de-de cline. But thatthat internationalists,intemationalists, theologianstheologians oror culturalcultural sociologistssociologists stillstill think itit worth theirtheir whilewhile toto studystudy Grotius Grotius — - thatthat is the legacy of thisthis much-much maligned second part of his life, as rich in intellectualintellectual power as it waswas inin conflict. Grotius' importanceimportance forfor hishis ownown timetime waswas determineddetermined byby hishis writ-writ ings. But it was his idealideal thatthat gavegave thesethese writingswritings theirtheir directiondirection and, and, as as anan all-embracing concept, providedprovided thethe keykey toto theirtheir interpretation. interpretation. This This ideal ideal is is totally in line with his character; inin thethe lastlast instance,instance, socialsocial commitment commitment de- de termined his work and his struggle.struggle. LetLet usus nownow taketake aa closercloser look look at at these these two phases of his life, thethe `Holland'Holland years'years' andand those those of of exile exile in in Europe. Europe.
The young Grotius quickly made a namename forfor himselfhimself inin HollandHolland andand inin The riserise...... Europe. His father, Jan, waswas aa colourfulcolourful figurefigure withwith wide-ranging wide-ranging mercan- mercan- tile interests; he was alsoalso well-versedwell-versed inin humanism,humanism, municipalmunicipal secretarysecretary ofof Delft and aa governorgovemor ofof the the youngyoung Leiden Leiden University University wherewhere his his brother brother taught law. Easy enough, then, for him toto introduceintroduce hishis sonson intointo thisthis rela-rela- tively closed circle. Leading figures such asas JustusJustus LipsiusLipsius andand SimonSimon Stevin were regular guests in his house. Even so, young Hugo's rapidrapid ad-ad- vancement was due toto specificspecific qualitiesqualities ofof his his own:own: aa powerful powerful analytical analytical faculty, a true legallegal mindmind andand aa notablenotabie talenttalent forfor systemsystem and and organisation. organisation. He had a near-photographic memorymemory andand an an exceptionalexceptional feeling feeling for for and and skill skill in languages. Gifts which thethe States foundfound veryvery usefuluseful duringduring thisthis periodperiod of of nation-building and in justifying itsits positionposition inin Europe.Europe. In 1594, atat thethe ageage ofof eleven, eleven, HugoHugo enrolledenrolled atat LeidenLeiden University. University. AsAs a protégé of the greatgreat JustusJustus Scaliger,Scaliger, starstar of of the the university, university, he he rapidly rapidly de- de veloped into a leading philologistphilologist and and man man ofof letters, letters, and and went went on on to to become become the finest Latinist ever toto come out of thethe Netherlands.Netherlands. AtAt thethe endend ofof 1599,1 599, by now also aa qualifiedqualified lawyerlawyer andand withwith anan (honorary)(honorary) degreedegree from from thethe fa- fa mous University of Orleans, thethe fruit ofof aa brief sojournsojoum inin France attachedattached toto an embassy, Grotius was enrolled at thethe CourtCourt ofof HollandHolland inin TheThe Hague.Hague. ItIt was the start of a lifetime's practicepractice of of the the law. law. In TheThe HagueHague hishis exceptionalexceptional talenttalent waswas quicklyquickly recognised.recognised. GrandGrand Pensionary OldenbarneveltOldenbamevelt himself testedtested thethe promisingpromising youngster'syoungster's abili- abili ties withwith historicalhistorical assignmentsassignments whichwhich ledled in 161016 IO toto hishis famousfamous De Antiquitate, an apologiaapologia for independence,independence, and later toto thethe Anna/esAnnales && Historiae, the majestic history of thethe DutchDutch RevoltRevolt whichwhich isis amongamong thethe purest and most intelligent imitationsimitations ofof Tacitan Tacitan historiographyhistoriography thethe human-human ists ever produced. HighlyHighly rhetoricalrhetorical inin tone,tone, stronglystrongly moralisingmoralising andand ten-ten dentious, it is veryvery farfar fromfrom complyingcomplying withwith modernmodem standards. standards. Neverthe- Neverthe less, by the literary norms ofof hishis dayday itit isis anan absoluteabsolute masterpiece.masterpiece. At the same time GrotiusGrotius enjoyedenjoyed competingcompeting withwith thethe LeidenLeiden coteriecoterie ofof Heinsius and Dousa in aa multiplicitymultiplicity ofof Latin Latin poeticpoetic genres:genres: seriesseries of of epi- epi grams to accompany historical prints of Prince Maurice'sMaurice' s campaigns, campaigns, pane- pane gyrics on William of Orange or Maurice'sMaurice's andand Stevin'sStevin's mathematical mathematical in-in-
257 vestigations and lengthy epithalamia for his friends. The highhigh pointpoint ofof thesethese
is Adamus Exul,Exul, a biblical drama on the Fall ofof ManMan inin thethe stylestyle ofof Seneca; Seneca;
fuIlfull of elementselements fromfrom naturalnatural philosophy, itit was a modelmodel forfor Milton'sMilton's Paradise Lost. It was no coincidencecoincidence that inin 16031603 thethe DutchDutch embassyembassy at-at tending the coronation ofof JamesJames II presentedpresented thethe KingKing withwith a a long long (and (and polit- polit
ically loaded) Latin poem composed by Grotius celebrating England andand itsits
prince.
But more serious matters soon claimed attention. InIn 16021602 aa disputedispute aboutabout
the legality of thethe seizureseizure ofof aa SpanishSpanish caraque in the Straits ofof MalaccaMalacca
brought the young lawyer a flattering commission from the Dutch East India
Company. The treatise he produced,produced, De jure praedae,praedae, marks the beginning of a long Dutch tradition of concern forfor the right ofof seizure. seizure. AtAt firstfirst thethe trea-trea
tise remained confidential, but inin 16091609 a revised version ofof one chapterchapter waswas
published in the contextcontext ofof thethe negotiationsnegotiations leadingleading toto thethe TwelveTwelve Years'Years'
Truce. This was thethe famousfamous Mare liberum contested by so many EnglishEnglish
writers, notably SeldenSelden inin hishis 16351635 Mare clausum. Even today, the problem has lost none of its relevance. Meanwhile, stormier times were approaching. As a trustedtrusted colleaguecolleague ofof Oldenbarnevelt, Grotius —- now now 2525 yearsyears old,old, a judge-advocate (1607) andand a married man (1608)(1608) —- wouldwould feelfeel their fuIlfull force. SoonSoon afterafter thethe TruceTruce came into effecteffect itit becamebecame apparent apparent — - as thethe SpaniardsSpaniards hadhad anticipated, anticipated, as as Grotius himself had had warnedwarned Oldenbarnevelt Oldenbarnevelt — - that the unityunity ofof the the ProvincesProvinces was precarious. It would not take much to ignite the smouldering embers ofof dissension. A disagreement between Leiden professors on the doctrinedoctrine ofof predestination — - forfor centuriescenturies a contested pointpoint in in theology theology — - exacerbated byby an ill-judged policy for appointing professorsprofessors onon thethe partpart ofof university university gov-gov ernors, inflamed socialsocial tensionsten si ons withinwithin thethe ratherrather heterogeneous heterogeneous religious religious community in Holland. Concern for publicpublic orderorder compelledcompelled thethe authoritiesauthorities to intervene. But The Hague's call caU forfor toleration toleration foundered foundered on on the the stubborn- stubborn ness of the preacherspreachers —- knownknown asas Arminians and GomaristsGomarists afterafter their their lead- lead
ers, Moderates and Strict Orthodox inin dogma.dogma. DemandsOemands forfor aa synodsynod became became
ever louder. However, the numerical balance meant that thethe outcomeoutcome ofof such a council waswas pre-determined.pre-determined. Besides Besides the the Catholics Catholics — - a a notnot insignifi-insignifi
cant faction —- it it would would force force yetyet anotheranother sizeable portion of the populationpopulation into opposition: thus threatening, in Oldenbarnevelt's viewview atat least,least, thethe co-co
hesiveness of the Union.Union .
••.... and fall ofof Grotius, since 16131613 PensionaryPensionary ofof Rotterdam, Rotterdam, sharedshared this this concern. concern. More- More- a gifted lawyer over, his sympathies were withwith thethe weakerweaker party,party, thethe moderatemoderate Arminians.Arminians. For both reasons, it seems,seems, he decideddecided toto involveinvolve himselfhimself inin thethe dispute.dispute. In various writings he cited argumentsarguments fromfrom dogmadogma andand churchchurch historyhistory toto drawattentiondraw attention to the doctrinaldoctrinallatitude latitude whichwhich thethe faithfulfaithful hadhad alwaysalways beenbeen permitted in this matter. In addition,addition, hehe emphaticallyemphatically stressedstressed thethe absoluteabsolute
authority of the government in religious disputes.disputes. ThisThis waswas pouringpouring oiloil onon
the flames, the second point particularly. TheThe quarrelquarrel divideddivided families, families, sects sects
and administrators alike. To maintainmaintain orderorder OldenbarneveltOldenbarnevelt resortedresorted toto thethe weapons of the local militia. Given the complex structurestructure ofof thethe Union,Union, thisthis raised the issue of thethe position of thethe UnionUnion armyarmy whichwhich waswas underunder PrincePrince Maurice's command.commando Provocations by both sidessides played on thethe latentlatent ten-ten-
258 HugoHugo de GrootGrØt,, a PassionateP 'on^ Thinkernk INLElDINLEID IINCs ' -T' TOTOT
DE HOLLANDHOLLAN D SSCHE C H E RRECHT E. CHT S-GELEE.RS -GELEERTHEYD THE.YD .
Befchreven by , . ^ uc?0 - ^e 7'001'
I I ^ I^i1llll1^^^^^^i^ .. I')i° ^I . .
` IN Abt AVE K -HAGi^ øy ^^vw eWauH 3^
illï 4:11111'd1Ul --
sions between OldenbameveltOldenbarnevelt andand Maurice onon pointspoints ofof internalintemal andand foreignforeign Frontispiece ofof Hugo de Groot's textbook on Dutch policy. In August 16181618 MauriceMaurice settledsettled thethe disputedispute by by military military intervention. intervention. law, written at Loevestein OldenbameveltOldenbarnevelt died on the scaffold;scaffold; Grotius,Grotius, hishis intendedintended successor,successor, waswas and published in 1631.163 I. The sentenced to life imprisonment and ended up inin thethe statestate prisonprison ofof Loeve- Loeve picture shows a trial in the Binnenhof `Rolzaal''Rolzaal' inin The stein, the Alcatraz ofof Holland.Holland. Hague. Much has been said about Grotius' behaviourbehaviour duringduring hishis harshharsh interroga-interroga Frontispiece of Brandt / tion, possibly involvinginvolving physical threats, in thethe GevangenpoortGevangenpoort inin TheThe Cattenburgh, History of the Hague. He is said to have talked freely, deserting Oldenbamevelt and claim Life of Mr MI' Huig de Groot Hague. He is said to have talked freely, deserting Oldenbarnevelt and claim- (Historie(Historie van het Leven des ing that he had actedacted onon 'ordersfrom`orders from above'above'. . There is certainly somesome truthtruth Heeren Huig de Groot, in this. By his own account totallytotally unfittedunfitted forfor aa militarymilitary career,career, andand nause-nause 1731732).2 ). ated by the torture sessionssessions hehe attendedattended inin hishis capacitycapacity asas judge-advocate,judge-advocate, Grotius could not endure physical violence.violence. WithWith his his sensesense of of justice justice severe- severe ly shaken,shaken, andand intentionallyintentionally misinformed,misinformed, he seemsseems toto havehave panicked, panicked, briefly at least, at the threatthreat ofof it.it. AndAnd thisthis hashas toldtold heavilyheavily againstagainst ourour
Prinzipienreiter. The situation is the same asas withwith hishis writings.writings. HereHere tootoo wewe find a tragic irony. By nature mild andand peace-lovingpeace-Ioving inin truetrue ErasmianErasmian style,style, the course of his life was determined by twotwo works whosewhose tenortenor runsruns countercounter to the many others:others: thethe acerbicacerbic Ordinum Pietas of 1613 and, above all, his Apologeticus or Verantwoordinghe, thethe stubbom,stubborn, rigidly legalistic justificajustifica- tion of his policy published soon afterafter his escape fromfrom Loevestein.Loevestein. TheThe con-con tent of the former tract, advocating thethe primacy ofof thethe StatesStates overover thethe SynodSynod in matters of church policy, undoubtedlyundoubtedly reflectsreflects hishis honesthonest conviction,conviction, but but its peremptory tone was aapolitical political miscalculation.miscalculation. HereHere aa misplacedmisplaced confi- confi dence in support from James 1,l, withwith whomwhom he had had long discussions on
259259 Hugo de Groot at age 48, painted by M.J. Mierevelt inin 1631631, I, when De Groot briefly returned to Holland.
church policy when he was in England as an envoy dealing withwith fishingfishing mat-mat
ters, led him toto overplayoverplay his hand.hand. InIn thethe secondsecond casecase thethe explanationexplanation lieslies
less in the injuryinjury toto hishis sensesense ofof justice,justice, moremore inin woundedwounded pride.pride. PersonalPersonal pride was not infrequently at the root of Grotius'Grotius' problems.problems. HisHis contempo-contempo raries sawsaw thisthis traittrait asas incompatibleincompatible with with his his exalted exalted ideals ideals for for humanity humanity — -
and it made him vulnerable.vulnerable.
The great works But —- and and thisthis tootoo is typical ofof hishis strongstrong charactercharacter —- it isis preciselyprecisely inin Loevestein that Grotius rediscoversrediscovers himself,himself, hishis energyenergy and and passion. passion. These These two years of imprisonmentimprisonment are a watershed in his life,life, aa periodperiod ofof deep deep reflection. Emotionally, too,too, he blocksblocks thethe roadroad back.back. EverythingEverything hehe writes:writes: religious poetry and prayers inin thethe vernacular,vemacular, BibleBible paraphrasesparaphrases for for his his chil- chil dren, most notably the Proof of the True Religion (Bewijs van dede' ware gods-gods dienst), everything — - inin presentation,presentation, content, eveneven thethe choicechoice of of language language — - shows the shift from a public audience toto thethe personalpersonal atmosphereatmosphere andand inti-inti macy of the family. Of greater long-termlong-term significance,significance, though,though, isis thatthat fromfrom
260 HugoHu de de GGrootr a, a Passionate Passio ThinkerThink+^ ------~ now on man, and so humanity itself, are central to Grotius' thinking.thinking. This isis his guideline for the imposing works that follow.follow. PartlyPartly ledled byby thethe ancientancient Stoic idea of 'oikeiosis'`oikeiosis' (the brotherhood of man), inin hishis De jure bellihelli aeac pacis (1(1625) 625) he addressesaddresses mankind as hishis targettarget group,group, cuttingcutting straightstraight through the domains ofof publicpublic andand privateprivate law,law, regardlessregardless ofof conflicting conflicting le- le gal cultures or religious barriers.barriers. HisHis majesticmajestic De veritate religionis chris-ehris tiG/wetianae (1627), an apologia for Christianity grounded inin solidsolid biblical studystudy and in which he bringsbrings togethertogether allall hishis theological,theological, historicalhistorical andand literary-literary philological skills, is a parallel testimony. ThisThis waswas thethe workwork withwith whichwhich hishis contemporaries associated hishis name, and the oneone mostmost oftenoften reprinted.reprinted. InIn England it was reissued, in Latin oror English,English, everyevery thirdthird yearyear untiluntil 182o.1820. But there isis more.more. Newly-discoveredNewly-discovered continents,continents, newnew needsneeds hadhad calledcalled into being a new, applied scholarship and, asas inin theology,theology, givengiven riserise toto di-di vided opinions. Grotius, thethe lifelonglifelong friendfriend ofof Simon Simon Stevin, Stevin, was was not not averse averse to the new `mathematical''mathematical' thinking;thinking; butbut he he feared,feared, and and history history would would prove prove him right, for the fatefate ofof thethe broadbroad interdisciplinaryinterdisciplinary humanisthumanist approach. approach. InIn his view it was this and only this, withwith itsits combinationcombination of moral, legal andand literary values, that could provide thethe basisbasis forfor politicalpolitical andand religiousreligious peace.peace. In his Dicta Poetarum (1623) and ExeerptaExcerpta Tragicorum (1626)(1 626) hehe collectcollect- ed and translated the golden maxims ofof GreekGreek philosophersphilosophers andand menmen ofof let- let ters for the sake of their moral implications, asas thethe basis ofof Western commoncommon law. We findfind themthem quotedquoted (ad nauseam of modernmodem commentators)commentators) inin thethe ever-growing body of footnotesfootnotes toto De jure belli.be/ti. Thus Greek dramatists,dramatists, Roman stoics and Church Fathers provide the building-blocksbuilding-blocks forfor suchsuch cru-cru cial concepts —- inin Grotius'Grotius' viewview —- asas tolerance,tolerance, irenism, humanhuman rightsrights andand humanitarian rules of war. He recognises in the earlyearly ChurchChurch thethe basisbasis forfor religious unity in substancesubstance andand tolerationtoleration in particularibusparticularihus —- the common creed for all Christians.
Meanwhile, the course of hishis ownown lifelife waswas inin sharpsharp contrastcontrast to to these these ideals. ideals. A legislatorlegislator He was welcomed in Paris asas aa representativerepresentative ofof the the francophilefrancophile policypolicy ofof of mankind Oldenbamevelt, andand Catholic and Calvinist competed for his namename andand favour. But Grotius, unshakeableunshakeable in hishis religiousreligious convictions,convictions, inin careercareer terms too kept his eyeseyes fixedfixed onon hishis ownown country.country. WhenWhen MauriceMaurice dieddied inin 1625 and Frederick HenryHenry —- friendfriend ofof his youth, inclined toto peacepeace andand free free of the `hereditary'hereditary burden'burden' ofof the the troubles troubles — - restored many exilesexiles toto favour,favour, Grotius' hopeshopes werewere raised.raised. ButBut hishis exceptionalexceptional prominence,prominence, hishis uncompro-uncompro mising attitude and hishis Verantwoordinghe meant that he was still hated asas much as he waswas feared.feared. In 1631,163 I, disillusioned afterafter tenten yearsyears ofof hopeshopes andand fears,fears, andand byby nownow to-to tally disregarded in France, he tooktook thethe plunge.plunge. ForFor thethe sakesake ofof his his family family and parents, and encouraged by the vain hopes ofof friendsfriends suchsuch asas thethe emi-emi nent writers Vondel, Vossius andand Hooft,Hooft, hehe returnedretumed toto Holland.Holland. BeingBeing nei-nei ther very tactfultactful nornor veryvery conciliatoryconciliatory inin hishis conduct,conduct, the the following following year year he he had to flee again.again. ButBut twotwo embitteredembittered years,years, mostlymostly inin Hamburg,Hamburg, werewere for-for gotten in an instant whenwhen inin i1634 634 ChancellorChancellor OxenstiernaOxenstiema offeredoffered himhim thethe post of Swedish Ambassador in Paris. In a splendidsplendid Latin dramadrama onon JosephJoseph in Egypt he expressed hishis satisfactionsatisfaction atat thisthis foreignforeign rehabilitationrehabilitation from from vil- vil ification in his own country. But this was just thethe timetime whenwhen thethe SwedishSwedish
261 star,star, after after a a brief brief glory, glory, was was fading fading in in Europe Europe and and Richelieu Richelieu was was taking taking a adif- dif ferentferent tone tone with with his his Lutheran Lutheran ally. aIly. Grotius Grotius had had little little room room to to manoeuvre, manoeuvre, his his stubbornstubborn integrityintegrity andand principledprincipled approachapproach werewere nono helphelp toto him him in in Paris, Paris, whilewhile his his positionposition was was constantly constantly being being undermined undermined from from his his own own country. country. ForFor other other reasons reasons tootoo thethe last last years years of of his his life life were were not not happy. happy. As As in in the the earlierearlier decade decade Grotius Grotius was was never never at at ease ease in in Paris, Paris, despite despite the the scholarly scholarly cir- cir clede around around the the Dupuys. Dupuys. A A move move to to England, England, which which was was discussed discussed quite quite ear- ear lylyon, on, might might well weIl have have averted averted disaster. disaster. But But now now bureaucratic bureaucratic frustrations, frustrations, moneymoney worries,worries, problemsproblems aboutabout thethe children'schildren's education education and and endless endless bitter bitter polemicspolemics aboutabout hishis unionistunionist viewsviews graduallygradually ledled toto an an estrangement estrangement even even fromfrom hishis loyal loyal but but battle-weary battle-weary wife wife Maria. Maria. Passed Passed over over for for the the peace peace nego- nego tiationstiations inin Westphalia, Westphalia, earlyearly in in 1645 1645 Grotius Grotius submitted submitted his his resignation resignation in in Stockholm.Stockholm. There There has has been been much much conjecture conjecture as as to to the the destination destination of of his his re- re turnturn journey; journey; in in the the event event he he got got no no further further than than Rostock, Rostock, where where his his ship ship was was wreckedwrecked andand hehe himselfhimself dieddied fromfrom thethe consequences consequences aa few few days days later. later. Grotius'Grotius' body body lies lies in in Delft Delft beside beside that that of of William William the the Silent, Silent, whose whose deeds deeds andand tomb tomb he he hadhad once once hymned. hymned. During During his his lifetime lifetime Hugo Hugo de de Groot Groot never never set- set tledtled accounts accounts with with his his country; country; nor, nor, in in the the 35o 350 years years since since his his death, death, has has his his countrycountry settled settled accounts accounts with with him. him. The The tolerance tolerance of of the the land land of of preachers preachers can can bebe selective. selective. No No proper proper biography biography of of him him exists exists in in Dutch; Dutch; the the last last complete complete translationtranslation of of The The LawLaw of af War War and and Peace Peace datesdates fromfrom 1705. 1705. ButBut this this sketchsketch must must not not end end on on such such a alow low note. note. Grotius' Grotius' social social convic- convic tionstions werewere forgedforged inin the the furnace furnace of of the the Dutch Dutch Revolt, Revolt, his his profound profound mental mental powerspowers hardened hardened in in the the fervour fervour of of Leiden Leiden humanism. humanism. His His experiences experiences with with thethe experimentexperiment of of a a daring daring and and complex complex form form of of government government and and the the first first deeplydeeply divisivedivisive crisiscrisis inin Holland's Holland's establishment establishment gave gave this this exceptionally exceptionally giftedgifted man man the the opportunity opportunity to to develop develop into into the the `New 'New Justinian' Justinian' that that his his time time calledcalled for,for, thethe `legislator'legislator of of mankind' mankind' as as he he is is known known to to this this day. day. To To many many hehe isis aa visionary visionary thinker, thinker, in in politics polities as as well wen as as in in religion, religion, to to others others a a utopi- utopi an;an; hishis learninglearning never never disputed, disputed, his his passionate passionate conviction conviction invariably. invariably.
ARTHURARTHUR EYFFINGEREYFFINGER TranslatedTranslated by by Tanis Tanis Guest. Guest.
FURTHERFURTHER READING READING
KNIGHT,KNIGHT, W.S.M., W.S.M., The The Life Life and andWorks Works of ofHugo Hugo Grotius. Grotius. London, London, 1925 1925 (reprint (reprint New New York, Vork, 1962).1962). NELLEN,NELLEN, H.J.M., H.J.M., Hugo Hugo de de Groot Groot (1583-1645). (l583-l645). De De loopbaan loopbaan van van een een geleerd geleerd staatsman. staatsman. Weesp, Weesp, 1985.1985. TheThe WorldWorld of of Hugo Hugo Grotius Grotius (1583-z645),(1583-1645), Proc. Proc. Colloquium Colloquium KNAW,KNAW, AmsterdamAmsterdam / /Maarssen, Maarssen, 1984.1984. GrotianaGrotiana (New (New Series), Series), Journal Joumal Grotiana Grotiana Foundation Foundation (Assen, (Assen, 1981-).1981-).
262 HugoHugo de de Groot GrØt, , a a Passionate Passionate Thinker Think