Development in a Changing Climate: Local Impacts of India's National Rural Employment Guarantee Act in Attappady, Kerala
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DEVELOPMENT IN A CHANGING CLIMATE: LOCAL IMPACTS OF INDIA’S NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT IN ATTAPPADY, KERALA UTVIKLING I ET KLIMA I ENDRING: LOKALE VIRKNINGER AV INDIA’S NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT I ATTAPPADY, KERALA Philosophiae Doctor (PhD) Thesis Hans Nicolai Adam Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric Faculty of Social Sciences Norwegian University of Life Sciences Ås 2015 Thesis number 2015:55 ISSN: 1894-6402 ISBN: 978-82-575-1295-8 CONTENTS Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………….….….iii Abstract: English……….……………………………………………………………….………..v Sammendrag………………………………………………………………………….….………vi List of figures……………………………………………………………………….…………..vii List of Abbreviations…………………………………………..……………………………….viii 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 2 1.1 Context and background................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Situating the study ............................................................................................................ 4 1.3 Objectives of the study ..................................................................................................... 6 1.4 Structure of the thesis ....................................................................................................... 7 2 PERSPECTIVES ON CLIMATE AND DEVELOPMENT ................................................... 9 2.1 International stalemate?.................................................................................................... 9 2.2 India and climate change in context – a brief overview ................................................. 11 2.3 Reflections on adaptation, vulnerability and development policy ................................. 13 2.4 Mainstreaming of development and adaptation policy .................................................. 20 2.5 Modern Indian economic planning ................................................................................ 27 2.6 India’s rurality today and emergence of the MGNREGA.............................................. 28 2.7 MGNREGA .................................................................................................................... 30 3 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................... 37 4 FIELD STUDY AREA .......................................................................................................... 42 4.1 Kerala state ..................................................................................................................... 42 4.2 A new paradigm of governance - decentralisation in Kerala ......................................... 43 4.3 MGNREGA in Kerala .................................................................................................... 45 4.4 Attappady – land, people and economy ......................................................................... 46 4.4.1 The land .................................................................................................................. 46 4.4.2 People and economy ............................................................................................... 48 4.5 Socio-ecological change from a historical perspective .................................................. 50 4.6 Development interventions ............................................................................................ 54 4.6.1 MGNREGA in Attappady....................................................................................... 56 5 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS ............................................................................. 58 5.1 Development studies and interdisciplinarity .................................................................. 58 5.2 Research design .............................................................................................................. 58 i 5.3 Selection of field study area ........................................................................................... 59 5.4 Primary data collection methods .................................................................................... 60 5.4.1 Semi-structured interviews ..................................................................................... 61 5.4.2 Key informant interviews ....................................................................................... 62 5.4.3 Focus group discussions ......................................................................................... 63 5.4.4 Participant observation............................................................................................ 63 5.5 Research challenges ....................................................................................................... 64 5.6 Secondary data ............................................................................................................... 65 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ...................................................................................... 67 6.1 Mainstreaming adaptation in India – the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act and climate change (Paper 1) ............................................................................ 67 6.2 Mainstreamed adaptation in practice: India’s MGNREGA in Attappady Block – a case study (Paper 2) .......................................................................................................................... 68 6.3 Unpacking worksite participation and social dynamics of the MGNREGA in Kerala, South India (Paper 3)................................................................................................................ 69 6.4 Adaptation trajectories and challenges in Attappady, south India (Paper 4) ................. 70 6.5 Synthesis and conclusion ............................................................................................... 71 7 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 74 Part II - Compilation of papers 1-4 1) Adam, H.N., 2014. Mainstreaming adaptation in India – the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act and climate change. Climate and Development. Taylor and Francis. (published) 2) Adam, H.N, (forthcoming). Mainstreamed adaptation in practice: India’s MGNREGA in Attappady Block – A case study. Journal of Development Studies. Routledge. (under review) 3) Adam, H.N., (forthcoming). Unpacking worksite participation and social dynamics of the MGNREGA in Kerala, South India. Forum for Development Studies. Taylor and Francis. (submitted) 4) Adam, H.N., Adaptation trajectories and challenges in Attappady, south India. (manuscript) ii Acknowledgements The thesis is the outcome of a personal and academic journey that involved a number of people, at different stages and in various capacities, who ultimately contributed to make it what it is. Darley Jose Kjosavik and Nadarajah Shanmugaratnam, my supervisors, were instrumental in giving me the opportunity to pursue the PhD, with the necessary freedom and academic input - throughout. Their knowledge, guidance, unwavering support and optimism helped me a great deal in the writing process, inspiring confidence and weathering difficult phases. I am extremely grateful to you! Noragric has over the years become an academic home to me that offered the right conditions to grow, mature and develop my research skills. It is a fostering environment, whose diversity and expertise allowed me to dip into various facettes of looking at the social science research world. I would like to thank all its scientific and administrative staff for creating this space. Particularly Pål Vedeld, Poul Wisborg, Espen Sjaastad, Esben Leifsen, Siri Eriksen, Ian Bryceson and Arild Vatn. The library and administration around Liv Ellingsen, Josie Teurlings, Lena Bakke, Anne Kiøsterud and Anders Dysvik were understanding listeners who provided me with expert advice and assistance whenever I was in need of it. My friends and colleagues at Noragric were a great source of support. In the different offices that I have occupied and at various social venues, we shared many memorable moments over the years. Thanks to Awais Arifeen, Abda Khalid, Ingvild Jacobson, Nicole Rezende, Synne Movik, Zainabu Khalif, David Tumusiime, Kjersti Thorkildsen, Connor Cavanagh, Ingunn Bohmann for these, and also to my colleagues and batchmates at the department. Special thanks to Frode Sundnes, Shai Andre Divon, Marianne Karlsson, Lutgart Lenaerts, Lars Kåre Grimsby, Grete Benjaminsen and Sunetro Ghosal who read through drafts at short notice, introduced me to different aspects of academic life, ‘local culture’, outings on sea and road, wide ranging discussions and enduring friendship. My friends in Ås and India contributed in their own little (and larger) ways towards my work. Especially Aravind, who accompanied me briefly to the field and with whom I shared many discussions that have flown into this research. The people of Attappady and its ‘Adivasi’ population lie at the heart of this work and their participation was crucial. I was treated with respect, affection, hospitality and (nearly) endless iii amounts of patience, something for which I feel deep appreciation. My field assistant Pappal and her family in the Sambarkoode ooru welcomed me with open arms. Pappal’s intricate knowledge of the local geography