Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Interpreting a richly decorated baroque notebook from the collection of the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam

MA thesis Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage: Technical Art History

Student: Anneke Hoekstra Student number: 10454780 Thesis supervisor: prof. dr. H.H.M. (Erma) Hermens Second reader: dr. H. (Herman) den Otter Word count: 17992

University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam July 2020 Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Abstract

Juli 2020, Anneke Hoekstra (10454780)

In het interdisciplinaire MA-scriptieonderzoek aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam ‘Writing the Biography of a Notebook: interpreting a richly decorated baroque notebook from the collection of the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam’, fungeert het object BK-17172 als primaire bron. De ‘levensloop’ van het object wordt onderzocht, om te achterhalen hoe, waar en wanneer het is vervaardigd en op welke wijze en door wie het is gebruikt.

July 2020, Anneke Hoekstra (10454780)

In the interdisciplinary MA thesis project at the University of Amsterdam ‘Writing the Biography of a Notebook: interpreting a richly decorated baroque notebook from the collection of the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam’, the object BK-17172 is the primary source. The object’s ‘life cycle’ is investigated, to determine how, where and when it was manufactured and in what manner and by whom it was used.

2 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 1a, b, c. From left to right: front, inside, and back of the notebook. Anonymous, Notebook of tortoise, with decorations of gold, enamel and gemstones. In the closing a pencil, decorated with an enamelled bust, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Amsterdam (BK-17172), ca. 1710-1730, Dresden, Tortoise, gold, enamel and gemstones, h. 10.8cm x w. 6.4cm x d. 1.5cm. Credit: photography by Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. 3 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Table of Contents

Abstract ...... 2 Table of Contents ...... 4 Acknowledgements ...... 6 Glossary ...... 7 Introduction ...... 8 Object description ...... 8 Aim and Research question ...... 10 Structure and Methodology ...... 10 Relevance for Technical Art History ...... 11 1. Previous research ...... 12 1.1 Provenance, function, date, and attribution ...... 12 1.2 Technical examination ...... 15 2. The Making: manufacture, materials, and techniques ...... 17 2.1 Tortoiseshell ...... 18 2.1.1 Tortoiseshell as an artist’s material ...... 19 2.1.2 Harvesting, properties, and workability ...... 21 2.1.3 Tortoiseshell as bookbinding material ...... 21 2.2 Metal ...... 23 2.2.1 Book fittings ...... 23 2.2.2 Stylus ...... 31 2.2.3 Settings ...... 33 2.2.4 Conclusion ...... 34 2.3 Enamel ...... 36 2.3.1 Technique: basse-taille ...... 36 2.3.2 Enamel composition ...... 37 2.3.3 Conclusion ...... 41 2.4 Gemstones ...... 43 2.4.1 Preliminary characterisation...... 44 2.4.2 Enhancements ...... 49 2.4.3 Conclusion ...... 50 2.5 Conclusion ...... 52 3. Style and Iconography ...... 53 3.1 Book fittings ...... 53 3.2 Iconography ...... 54 3.3 Re-attribution to the workshop of Köhler? ...... 56 4 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

3.4 Conclusion ...... 58 4. The content: owner, function, and use ...... 61 4.1 Content ...... 61 4.1.1 Content description ...... 61 4.1.2 Languages and scripts ...... 61 4.1.3 Names ...... 62 4.2 The owner ...... 63 4.2.1 Upbringing and education of Anna Petrovna...... 63 4.2.2 Anna Petrovna and Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp...... 64 4.3 Function and use ...... 66 4.3.1 Souvenir d’amitie? Carnet de bal? Album amicorum? ...... 66 4.3.2 When was it used? ...... 71 4.4 Conclusion ...... 71 Conclusion ...... 73 Further research ...... 75 Bibliography ...... 76 Summary ...... 86 Appendix I. Technical information...... 87 Appendix II. XRF Measurements...... 88 Appendix III. Wax patterns for the notebook’s figures? ...... 102 Appendix IV. Photographs content notebook ...... 104 Appendix V. Transcriptions and translation content notebook ...... 113

5 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to the many people who contributed to this thesis, by assisting and supporting me throughout the process. Thank you to my supervisor, prof. dr. Erma Hermens (RMA/UvA), for contacting the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, and arranging the wonderful subject of this thesis. For providing guidance and honest feedback, but also for showing your trust in me and my research and for your gentle words of encouragement, which kept me positive during this journey. I am indebted to the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam for trusting me with an art object from their collection. I would like to thank the Metal Conservation Studio, for keeping the notebook and for letting me use their facilities. Special thanks goes out to Suzanne van Leeuwen (RMA), who not only served as the contact person, but also helped me operate the digital camera, had the UV- photos taken, shared valuable information, and gave very helpful suggestions for interpreting data of the technical analyses. For the technical examination I wish to thank dr. Luc Megens (RCE) for the initial contact and for deciding on the techniques. Dr. Han Neevel (RCE) and prof. dr. Arie Wallert (RMA/UvA) carried out the XRF measurements and helped interpreting them, for which I am very thankful. For taking the time and effort to translate the pre-revolution Russian texts, I wish to pay my regards to prof. dr. Jos Schaeken (LU) and to my friend’s mother Marina, without whom I would never have known the nature of the language and the content of the texts. I would further like to thank prof. dr. Maarten van Bommel (UvA), prof. dr. Ella Hendriks (UvA), dr. René Peschar (UvA) and dr. Maartje Stols-Witlox (UvA), as well as dr. Abbie Vandivere (Mauritshuis/UvA), dr. Arjan de Koomen (UvA), and dr. Tonny Beentjes (UvA) for their advice and suggestions during this research, but also for forming me academically during the master’s program. Finally, I am grateful to my fellow students Suzanne Bul (UvA), Jan van Daal (UvA), Marélise Pollard (UvA), Fahed Ibrahim (UvA), Laurens van Giersbergen (UvA), Timothy Greening (UvA) and Karina Foppele (UvA), to my parents, Kees Hoekstra and Adri Bunte, and to my sister, Maartje Hoekstra, who were always available to critically assess my writing, by giving advice on the content or linguistics, or help me out in another way, and who were there for moral support.

6 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Glossary

Book fittings Metal attachments to book bindings, to decorate and/or protect them from wear and damage. Other terms are ‘book fixtures’ and ‘book furniture’. Centre piece Book fitting in the centre of the cover Corner piece Book fitting on the corner of the binding. Fore edge The front outer edge of a book, opposite the bound edge (spine). Head The top edge of a book Headcap Book fitting on the spine’s head and tail Spine The bound edge of a book Tail The bottom edge of a book

7 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Introduction

The Rijksmuseum Amsterdam holds a varied collection of artefacts. Part of this collection has been subjected to extensive (art) historical and technical research. Rembrandt’s famous militia portrait the Night Watch (1642), for example, is being examined thoroughly at this very moment (Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, n.d.). A part of the collection, however, has received little attention thus far. One such object, a small notebook, was kindly provided by the Fine and Decorative Arts Department of the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam for extensive object-based research. The notebook is currently dated ca. 1710 – ca. 1730, it has no attribution, but is believed to originate from Dresden.

Object description The object at stake is a small notebook, measuring 10.8x6.4 cm (fig. 1a-c). The cover is supposedly made of tortoise and is richly decorated with an extensive amount of golden coloured book fittings, enamel, and apparent gemstones. A golden coloured metal stylus, decorated with an enamelled bust and colourless gemstones, simultaneously serves as a closing, when pushed through six rings at the fore edge of the booklet (fig. 2). The book fittings are partly attached by little pins through the cover and partly by folding over the cover (fig. 3). Some are merely decorative; others serve a functional purpose too. Parts of the book fittings and all the metal stone settings are discoloured and turned dark-grey. The enamel comes in the colours green, light blue/turquoise, dark blue, black, and white, of which only the last colour is opaque. The translucent enamels reveal small grooves in the underlying metal (fig. 4). The notebook is adorned with a total of 115 stones – one stone at the spine is missing – coloured pink, blue, green, and colourless. The stones are translucent and differ in size and cut. The covers are lined with a finely woven, shiny, green fabric. Both front and back cover have a figurative centre piece. The front depicts a figure, seemingly dancing and playing a tambourine. The back figure is holding up a glass with one hand, while carrying a flask in the other. Its left leg is turned inwards, in an unnatural position. Both are standing on a decoration of two mask-like faces, under a chandelier. The notebook’s 24 pages are bound by means of two metal nails through the head and tail at the spine. The nails are held by four metal ringlets going through all pages (fig. 5). The first and last page, consisting of the same sheet of paper, show golden coloured floral decorations on a turquoise ground, with (partial) birds and a rabbit. They are slightly thicker than the other pages, which reveal inscriptions written in multiple languages and handwritings.

8 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 2. Side of the notebook, showing how the stylus serves as a closing. Credit: photography by Rijksmuseum Amsterdam.

Figure 3. The book fittings are mounted on the cover by pins, indicated by the red circles (drawn by Anneke Hoekstra), and by folding over the cover. Credit: photography by Anneke Hoekstra and Suzanne van Leeuwen on 28-03-2019.

Figure 4. Detail of figure 1a. showing tarnishing of the book fittings; discolouration of the stone settings; and small grooves in the enamel’s underlying metal.

Figure 5. The inside of the notebook, showing how the book was bound by means of metal pins running over the length of the paper in the middle of the book; and written inscriptions. Credit: photography by Anneke Hoekstra and Suzanne van Leeuwen on 28-03-2019.

9 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Aim and Research question The notebook is composed of various seemingly expensive materials, of which some are known to have a long history of imitation – especially from the Scientific Revolution onwards, which is substantiated by the many books of secrets (books of techniques) that were handed down from that period (Smith 2004; The Making and Knowing Project, 2020). The inside of the notebook shows several inscriptions. This research will be two-fold: on the one hand is the notebook as an art object and a material ‘thing’ made by one or more artisans; on the other hand the function and use of the notebook, representing two very different, but significant moments in the ‘life’ of the object. Reflecting on these moments will reveal information on the artisanal and cultural past of the period in which the object was made and used. Research that has been conducted thus far is very minimal and outdated (section 1. Previous research). Previous studies were written in pre- revolution Russian and in Dutch, languages that are not universally understood (Benois and Prakhov 1902; De Foelkersam 1913; Holzhausen 1960). The aim of this research is to gain as much information as possible from the object itself, from similar objects and from relevant literature, to form a more complete picture of the object’s biography. The research adds to the current state of knowledge by reconsidering the previous findings, and by adding technical, historical, and cultural research. The main research question is formulated as follows: how can an interdisciplinary study of the manufacture, function, and history of the notebook BK-17172 in the collection of the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam support its interpretation?

Structure and Methodology To answer this question, the research is divided in four chapters. The first chapter gives a short overview of the research that has previously been conducted, presenting the current state of knowledge on the provenance, date, function, and attribution of the object. Chapter two focuses on ‘the making’ of the notebook in four subchapters. By combining non-invasive scientific analysis, material history and art technological source research, it answers which materials and techniques were used in the manufacturing of the cover of the notebook. Are they real or (cheaper) imitations? The chapter also reflects on the historical occurrence and use of these materials and techniques, to provide a first indication regarding dating. The chapter is built up the same way as the booklet: the first subchapter treats the coverboard material. The second subchapter deals with the metal components: the book fittings, they stylus, and the gemstone settings. The third subchapter handles the enamel, and the fourth subchapter the gemstones. The analytical methods employed are digital microscopy, ultraviolet (UV) photography, using longwave UV radiation (365nm), and X-ray fluorescence (XRF). An explanation of the analytical methods and equipment descriptions can be found in Appendix I.

10 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Chapter three follows up on this chapter, by studying the style and iconography of the separate elements of the notebook. By exploring when the stylistic and iconographic features were in vogue, and by comparing them to other artworks, the rough dating from the previous chapter is narrowed down, and a very cautious attribution is proposed. By carefully investigating the content of the notebook, and by comparing the booklet to similar, contemporary objects, the last chapter gives answers to the questions: who was the owner of the notebook, how did it function, and when was it used?

Relevance for Technical Art History Because of the diversity of the materials and because relatively little research has been performed on the object, this mixed media notebook lends perfectly for object-based research by a technical art historian. In object-based research the physical artwork or artefact is the primary source that generates the initial research questions. By studying the materials and techniques that were used, information on the working methods of the artisans is gained. But the research does not stop there. Just as interesting is to understand why these materials and techniques were used. As products of the historical period they were made in, the objects convey information about this period and its society. Technical Art History therefore not only gathers technical information, but also reflects on this information to understand more about the history of the object and the historical period it was made in (Hermens 2019). In the specific case of this thesis, the textual inscriptions – although cryptic and incomplete – that the notebook contains, give an extra dimension to the historical factor, because they are such clear traces of use and ownership.

11 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

1. Previous research

1.1 Provenance, function, date, and attribution The notebook’s provenance extends back to 1901, when it is listed in Baron G. Lieven’s collection catalogue of the Hermitage St. Petersburg. It was on display in the ‘Gallerie der Kostbarkeiten’, the Department of Precious Objects, which was composed of works of art and rarities from former imperial holdings, such as the Kunstkammer of Peter the Great, the Old Hermitage, the Winter Palace, and the Orusheinaja Palace. The collection gradually expanded with later purchases and donations, imperial as well as private (Lieven 1901, 60, 95).1 In 1902 the notebook is depicted and described in Les Trésors d’Art en Russie (Khudozhestvennye sokrovishcha Rossii), a Russian, monthly-running publication (Benois and Prakhov 1902, 309-10) (fig. 6).2 In the entry the inscriptions are mentioned and investigated for the first time. Where possible, the inscriptions were transcribed, but several were considered illegible. The content of the notes makes the authors believe that the booklet once belonged to crown princess Anna Petrovna (1708-1728), the eldest daughter of the Russian tsar Peter I and Catherina I. It is further stated that the notes are partially written by her, and partially written by her fiancé, Karl Friedrich (1700-1739), duke of Holstein Gottorp (Benois and Prakhov 1902, 309; Jos Schaeken, Personal communication, May 8, 2019). Around a decade later, the notebook is presented in a second monthly-running magazine: Bygone years (Starye Gody), by the art historian Armin de Foelkersam (1913, 17-8) (fig. 7).3 He describes the figures on the front and back cover as harlequins from the Italian commedia dell’arte, and typifies the bust on the accompanying stylus as a moor or Arab. The article contains a more complete transcription of the notebook’s inscriptions than the entry in Les Trésors, and it is of better quality, according to Jos Schaeken, professor of Slavic and Baltic Languages at Leiden University (Personal communication, May 8, 2019). De Foelkersam cautiously assigns some inscriptions to Anna Petrovna. Based on the cover’s stylistic features, which he thinks fit a late seventeenth century dating, it is suggested that the notebook might have been in the possession of Karl Friedrich’s parents first, but was not used until after the marriage of Anna Petrovna and

1 According to the catalogue’s foreword, Lieven – curator at the Hermitage St. Petersburg – was the first to catalogue the museum’s collection. 2 Russian title: Художественныя сокровища Россіи. The magazine ran from 1901 to 1907. The purpose of the publication was to describe the most important artworks found in Russia, both ancient and modern, foreign and Russian, held in museums as well as private collections. For more information on the publication, see Johnson 2006, 52-64. 3 Russian title: Старые годы. The magazine ran from 1907 to 1916 and pursued a similar agenda towards art and culture as Les Trésors d’Art en Russie, which had declined due to financial difficulties. For more information see Johnson 2006, 62-71. De Foelkersam is also known as Von Foelkersam or Von Fölkersahm. 12 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Karl Friedrich. De Foelkersam states that people could secretly exchange their thoughts amid others in these notebooks. A lady, for instance, could tell something to her female friend, or her love interest. According to De Foelkersam such notebooks were in fashion at the end of the seventeenth century until the second half of the eighteenth century, after which the “Souvenir d’amitié” became fashionable. He describes how it can be difficult to decipher such texts and their authors, because the questions and/or answers are often partly verbal and partly written down, and often there is a lack of names as a result. Sometimes however, he adds, one finds simple poetry and aphorisms in such booklets.

Figure 6. The notebook featured in the magazine Les Figure 7. The notebook featured in the Trésors d’art en Russie. Credit: Benois and Prakhov magazine Starye Gody. Credit: De Foelkersam 1902, plate VI. 1913, after page 12.

The next source featuring the notebook is the inventory of Fritz Mannheimer’s collection of ca. 3000 objects, drawn up by the art historian Otto von Falke in 1935-36, after Mannheimer’s great bank debt had reached the surface (1936, 82). In the late 1920s and the early 1930s, the Soviet authorities undertook the export of museum collections, as a solution to its political and economic problems (Solomakha 2009, 111-2). Between 1927-1933 fine art and applied art objects were sold abroad to fund the industrialisation and agriculture, under the slogan “Art for Tractors” (Kaldenbach 2014a, 2). Presumably at some point in this period, Fritz Mannheimer (1890-1939), a German banker and avid art collector, acquired the notebook through art dealers and intermediaries (see Kaldenbach 2014a for an extensive study on the formation of Mannheimer’s collection). The exact channels through which the notebook entered the Mannheimer Collection are unknown. As director of ‘Mendelssohn & Co. Amsterdam’ – a subsidiary company of ‘Mendelssohn & Co. Berlin’, one of the leading private banks at that time – Mannheimer had moved into the home office at Hobbemastraat 20 in 1920, opposite the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, where he housed his enormous and diverse collection of art and curiosities. The interior, although of very high quality, did not exactly meet the Dutch sober taste,

13 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

and soon the house was nicknamed ‘Villa Protski’, referring to the Dutch word ‘protserig’, meaning ‘showy’ (Haga 1974, 87-90; Kaldenbach 2014b, 6; Van der Ham 2000, 281). For the art purchases Mannheimer used the bank’s money, which put him into great debt. In 1934 his partners forced him to an unusual and complicated legal deal: his art collection was sold for over 6.5 million guilders to The Artistic & General Securities Ltd, a company founded for this purpose by Mendelssohn & Co. The Artistic leased the collection back to Mannheimer, which is how the collection remained at the Villa. Although contractually forbidden, Mannheimer continued to buy art at the bank’s expense. Soon his debt was driven back up to its previous level and exceeded 13 million guilders by the time of his death (Jonker 2013; Haga 1974, 87-8; Van Leeuwen, Van Bennekom, and Creange 2014, 274-5; Kaldenbach 2014b, 5). The already financially struggling Mendelssohn & Co. Amsterdam went bankrupt and had to close its doors three days after Mannheimer’s death (Jonker 2013). The Deutsche Reichsbank became the full legal owner of the majority of the collection, which initially remained at the Hobbemastraat. As soon as The Netherlands were occupied in 1940, the collection spiked the interest of Herman Goering and Adolf Hitler. On behalf of the Reichskommissariat a complete inventory of the collection – including the notebook – was made by Kajetan Mühlmann, for which he relied heavily on Von Falke’s inventory (Kieslinger and Mühlmann 1941, 65; Van der Ham 2000, 281; Kaldenbach 2014b, 7,9). In 1941 Hitler bought the collection. The majority was moved to Linz to fill Hitler’s future Führermuseum. The museum, however, was never build, and a large part of the Mannheimer Collection was found in a salt mine in Austria (Van Leeuwen, Van Bennekom, and Creange 2014, 276; Kaldenbach 2014b, 12). Via several instances the collection finally passed through the Dienst voor ‘s Rijks Verspreide Kunstvoorwerpen (DRVK – National Service for State-Owned Works of Art) and were lent to the Rijksmuseum in 1952. In 1960 this loan was converted into a gift (Van der Ham 2000, 281; Haga 1974, 88-90). The same year two half pages were devoted to the booklet in the article De Dresdense barok in het Rijksmuseum, by the German art historian Walter Holzhausen (1960, 12-3). He quotes Les Trésors d’art en Russie as a source, but it is unclear which exact parts of his article are derived from the magazine. De Foelkersam is not cited at all. Holzhausen’s research is a comparative study to other art objects. Possibly he performed visual analysis too, but he does not specifically say so. According to Holzhausen the booklet functioned as a carnet de bal, a dance card, and contains a “met onvast potlood gekrabbelde kleine roman” (short novel scribbled with unsteady pencil), existing of alternating Russian (partly Old Slavic) and German (partly Lower Saxon) notes. He states that the notes are written by several men and women, with disguised names, but that, according to the description in Les Trésors, the Russian verses were composed by Anna Petrovna and her fiancé, the duke of Holstein. Holzhausen wonders if the notes were made in the course of a dance event, perhaps at the court of August the Great.

14 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Table 1 presents a compilation of the publications in which the notebook has appeared, and provides an overview of previous material identification, dating and attribution. According to the sources the notebook’s cover consists of the precious materials tortoiseshell, gold, enamel and gemstones. The country in which the notebook is manufactured is believed to be Germany, except for De Foelkersam, who considers it to be an Italian piece. Holzhausen is very much convinced that the notebook is made in Dresden, possibly by one of the court jewellers of August the Strong, Johann Christoph [sic] Köhler – by which he must mean Johann Heinrich Köhler (1669-1736), court jeweller from 1718 – or Johann Melchior Dinglinger (1664-1731), court jeweller from 1698.4 He therefore dates the notebook in the eighteenth century. Details that in Holzhausen’s opinion point to the art of goldsmithing in Dresden are: diamonds set in silver, the engraving on the golden mounts, the head of a Turk on the pencil [sic], and the green and blue enamel, which he calls typical for Köhler. He further argues that the harlequins remind of the “Italiaanse Comedie” (Italian Comedy), that saw its glory days in Dresden at that time. Lieven and De Foelkersam date the notebook at the end of the seventeenth century, and in Les Trésors it is dated around the turn of the century (Lieven 1901, 95; Benois and Prakhov 1902, 309; De Foelkersam 1913, 17-8; Von Falke 1936, 82; Kieslinger and Mühlmann 1941, 65; Holzhausen 1960, 12).

1.2 Technical examination The Rijksmuseum Amsterdam neither holds a restoration report of the notebook, nor has the notebook been subjected to technical examination before. It is worth to mention that the notebook shows no signs of restorations or repairs in UV-light, apart from the tiniest dot on the front of the notebook, on the right side near the second ornament from above (fig. 8).

Figure 8. Detail of figure 11. showing a filling in the notebook’s cover. Credit: image by Anneke Hoekstra.

4 Johann Christoph Köhler was a brother of Johann Heinrich Köhler. He was also trained as a goldsmith, but pursued another, unknown, profession (Syndram and Weinhold 2019, 14). 15 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Table 1. Overview of publications in which the notebook has been described or researched, presenting previous material identification, dating and attribution. Source Object Listed Date Attribution description and materials function Lieven 1901 Taschenbuch Tortoiseshell, Second half 17th Germany (collection (pocketbook) gold, enamel century catalogue)

Benois and Notebook Tortoiseshell, End 17th / Germany Prakhov 1902 gold, enamel, beginning 18th gemstones, century green silk

Foelkersam Notebook, Tortoiseshell, End 17th century Italy 1913 forerunner of a gold, white, Souvenir green, and blue d’amitié enamel, 79 diamonds, 7 emeralds, 10 rubies, and 4 sapphires

Von Falke 1936 Notebook Tortoiseshell, 17th century Germany (inventory) gold, enamelled gold, rubies, emeralds, and diamonds

Kieslinger and Notebook Tortoiseshell, Around 1700 Germany Mühlmann gold, enamel, 1941 rubies, (inventory) emeralds, and diamonds

Holzhausen Notebook, Tortoiseshell, 18th century Dresden, 1960 carnet de bal enamelled gold, possibly Johann (dance card) gemstones, Christoph [sic] diamonds Köhler or Johann Melchior Dinglinger

16 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2. The Making: manufacture, materials, and techniques

The earlier sources in which the booklet is discussed, identified the different materials that are used for the cover as tortoise, gold, enamel, and gemstones (see table 1). All incredibly expensive and valuable materials, which are known to have been imitated in the past. Although the characterization of these materials could be correct, it is unclear how these sources came to the determinations. The following chapter will identify the materials and techniques used in the notebook’s fabrication by visual and scientific analysis, to understand how the notebook was made. By reflecting on the historical use of the materials and manufacturing methods, this chapter will indicate the object’s material value, and provide first indications regarding its dating.

17 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2.1 Tortoiseshell The cover of the notebook consists of three separate parts, connected by metal hinges: the front cover, the back cover, and the spine. The colour is predominantly a matte dark chocolate brown, variegated with irregular caramel-coloured patches. At first glance the surface looks smooth. In magnification, tiny scratches and dents become apparent. Several spots show traces of wear and use (fig. 9,10). Swirling lines are visible over the whole surface. In UV-light, this pattern of swirling lines becomes especially clear as brownish lines on a fluorescent blue-white background (fig. 11a,b). This blue-white UV fluorescence, combined with the colour and visual appearance of the material, is characteristic for tortoiseshell, and sets it apart from imitations (Hainschwang and Leggio 2006, 40-5; Frazier and Ishihara-Brito 2012, 832). 5 The swirling lines most likely correspond to the keratin formation that occurs as the turtle grows. Keratin – the principal chemical constituent of tortoiseshell – is a protein complex, that gets secreted by the epidermis (the outer skin). The cells die and keratinize. This is a repeating process, which is why the keratin layer gets build up from the base (bone). Through continuous growth, different layers and growth lines get formed (Day 2015; Rijkelijkhuizen 2008, 74; Ward 2008, 714).

Figure 9. Detail figure 1c. showing scratches Figure 10. Detail figure 1c. showing wear in and dents in the upper right corner of the the lower left corner of the tortoiseshell back tortoiseshell back cover. cover.

5 Horn has been used to imitate tortoiseshell as well, and, because it consists of keratin too, also fluoresces in UV light. The swirling lines, however, indicate that it is tortoise. 18 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 11a,b. Longwave (365 nm) UV photographs of the notebook. Credit: photography by Rijksmuseum Amsterdam.

2.1.1 Tortoiseshell as an artist’s material Other than the name suggests, tortoiseshell does not actually come from tortoises, which are land- based reptiles, but from sea turtles. The tortoiseshell that is most commonly used in artefacts, was harvested from the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) and, less frequently, the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) (fig. 12). The first is the smallest of the two species but has a thicker shell (max. 9-12 mm). Both species display the characteristic pattern and can therefore not be distinguished by the naked eye, especially after being worked (Hainschwang 2006, 36-8; Rijkelijkhuizen 2010, 97; Chaiklin 2016, 219; Williams 2002, 33). The hawksbill turtle is found in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean. The green turtle is found worldwide in the tropical and subtropical seas, the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian ocean, and the Mediterranean and Black sea. The turtle shell is a complex shield, covering and protecting the rest of the animal’s body, and is comprised of over 50 dermal bones. The shell is composed of two main parts, the carapace (dorsal part) and the plastron (ventral part), which are connected by lateral bridges along the midflanks. The outer epidermal layer of these parts is made of keratinous scales, also called ‘scutes’ or plates (fig. 13). As an artist’s material, the term tortoiseshell refers to these scutes, after

19 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

they are processed. The carapace of the hawksbill turtle has thirteen main plates, displaying the characteristic multi-coloured marbling pattern, ranging from black to brown-red, to orange and yellow. The scutes overlap each other like tiles on a roof. Their size can grow up to 17cm wide and 30cm long, and they are 1.5 to 3.5 mm thick. The plastron scutes are white to yellow, with occasional dark pigmentation, and is commonly referred to as ‘blonde tortoiseshell’ (Wyneken, Godfroy and Bels 2007, 1-2; Rijkelijkhuizen 2010, 97-8; Hainschwang and Leggio 2006, 36). In the West, tortoiseshell was used in antiquity in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. At the end of the fifteenth century commercial exploitation of the material began in Portugal and Spain, because of overseas exploration and trade (Hainschwang and Leggio 2006, 36; Saviello 2018, 116) (fig. 14). In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the material was used throughout Europe for veneers on furniture and musical instruments, for inlays of Boulle marquetry, and for various luxury items such as snuff boxes, combs and fans (Shenton 1992, 175; Rijkelijkhuizen 2010, 101) (fig. 15,16). Next to gold, silver, and gemstones, it was one of the most valuable materials in the applied arts. The luxury items made of the exotic material were therefore only found in the richest households (Rijkelijkhuizen 2010, 105; Beentjes and Veenemans, n.d., 135). The fact that tortoiseshell has been imitated in different manners and materials (e.g. painting, horn and more recently plastic), shows the popularity that the material still has.

Figure 12. Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys Figure 13. Cross-section of carapace and plastron with imbricata), Museu de ciències naturals de external keratinous scutes over internal bony elements of Barcelona, Barcelona (MZB 99-1391). a hawksbill sea turtle. Credit: Frazier and Ishihara-Brito Credit: Museu de ciències naturals de 2012, 828. Barcelona, https://zoologiaenlinia.museuciencies.cat /detall/zoologia_cordats/N883972/?lang =en.

20 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2.1.2 Harvesting, properties, and workability To harvest tortoiseshell the scutes get removed from the bony shell by means of heat, either by holding it over a fire, or by boiling it in water (Rijkelijkhuizen 2010, 98). Because the animal is an endangered species, harvesting and trading in tortoiseshell is prohibited today. Tortoiseshell is semi-transparent or translucent. When the material is polished, it receives a lustrous shine. Due to this property, it was often used in combination with precious metals or mother of pearl (Ward 2008, 714; Shenton 1992, 175). Like other keratinous tissues, tortoiseshell is a thermoplastic. As raw material it is hard, brittle, and rigid, easily sawn and worked with basic tools. However, when it gets heated – by steam, by boiling it in salted water, or by applying direct heat – it can be softened and made pliable. In this softened state, it can be bent, shaped, or impressed. When it cools back to room temperature it will retain its new shape or form. Sheets of tortoiseshell can also be welded together to form larger sheets (Ward 2008, 714-5; Rijkelijkhuizen 2010, 98).

2.1.3 Tortoiseshell as bookbinding material About the use of tortoiseshell as a bookbinding material, little is known thus far. The characteristic handling properties of tortoiseshell are actually the opposite of what is required for bookbindings. It is stiff, brittle and inflexible, and to be able to open the book, it will always consist of at least three parts: the upper board, the lower board and the spine piece (either flat or rounded), which are attached to each other with hinges. For this reason, Rijkelijkhuizen argues that a tortoiseshell binding was merely decorative. According to a survey by Shenton of about forty bindings, tortoiseshell was used for bookbindings from the middle of the seventeenth until the middle of the eighteenth century, with a brief nineteenth century reappearance, which is supported by two studies on book fittings of Bernard van Noordwijk (2006; 2013). It was mainly used in The Netherlands, France, and England, and primarily as a luxury cover material for religious texts. The bindings usually have book fittings to protect the brittle tortoiseshell. They were generally executed to a high standard, often in gold, silver, or brass, and contribute to the prestigious look. Tortoiseshell bindings can also display decorations hot-pressed into the shell (Rijkelijkhuizen 2010, 103-4; Shenton 1992, 174-7).

21 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 14. Anonymous, Hunting sea turtles, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Amsterdam (RP-P-2007-727), 1612-1652, Amsterdam, print, h. 52mm x b. 158 mm. Credit: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.452794.

Figure 15. Anonymous, Letter case and Figure 16. Anonymous, Fan, Victoria and Albert Museum, comb, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, London (M.265-1960), 18th century, Naples(?), inlaid Amsterdam (SK-C-1216), ca. 1600- ca. tortoiseshell, gold and animal skin. Credit: Victoria and 1700, textile and tortoise. Credit: Albert Museum, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O92095/fan- http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COL unknown/. LECT.11744

22 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2.2 Metal The metal components of the notebook are divided in three subgroups: the book fittings, the accompanying stylus, and the gemstone settings. XRF was performed to identify the metal composition. To understand more about the manufacture and craftsmanship’s methods, toolmarks on the metal were studied with digital microscopy.

2.2.1 Book fittings The book fittings are of a bright, yellow-golden colour. Keeping in mind that the booklet has not been cleaned for at least several decades – if ever – the metal appears to be in good condition, suggesting a high gold content. There are, however, several areas where the metal is tarnished and turned dull, dark grey. The tarnished areas seem to be divided randomly over the surface of the booklet, both front and back (fig. 17).

2.2.1.1 XRF measurements XRF measurements were taken on the front cover, on four spots: on an untarnished area in the centre of the chandelier; on a tarnished area in the large, central fitting at the top; and on the arm and the chin of the front central figure (fig. 18). The measurements show that the metal is an alloy of mainly gold (Au), some copper (Cu), and a very small amount of silver (Ag) (see Appendix II, no. 6-9). The four spectra are fairly similar. Interesting differences to point out are the somewhat higher peak for silver in the tarnished spot, compared to the other three spectra. The spectrum of the figure’s arm shows a considerably lower peak for gold than the other three spectra, while some calcium (Ca) and iron (Fe) were detected. The peak for copper is slightly lower in the spectrum of the figure’s chin compared to the other three spectra. Gold is a precious metal. In its pure form it does not react with oxygen, and as such it is resistant to corrosion. However, pure gold is – next to being rare and expensive – also extremely soft. To harden the metal and make it less prone to deformation, it is mixed with other metals (Ward 2008, 255.). An alloy of gold, copper and silver was used often, for both aesthetic and technical reasons, since the gold keeps most of its colour, lustre, and malleability. While alloying gold with only copper has minimal effect on the working properties, it makes it more liable to cracking, and therefore alloys of gold, copper and silver were preferred (Ogden 1999, 23). Over time such alloys tend to exhibit thin films of surface corrosion by reacting with oxygen or sulphur in the atmosphere (Scott 1983, 194-5). Because sulphur is a light element (Z=16), it was not detected.6 However, copper and silver sulphides are both dark-grey and a small percentage can

6 Helium purging to detect light elements from Na(Z=11)-Ar(Z=18) was not available. 23 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

already cause discolouration (Afonso et al. 2009, 1763). The tarnishing may be a combination of the two. The slightly higher peak for silver in the tarnished area supports the suggestion of silver corrosion.7 The lower peak for gold in the spectrum of the figure’s arm, and the lower peak for copper in the spectrum of the figure’s chin are most probably the result of inhomogeneous element distribution. More interesting is the detection of calcium and iron in the spectrum of the figure’s arm. As opposed to the other measured spots, the arm has a course texture. Most likely, powdered iron scales and levigated chalk were used as mild abrasives for the final polishing of the gold and got trapped in the textured surface of the arm (Gettens, Fitzhugh and Feller 1974, 160; Rivers and Umney 2003, 450-3, 639). Polishing a small, silver chalice with chalk is described by the Benedictine monk Theophilus Presbyter (ca. 1070-1125) for example: “Then take a burnisher, rub it on a flat smooth hone and then on a piece of oakwood covered with ground charcoal, and with it burnish the bowl […]. Then rub the work with a cloth and finely scraped chalk until it is shining bright all over” (1963, 102). The final step for making medals in Benvenuto Cellini’s (1500-1571) treatise on goldsmithing is to “polish it up with powdered iron scale just as you did before with the coins” (1898, 74). The translator of the treatise, Ashbee, draws a parallel to today’s jewellers rouge, which is a very fine, powdered iron oxide, used to put the final polish to precious metals for a lustrous finish (1898, 74, note 3).

Figure 17. Tarnish spots on the book fittings. Credit: photography by Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, image by Anneke Hoekstra.

7 For this research, an indication of the metal composition was strived for. For a more accurate result, analysis should be undertaken on multiple spots. 24 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 18. Indicating where the XRF Measurements were taken. Credit: Anneke Hoekstra

2.2.1.2 Manufacture and toolmarks Gold with a relatively high purity does not cast well: it flows poorly in the mould, it shrinks during casting and thus produces poor definitions (Ogden 1999, 7). In magnification, tiny pinpricks are visible on the bust of the stylus (fig. 19). They are caused by minute gas bubbles and are a sign of porosity, a characteristic of casting (Ogden 1999, 8). The central figures do not display such clear characteristics of casting. The half-relief and the fine details on the faces, hands, and feet, however, suggest that they were cast too (fig. 20). There are various ways to cast metal. Cire-perdu, or lost-wax casting – an ancient method which has its origin in the Chalcolithic period before 4000 BC – was the preferred method for bronze sculpture casting in the Renaissance and Baroque (Davey 2009, 152; Beentjes 2019, 9). Smaller, low relief items, such as seals, medals, plaquettes and furniture mounts, were more frequently made by mould casting. Shaped moulds could be manufactured from for example stone, clay and metal (La Niece 2016, 264; Smith 2016, 220). Gold and silver can also be cast in cuttlefish bone. A very elaborate instruction on making a cuttlebone mould for a medal is given in BnF Ms. Fr. 640, a late sixteenth century book of secrets (book of techniques), which concentrates for the

25 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

largest part on techniques of mould making, metal casting and colour-making (Smith 2016, 214). According to the anonymous author of the manuscript “Gold & Silver are able to cast well there, but it never comes out very neat”. The author further warns that the bone must be dry, especially for gold “which does not want humidity”, but that the bone will be brittle and flake when too dry. The bones are dry enough when they “cry & crackle once brought near the ear”. The instructions tell to press the medal into the soft side of the bone “which does not have any half circles”, after smoothening and flattening the bone on “some smooth wood” (Making and Knowing Project 2020, fol. 145r-v). In his Weg-wyzer voor Aankomende Goud en Zilversmeeden, first published in 1721 in Amsterdam, Willem van Laer gives a comparable description for casting in “Visbeen” (literally: “fishbone”), which was done in “voorige tyden (en ook nog wel)” (“in earlier times, and still”), if something did not needed to be cast “scharp” (“sharp”). He adds that the visbeen is retrieved “aan de oevers der Zee” (“from the sea banks”) and can be bought at paint sellers or at sellers of silversmithing tools (Van Laer 1721, 142-3). Both sources agree, however, that for gold the popular method of sand mould casting is preferred over cuttlebone mould casting, since it gives sharper definitions (Making and knowing 2020, fol. 145v; Van Laer 1721, 142).8 Sand mould casting had several other advantages over lost wax casting and other types of mould casting. The method is fast and cost-effective – because sand is readily available and can be re-used – and less labour intensive and fragile compared to other moulds, like stone or clay. In addition, as opposed to lost-wax casting, the models could be re-used (Beentjes 2019, 69, 76-7). According to Beentjes, the first use of sand as a mould material in Western Europe probably dates from the late fourteenth century. Most of the early textual references to sand mould casting cover the use of the technique by gold- and silversmiths and medal founders (Beentjes 2019, 48-52).9 In the sand mould casting technique, a pattern (model) made from wood, metal, or another sturdy material, is pressed into the sand, which is contained by a frame. Two-part mould frames (bi-valve flasks) were used when the pattern had relief on both sides, such as medals (fig. 21). The figures on the notebook have a flat backside. Such items, with a design on one side, could also be cast in a so-called open sand mould, which is basically a box of sand. About the materials of patterns, much has yet to be uncovered. 10 They are intermediary objects used in the manufacturing of art works, which are usually not transferred to the present. Thus, even though

8 For recipes and instructions in these manuscripts on sand mould casting, including recipes for sand, see: Van Laer 1721, 130-142; and Making and Knowing Project 2020, fols. 15r, 118v-120r. See: Carlson and Katz 2020, for a dissection of the recipe on fol. 118 and a comparison to contemporary recipes. 9 For a more elaborate overview on the history, development and technology of sand mould casting in Europe, and an excellent account on the different types of moulding sand that were used throughout the centuries and where to find the recipes see: Beentjes 2019, 19-79. 10 See Landsman and Rowen 2020, for a research into the procedures of making original patterns for casting, which relates some recipes of the Ms. Fr. 640 to contemporary sources. 26 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

one might want to reuse a pattern, they are ephemeral. Therefore, one must look at artworks and/or recipes for clues on their materials. The texture of the figure’s arm is best explained by a wax pattern (fig. 22). See Appendix III for a short discussion on the use of wax patterns.

Figure 19. Showing pinpricks in the bust of the stylus, Figure 20. Detail fig 1a,b. the half-relief indicating casting. Credit: photography by Anneke Hoekstra and fine details suggest casting of the using a HIROX Digital Microscope (20 x magnification). figures.

Figure 21. A bi-valve flask used for sand Figure 22. Detail showing the texture of the arm of the casting, and a cross-section through the mould. back figure and engraving. Credit: photography by Credit: Farmer 1994. Anneke Hoekstra using a HIROX Digital Microscope (20 x magnification).

27 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

From the toolmarks on the other book fittings one can tell that they are not cast but cut out of flat sheet gold (fig. 23). The goldsmith’s craft is a very conservative one. Some technological advances aside, the industry remained much the same until the First Industrial Revolution in the second half of the eighteenth century (Ogden 1999, 3). Today, the piercing or jeweller’s saw is an indispensable item in a goldsmith’s workshop. For a long time, however, cutting sheet gold was done by means of chisels, or by piercing and filing (Ogden 1992, 162-3). Van Laer gives an elaborate description on how to “deurbreeken” (literally: “break through”) gold, silver, and copper with files, and how one can make the files themselves. In passing, he briefly mentions that one can also saw holes, very fine and thin, with a “Horlogiveer” (watch spring), provided it is tensioned in a “loopzaag” (a type of saw) or fixed in a handle like a file (1721, 144-6). He does not mention an actual jeweller’s saw. In prints of goldsmiths’ workshops, files are well represented, while the piercing saw is not in them (fig. 24). The first representation of a piercing saw in a goldsmiths’ workshop context is in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d’Alembert, published between 1751 – 1766 (fig. 25). According to Ogden, the emergence of the piercing saw is one of the changes in the goldsmith’s industry implemented by the First Industrial Revolution, as it became possible to mass-produce fine sawblades. Earlier they had to be made by hand, in a time when it was custom for goldsmiths to make their own tools. The blades were difficult to make, they broke easily, and they were quite course, so making them would not be worth the costs, time and effort (1999, 3-6; 1992, 163). The toolmarks on the edges of the book fittings show that they were not cut out by means of chisels or files. The wobbly lines, the awkward inlets in the corners to enable turning of the saw, and the square-ended cuts all indicate the use of some sort of sawing tool (fig. 26,27). A ‘modern’ jewellers saw, however, would generally give more precise and more pleasing results, suggesting that a forerunner of the jewellers saw – such as the Horlogiveer, described by Van Laer – or course and fragile, self-made sawblades were used for cutting the book fittings. Both the sawn and the cast fittings show marks of engraving with a burin (fig. 22,27,28). A burin is a carving tool with a sharp lozenge-shaped point. Due to this point, the line tends to have a pointed ‘v’ shape where the tool enters and exits the metal (Cycleback 2018, 68). The force used in engraving caused the gold to be pushed over the sawn edge, indicating that these decorations were engraved after they were sawn (fig. 28). The engraving lines in the figure are very similar to the sawn decorations. In the figure’s head and strands from its sleeves the gold is also pushed over the edge. However, this can indicate engraving in the pattern before casting, or engraving of the cast product afterwards. A combination of both is most likely: Cellini describes how seals get their finishing touches after casting by working the silver with “punches, gravers and chisels, touching up and completing your subject now here, now there, figures, swags, arms, bodies, legs, all alike, accentuating them […] with you steel tools” (1898, 65).

28 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 23. Detail front notebook. From an angle it is visible that the book fittings are of thin, flat, sheet gold.

Figure 24. Title print of a book for gold- and silversmiths. The title specifically mentions “snijden” (cutting). There are many tools depicted, but a jewelers saw is not among them. On the left a person is filing, on the right a person seems to be chiseling out a figure of sheet metal. Meester P.R.K. Titelprent Spits-Boeck, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Amsterdam (RP-P-2011-114-1), 1617, engraving. Credit: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.collect.504596.

29 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 25. First depictions of the piercing saw as a goldsmith’s tool. Left: Diderot and d’Alembert, plate VII. Right: Diderot and d’Alembert, plate XI.

Figure 26. Detail front, showing Figure 27. Detail chandelier back, Figure 28. Detail back upper saw marks. Credit: photography showing saw marks and right corner, showing engraving. by Anneke Hoekstra using a engraving. Credit: photography by Credit: photography by Anneke HIROX Digital Microscope (20 x Anneke Hoekstra using a HIROX Hoekstra using a HIROX Digital magnification). Digital Microscope (20 x Microscope (20 x magnification). magnification).

30 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2.2.2 Stylus 2.2.3.1 XRF measurements The metal of the stylus has the same bright, yellow-golden colour as the book fittings. XRF analysis, taken on the point and on the tip of the stylus, indicated a similar alloy of gold (Au), copper (Cu), and silver (Ag) as the yellow-golden book fittings (see fig. 29 and Appendix II, no. 12,13). It can thus be concluded that they were made in the same workshop. Contrary to what Holzhausen says, the stylus is not a pencil, but a metalpoint, specifically a goldpoint.

2.2.3.2 Goldpoint The term metalpoint can refer to the tool, the technique, as well as the image made with this tool. Until recently, drawings in metalpoint were all referred to as silverpoints. Although metalpoint styli were indeed usually made of silver (often alloyed with some copper), other metals, such as gold, copper, bronze, lead and lead alloyed with tin or bismuth, are also suitable (Burns 2012, 2; Dahm 2004, 75). Leadpoint and its alloys can be used on plain paper. For all other metalpoints the paper must be prepared with a mildly abrasive ground, so that when the stylus is drawn across the support, tiny metal particles are scraped off and deposited on the surface. The rough ground also retains the metal particles. These grounds are essentially aqueous white paints (e.g. bone white, lead white, or chalk) bound in animal glue, in which dry pigment is sometimes added for tinting (Dahm 2004, 75, 80; Burns 2012, 5-8). Metalpoint types cannot be identified visually, because each metal initially leaves a grey line on the paper. Over time, the metal lines corrode. The corrosion colour can range from black to brown, to yellow-gold, depending on the metal type and ageing environment. Metals can thus take on different tones over time, just as different metals may take on a similar tone (Dahm 2004, 75). Artists’ styli are rarely preserved from the past, therefore technical analyses are generally performed on the drawings. By characterizing the chemical composition of the traces left on the paper, the metal alloy of the stylus can be determined (e.g. Dahm 2004; Reiche et al. 2004; Duval 2004). The fact that the stylus is still present in this case raises other questions, such as: why is the stylus a goldpoint? Goldpoints were seldom used for drawings. The drawing Portrait of an elderly man attributed to Jan van Eyck and dated ca. 1435, was analysed by Ina Reiche et. al (fig. 30). In the drawing three different metalpoints were distinguished. Silverpoint with a small amount of copper was used for the figure, its robe and the lower cross line. For the hatching, silverpoint containing about 24 wt% was used. The inscriptions and the letter “r” written in the face were created with a goldpoint containing about 20 wt% silver. The same goldpoint was used for final revisions on the right pupil and on the mouth. The use of several metal styli in one drawing is exceptional. As an explanation for the use of goldpoint in the drawing, Reiche et. al. point at the 31 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

difference in mechanical properties of a goldpoint: because it is much smoother than pure or copper-containing silverpoints, it is easier to write with (Reiche et al. 2004, 1661-2). This raises questions about the function of the notebook. Was the stylus made of gold to make the writing easier, which would indicate that it was actually meant to be written in. Or did they use the same material as for the book fittings, making sure that they would fit together aesthetically and was the notebook meant as a showpiece? Also, it is presumed that everything is written with the goldpoint, but is this the case? Or was something else used for (part of) the writings, and was the stylus more decorative/functional as closing pin? This could be verified with further research with XRF or Macro-XRF analysis.

Figure 29. Indicating Figure 30. Jan van Eyck, Portrait of an elderly where the XRF man, ca. 1435. Credit: Reiche et al. 2004, 1659. Measurements were taken. Credit: Anneke Hoekstra

32 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2.2.3 Settings A gemstone setting is the element that securely holds a stone in place and attaches it to the object. Next to this function, a setting also has the purpose to enhance the clarity, colour and cut of the stone. Stones and metal are an aesthetically pleasing combination, because of their ability to reflect light and their lustre (Hesse 2007, 175; Untracht 1982, 599). Stones are set at the very end of the making process. The art object and the stone are subjected to external force during setting. Thus, the setter – a profession which developed separate from that of the goldsmith at the end of the sixteenth century – must be careful not to damage them during this process. Gold and pure silver are therefore not only preferred for aesthetic reasons, but also because of the workability of these metals, as they are relatively soft (Untracht 1982, 599; Falk 1980, 25). Settings come in many forms, sizes, and types. Some are richly decorated; others are purely functional. Some settings have been used for centuries, whilst new types are still being developed. In the notebook three different kinds are found. The settings are all closed backed, meaning that the underside and the girdle (extreme edge) of the gemstones are completely enclosed by metal, so that no light passes through the setting from the base or below. Closed backed settings were used to a large extent until the mid-eighteenth century. Not only because they proved a secure way of setting stones, but also because the setting leaves room for gemstone enhancement, which will be discussed further on (see section 2.4 Gemstones) (Whalley 2012, S315). The first type of setting, a bezel setting, is used for the larger stones, both coloured and colourless. The second type is a small circular bezel setting, and the third type seems to be a cast setting. Both are used only for small colourless stones (fig. 31). Type 1 is an example of a bezel setting with a simple decorative rim (fig. 32). A bezel setting in its simplest form is a thin strip of metal formed to the shape of the stone and soldered to the base metal. This way a container is created, in which the stone fits neatly. After the stone is placed in the container, the metal is pressed over the stone slope with setting tools to secure the stone tightly (Untracht 1982, 599).11 A common trick is applied in the notebook’s type 1 settings: the bezel’s edges are irregular where they meet the gemstone and they taper in to the top, giving the impression of larger, deeper and more regularly shaped gems (Whalley 2013, 80). This is especially the case in the settings for the colourless stones (fig. 33). Type 2 is a small circular bezel setting, used only for colourless stones. The same trick as described above is applied. The stones appear to be cleaved fragments from larger stones. The third type is a little unusual. The setting is very ornamental, shaped in a leaf-like form. Compared to the size of the stone, the setting is quite high and large. The setting appears on the cover six times, in the exact same size. The shapes are seemingly the same – although some settings look damaged, altering their shape slightly. This

11 For variations on the bezel setting, see: Untracht 1982, 599. 33 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

suggests that the settings are cast. The stones can be best described as flush-set or gypsy-set: the stone is sunk into the opening with its girdle flush with the metal body (Untracht 1982, 614). The edges surrounding the stone are, again, left very rough. The metal settings are all discoloured and have lost their lustre. The discolouration ranges from a dull dark grey to a dull dark bronze on the type 1 and type 2 settings. The type 3 settings all have a dark bronze hue.

2.2.2.1 XRF measurements XRF measurements were taken on two spots on the front cover: on the side of a type 1 setting and on a type 3 setting (see fig. 34 and Appendix II, no. 10,11). A type 2 setting was not analysed. The XRF measurements show that the type 3 settings are made of copper (Cu), alloyed with a small amount of silver (Ag) and gold (Au). Because of the evenly dispersed, dark grey discolouration on all type 1 settings, it was suspected that they would consist largely of silver (Ag). From the end of the seventeenth century diamonds would often be set in silver rather than gold, because the sparkle of the stone is best set off by white metal (Ogden 2018, 159). The XRF results, however, rather surprisingly indicated an alloy of mainly gold (Au) and copper (Cu), in which only a small amount of silver (Ag) was detected. The spectrum is almost identical to the spectrum of the golden decoration’s tarnished spot. In fact, the spectra are so similar to each other that there are two possibilities: or the measurement is incorrect, due to interference of the surrounding golden decorations 12 ; or the settings are indeed made of gold instead of silver. For the correct interpretation of the object, and know the original appearance, XRF analysis should be performed on some more type 1 and 2 settings.

2.2.4 Conclusion The book fittings, as well as the stylus are a gold-copper-silver alloy, with a high gold content. Some fittings were cast, others are sawn. The saw marks are rough, indicating that they were not made by a jeweller’s saw, but by some sort of precursor and can thus be dated before the First Industrial Revolution. Because the fittings and the stylus have the same composition, it can be concluded that they were made at the same time. The settings are all closed backed, which was a commodity until the mid-eighteenth century. The discolouration of the type 1 and type 2 settings suggests that they were made of silver, but this could not be confirmed with analysis. From the end of the seventeenth century setting diamonds in silver was preferred over gold, because the stone’s sparkle is best set off by white metal. The leaf-settings are mainly copper.

12 This suggestion was made by prof. dr. Arie Wallert. 34 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2 3 1 . . Figure 31. Detail front. notebook, Figure 32. Detail type 1 bezel Figure 33. Detail fig.1c, lower showing the three different types setting on the notebook’s spine. corner right, showing size of gemstone settings. Credit: Credit: photography by Anneke enhancement trick. photography by Anneke Hoekstra Hoekstra using a HIROX Digital using a HIROX Digital Microscope Microscope (20 x magnification). (20 x magnification).

Figure 34. Indicating where the XRF Measurements were taken. Credit: Anneke Hoekstra

35 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2.3 Enamel

2.3.1 Technique: basse-taille The enamels on the cover of the notebook are coloured light blue/turquoise, dark blue, black, green, and white. Except for white, the enamels are translucent. Enamel is essentially powdered glass, coloured by metallic oxides, fused onto a metal surface by means of heat. In the notebook the basse-taille technique is used, executed in the simplest form (fig. 35,36). Basse-taille is a form of champlevé enamelling. In the champlevé technique, meaning ‘raised field’, sunken recesses are prepared in the metal surface and filled with opaque enamel, which is contained within metal boundaries perpendicular to the metal base (fig. 37). In the basse-taille technique, meaning ‘shallow cut’, a pattern – simple or elaborate figurative designs – is created on the metal ground by chasing or engraving. The metal is filled with translucent enamels, rendering the pattern visible through the enamel. Light falling on the enamel passes through and is reflected by the metal. The technique therefore calls for a gold or silver base. Because gold will not form a discolouring oxide layer, it is preferred over silver (Buckton 1982, 101-2; Speel 1998, 7, 22). The patterns also roughen up the metal surface, providing extra grip for the enamel (Ward 2008, 188). According to Richter Basse-taille enamelling was commonly used from the late thirteenth to the early sixteenth century, and, in the context of restorations and imitations of historic enamels, again in the nineteenth century (1994, 223). Speel specifies that the technique was especially popular for decorating Renaissance jewels, and in the eighteenth century for snuff boxes and watch cases (1998, 7) (fig. 38,39).

Figure 35. Detail front notebook Figure 36. Detail figure 1a. bottom Figure 37. Diagram of a showing the basse-taille enamelling. hinge, showing the gouges in the champlevé enamel base. Credit: Credit: photography by Anneke substrate metal, where the enamel Buckton 1982, 108. Hoekstra using a HIROX Digital is chipped off. Microscope (20 x magnification).

36 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 38. Anonymous (enamel on Figure 39. Anonymous, Snuffbox with blue translucent enamel, reverse after design by Etienne Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Amsterdam (BK-16242), ca. 1790 – Delaune), Prudence, Metropolitan ca. 1800, gold, metal, enamel. Credit: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Museum of Art, New York http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.17796 (17.190.907), ca. 1550-60, back: 19th century, chalcedony mounted in gold with enamel, rubies, emeralds, diamond and pearl. Credit: Metropolitan Museum of Art, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/col lection/search/193692

2.3.2 Enamel composition To differentiate between Renaissance jewels – loosely defined as sixteenth/seventeenth century – and nineteenth century imitations or restorations, several recent studies have focused on quantitative chemical analysis of enamels to determine the relative amounts of elements present, and characterize the general compositions and colourants of the enamels (e.g. Wypyski 2002; Santos 2015; Drayman-Weisser and Wypyski 2005; Richter 1994). The enamels can be dated on account of certain changes in their overall compositions, colourants and opacifiers, introduced in the second half of the eighteenth and nineteenth century. XRF measurements, which can be found in Appendix II, no. 1-5, of each colour were taken on the front of the notebook, providing qualitive data of their elemental composition (fig. 40). A downside of the method, is that some major and minor constituents of enamel are light elements and could not be detected: silicon (Si), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg) and aluminium (Al). 13 However, by comparing the results to recent studies and a contemporary treatise, information on

13 See note 6. 37 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

the general composition and the colourants of the enamels was yielded. The section relies for the better part on two studies by Mark Wypyski (2000; 2002) and a study by Van der Linden et al. (2010). These studies do not only point out differences in the composition of sixteenth and nineteenth century enamels, but include some changes and developments in seventeenth and eighteenth century enamels as well. The contemporary source that was used is The Art of Glass, an extensive technical work on glass, and one of the few written between 1650 and 1750. The treatise was originally written in French by Haudicquer de Blancourt in 1697 and anonymously translated to English in 1699.

Figure 40. Indicating where the XRF Measurements were taken. Credit: Anneke Hoekstra

2.3.2.1 General composition

The main constituent of enamel is silica (SiO2), obtained from ground flint or fine white sand. Since both gold and silver have a lower melting point than silica – respectively 1064°C and 960°C as opposed to 1710°C – fluxes in the form of sodium salts, potassium salts, or lead must be added in considerable amounts to reduce the enamel’s melting point. To prevent the glass from deteriorating under atmospheric environments, calcium, magnesium, and aluminium are added to the mix as stabilizing agents (Speel 1998, 43; Richter 1994, 225). According to Wypyski enamels dating from the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries have soda-glass compositions: a glass mixture with soda – sodium oxide (Na2O) – as the dominant alkali. These mixtures contain relatively large amounts of potassium, magnesium, and calcium oxides. Enamels from the early fourteenth and fifteenth century were found to have mixed-alkali compositions, containing relatively high levels of both sodium and potassium (with an

38 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

approximate ratio of 1:1). These enamels usually contain rather low levels of aluminium, magnesium, and calcium. By the end of the fifteenth century, the ratio Na:K shifted again. Wypyski describes these enamels as having “soda-glass compositions with relatively large amounts of potassium”. The levels of aluminium, magnesium, and calcium remained relatively low. Enamels of this composition appear to have been in use throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. According to Wypyski lead was used in these centuries as opacifying agent, and therefore translucent enamels generally contain little or no lead (2000, 150). A study by Van der Linden et al. found that from the beginning of the sixteenth century lead oxide (PbO) was often used as a flux too, next to alkali salts. As long as the PbO content in the transparent enamels does not exceed 25%, the enamels are compatible with an origin between the sixteenth to the mid- eighteenth century. Because the enamels have a sodium content over 6 wt% and a K2O/Na2O ratio larger than 0.6, they can be classified as mixed alkali glass (Van der Linden 2010, 116). Enamels dating from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were found to have decidedly different compositions: lead-potash, or lead-alkali with approximately equal amounts of sodium and potassium. The levels of magnesium, aluminium and calcium are usually very low – less than 1wt% – while the amount of lead oxide usually will rarely be under 20wt%, and – especially the opaque enamels – often over 40wt% (Wypyski 2002, II6.6.8). Blancourt’s recipe for making the “principal matter” for “goldsmiths enamel of several colours for gold” is for opaque enamels. This can be derived from having to add a 50 pounds of calx (a calcined – oxidized – mix of 30 pounds of lead and 33 pounds of tin), which serves as opacifying agent. The recipe shows, however, where some of the other components derive from. 50-pound fritt of white tarso (prepared soft, white sand and sodium salt) must be added, as well as 8 ounces of salt of tartar, which is calcined tartar of red wine (1699, 37-45, 60-1, 138-9, 205- 6). Tartar, tartrates, or potassium bitartrate are crystalline deposits that form naturally as potassium and tartaric acid (C4H6O6) in wine bond to form a crystal. Table 2 presents the detected elements per colour enamel. Due to the measuring equipment sodium, magnesium and aluminium were not detected, and only weak signals for silicon were observed.14 Therefore the exact composition cannot be concluded. However, a lead- potash or lead-alkali composition can be excluded, since the amount of lead is low in all translucent colours. Seemingly both potassium and lead are added as flux to soda glass, which is conform a dating between the sixteenth and the mid-eighteenth century.

14 See note 6. 39 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Table 2. Elements in the notebook’s enamels, detected by XRF. Colour Elements present High % Med % Low % Light K, Si, Fe, Co, Ni, As, Pb, Cu - blue/Turquoise Bi Dark blue Cu Fe, Co, Ni, As K, Ca, Mn, Si, Pb, Bi

Black Mn, Fe Co, Ni, As, Cu, Pb K, Si, Ca, Bi

Green Cu Fe K, Si, As, Mn, Ca, Ni

White (opaque) - Pb Cu, Sn, Fe, As

2.3.2.2 Colourants To achieve the desired colour and intensity for the thin translucent enamels over the bright metal, large amounts of colourants were required (Wypyski 2002, 151). Virtually all colours can be obtained by adding oxides of manganese, iron, cobalt, and copper. The presence of some elements can be used in dating enamel, because of changing trends in sourcing, manufacturing and use of colouring and opacifying agents, as well as the inventions of new ones (Van der Linden 2010, 113). As shown in table 3, the colourants found in the notebook are generally more or less as expected in enamels dating between the sixteenth and mid-eighteenth century. The colourants in the turquoise enamel is mainly copper, to which a small amount of cobalt was added. Iron, nickel, arsenic and bismuth are trace elements associated with the cobalt source at Schneeberg in the Erzgebirge in present-day Germany. Cobalt produces a dark blue colour. This cobalt source was in use from the beginning of the sixteenth until the eighteenth century (Van der Linden et al. 2010, 119; Craddock 2009, 227). In figure 40 small, dark blue patches are visible, blended in the turquoise enamel, confirming a mixture of copper and cobalt. The results for dark blue are slightly deviant. The XRF measurements show a surprisingly small amount of cobalt and its associated trace elements, and a surprisingly large amount of copper, compared to the other sources. A minor amount of manganese was detected too. According to Wypyski manganese can produce a purple colour (2002, II6.6.9). Perhaps it was added to darken the enamel. Wypyski describes the black enamels as being a very dark translucent blue or dark purple- blue, containing large amounts of cobalt, iron, manganese and sometimes a significant percentage of copper (2002, II6.6.9). The XRF measurements show that the black enamel is indeed a combination of all those, with manganese and iron as the main constituents.

40 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

The green enamels were coloured with copper and iron. Iron is added to shift the blue or turquoise colour, produced by copper alone, towards green (Wypyski 2002, II6.6.8). The white enamel is the only opaque colour in the notebook. The main colourant and opacifier that was used is lead, but a significant amount of tin was detected too. According to Wypyski, the mixture of tin oxide and lead oxide was used from at least the twelfth century onwards, with an excess of lead to tin. From the fifteenth century onwards, the percentage of tin is generally much higher (2002, II6.6.10). Van der Linden specifies that the lead-tin combination was the only opacifier for white enamels, until lead arsenate was introduced around 1750 (2010, 118). Minor amounts of copper, iron and arsenic were detected too. It makes no sense to add these deliberately. Perhaps they are remainders of other colourants in the mortar, which may explain the slight off-colour of the white enamel. Most of the other white enamels show greenish patches (fig. 41). Although this may also be explained by remainders of colourants in the mortar, it apparently occurred commonly. Blancourt recommends adding manganese to the white if it turns out greenish, to make it “white as milk” (1699, 206-7). This trick was not applied to the notebook’s enamel.

2.3.3 Conclusion The basse-taille enamelling technique was used from the thirteenth to the eighteenth century. In the nineteenth century there was a revival of the technique, when Renaissance enamels were restored and imitated. Because the composition of the Renaissance enamels and their nineteenth century imitations/restorations differed, they can be distinguished. In this context several studies were recently performed. By comparing XRF measurements of the notebook to these studies, the enamels can be dated between the sixteenth and the mid-eighteenth century. Research on differentiating within these centuries is still in its infancy, and there are no compositional criteria for dating within this period yet.

Figure 41. Detail fig. 1c. showing greenish patches blended in the white enamel. 41 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Table 3. Presenting the colouring agents detected in the notebook by XRF analysis, compared to common colouring agents detected in recent studies on 16th-19th c. translucent enamels (combined), and the ingredients of recipes from a contemporary treatise. Colour Colourants detected Wypyski 2000, Blancourt 1699, in Notebook BK- Wypyski 2002, Van 203-214 17172 der Linden et al. 2010 Light Cu + small amount of Cu (+ little or no Fe) Cu + small amount of blue/Turquoise Fe, Co, Ni, As, Bi zaffer (Co) + minor amount of Mn Dark blue Cu + medium Co + (Fe +) small Zaffer (Co) + smaller amounts of Fe, Co, Ni, amounts of Ni, As, Bi amount of Cu As, Mn Black Mn + Fe + medium Co + Fe + Mn + Zaffer (Co) + Mn + amounts of Co + Ni + sometimes Cu crocus Martis (Fe) + As + Cu red tartar Green Cu + medium Cu + Fe Cu + Fe amounts of Fe From 1797 also: Cr White (opaque) Pb + small amounts Pb + Sn (principal matter +) of Cu, Sn, Fe, As Mn From 18th c. also: Pb + As

42 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2.4 Gemstones

A gemstone is a mineral or petrified material that is cut or faceted (Stuart 2007, 37). Gemstones are valued for their colour, lustre, transparency, durability, and rarity. For this reason, many art objects, jewels, and religious artefacts have been adorned by gemstones since antiquity (Barone et al. 2017, 194; Groat 2012, 128). A total of 115 translucent and faceted stones – pink, blue, green, and colourless – embellish the notebook (table 4). The stones are simply cut, with very poor symmetry, following the natural form of the stones and keeping as much of their weight. The green stones and one of the pink stones are table-cut, five pink stones and one blue stone are oval-cut, five pink stones and one blue stone are old single-cut, one pink stone is scissor-cut and two blue stones are emerald-cut. The colourless stones are rose-cut, with three to eighteen facets. According to Falk, faceting of gemstones was invented around the fifteenth century (1908, 20). Especially in the faceting of diamonds – which is the hardest stone to cut, due to his hardness (Mohs 10) – certain trends are visible. The table-cut diamond was popular from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. Simultaneously, the rose-cut was popular from the fifteenth to the mid-eighteenth century. In the seventeenth century the rose-cut became the cut of choice for diamonds, until the brilliant-cut took its place in the second half of the eighteenth century (De Carvalho 2014, 118- 22). Without any underpinning, the notebook’s gem materials were identified as real gemstones in the previous sources (see table 1). De Foelkersam identifies them as rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and diamonds (1913, 17). This might be a quick jump to conclusions however, since gemstone imitation has been a popular practice since at least the times of Pliny the Elder (23 CE – 79 CE). According to the scholar Marjolijn Bol, imitations of ruby, emerald and sapphire have always been the most popular (2014, 113). Given the status of the stones, this is not surprising. Cellini, for example, states that these four stones were the only real precious stones. In his time the ruby was by far the most costly: a fine ruby of “five grains of wheat” would be 800 “golden scudi”, while an emerald of the same size would be worth 400, a diamond 100 and a sapphire only 10 (1898, 22-3). A recent survey of gem materials held at the Victoria and Albert Museum revealed that in the nearly 2000 examined objects, not only gemstone imitations, but also historical methods of enhancement and treatments to improve the colour and overall appearance of gem materials were common practices (Whalley 2012). Whalley stresses the rareness of encountering transparent or translucent gem materials in closed-back settings that did not receive some form of enhancement. Materials that were found to enhance or imitate gemstones include (coloured) oils, resins and waxes; metal foils and textile fibres set behind transparent or translucent stones; glass; and

43 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

composites. 15 Glass gemstone simulates are called pastes and were produced since the Mesopotamian and Egyptian times. The first to publish recipes for making pastes was Giovan Battista Della Porta in his Magiae Naturalis (1558) (Mottana 2017, 655).16 The notebook’s gemstones were examined with the naked eye, with a digital microscope, and with longwave UV light (365 nm). Based on the results the following section will first present a preliminary identification of the gemstones, and then discuss which enhancements techniques were observed.

Table 4. Number of gemstones on the notebook Colour of the Number gemstone Front Back Spine Total Pink 6 5 1 12

Blue 1 3 - 4 Green 4 3 1 8 Colourless 44 35 12 91

2.4.1 Preliminary characterisation Gem identification is a highly specialistic expertise. To identify gem materials there are several non-destructive instruments, relying on the nature of interaction between the gem material and visible light, such as a gemmological refractometer, a hand-held spectroscope, and a polariscope (Whalley 2012, S313). For the correct identification, a gem material should be confirmed with a minimum of two methods (Faber 2018). Several first conclusions, however, can be drawn after examining the materials in natural and UV light. An important property and first indicator is the colour in natural light. Because some gem materials have a characteristic fluorescence reaction in UV light, while others – such as pastes – do not, it is a simple yet useful tool for further clues as to the identity of the material. Figures 42-45 show the gem materials in natural light and in longwave UV light; table 5 presents a description of their colours and fluorescence reaction. Following the Gemological Institue of America (GIA) Gem Color System, the colour description in normal lighting conditions is broken down into three components: hue, tone, and saturation (Clark, n.d.). The hue reflects the dominant basic colours and is preceded by modifiers where applicable. The tone refers to the gemstone’s lightness or darkness. The intensity of the hue is denoted by the saturation. The observations in UV light are noted in fluorescence strength and colour.

15 For very convincing historical reconstructions of emerald imitations by colouring transparent minerals, see Bol 2014. 16 For an overview of historical sources on making pastes, see Mottana 2017. 44 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 42. Indicating the positions of the gemstones. Credit: Anneke Hoekstra.

Figure 43. Details of figs. 1a,c and 11a,b. showing the pink stones in normal light and in long wave UV light. Credit: Anneke Hoekstra. 45 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 44.Details of figs. 1a,c and 11a,b. showing the blue stones in normal light and in long wave UV light. Credit: Anneke Hoekstra.

Figure 45. Details of figs. 1a,c and 11a,b. showing the green stones in normal light and in long wave UV light. Credit: Anneke Hoekstra.

46 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Table 5. Description of the colour of the gemstones in normal lighting conditions and description of the fluorescence in UV light, following the Gemological Institute of America (GIA) Gem Color System.

Normal light conditions UV light (365nm) Satura- Tone tion Huea (value Fluorescenced Coloure (value 0-10)b 1-6)c P1 stpR 7 3 Very strong Orange P2 slpR 6 3 Very strong Orange P3 stpR 6 3 Very strong Orange P4 RP/PR 7 3 Very strong Orange P5 stpR 6 3 Very strong Orange P6 stpR 6 3 Very strong Orange P7 RP/PR 6 2 Very strong Orange P8 RP/PR 5 4 Very strong Orange P9 strpR 8 3 Very strong Reddish Orange P10 slpR 5 3 Very strong Reddish Orange P11 RP/PR 5 5 Very strong Orange P12 RP/PR 6 2 Very strong Reddish Orange B1 vslgB 7 3 None n/a B2 B 4 2 Faint n/a B3 vstgB 7 2 None n/a B4 vslgB 4 3 Faint n/a G1 vstbG 7 4 Faint n/a G2 vslbG 8 2 Faint n/a G3 G 7 2 None n/a G4 vstbG 6 3 Medium Red G5 vstbG 6 3 Medium Red G6 vstbG 7 2 Medium Red G7 bG 8 2 Faint n/a G8 bG 7 3 Faint n/a Clarification of abbreviations and values:

a Primary hue: R = red; O = orange; Y = yellow; G = green; B = blue; V = violet; P = purple. Modifying colours: r = reddish; o = orangy; y = yellowish; g = greenish; b = bluish; v = violetish; p = purplish. Additional modifiers: sl = slightly; st = strongly; vsl = very slightly; vst = very strongly.

b Tone values: 0 = colourless; 1 = extremely light; 2 = very light; 3 = light; 4 = medium light; 5 = medium, 6 = medium dark; 7 = dark; 8 = very dark; 9 = extremely dark; 10 = black.

c Saturation values for warm colours: 1 = brownish; 2= slightly brownish; 3 = very slightly brownish; 4 = moderately strong; 5 = strong; 6 = vivid. Saturation values for cool colours: 1 = greyish; 2 = slightly greyish; 3 = very slightly greyish; 4 = moderately strong; 5 = strong; 6 = vivid.

d Fluorescence intensity values: none; faint; medium; strong; very strong.

e Colour description is added when fluorescence intensity is medium, strong, or very strong.

47 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2.4.1.1 Pink In normal lighting conditions there are only slight differences colour. The majority of the stones is reddish purple to red-purple in hue. 17 On average the stones are quite dark in tone, and moderately saturated. The colour could point to ruby (the red variety of corundum), red spinel or red garnet.18 Because these stones can be identical in appearance, and rubies and spinels are often found in the same mines, they were often considered to be the same type, before the rise of modern gemmology at the end of the nineteenth century (Shang, n.d.; Arem, Clark, and Smigel, n.d.b). In UV light the notebook’s gemstones have a very strong orange or red-orange fluorescence, eliminating garnet and paste, which are both inert (Faber 2018). Both red corundum and red spinel can fluoresce strong red to orange in longwave UV, because they are coloured by chromium, an activator element (Arem, and Clark, n.d.; Arem, Clark, and Smigel, n.d.b). Red corundum can contain iron, which is a quencher, too. The strong fluorescence indicates that there is little or no iron present. By studying inclusions, a more specialized eye can sometimes differentiate between red corundum and red spinel, and even know their origin.

2.4.1.2 Blue The four blue stones look very different from one another in colour. The hue varies from blue, to slightly greenish blue and strongly greenish blue. B1 and B3 are dark in tone, while B2 and B4 are medium light in tone. With saturation values of 2 and 3, the stones are quite dull and look a bit greyish. They do not show fluorescence in UV light. For blue stones, however, fluorescence serves less helpful for their characterisation. Most blue gemstones, like sapphire (blue corundum) and blue spinel, get their colour from iron and therefore do not have a reaction (Arem, and Clark, n.d.). In magnification B3 shows crizzling lines all in the whole stone (fig. 46). Although they are trembling, they cross the plane horizontally, perfectly parallel to each other. They may be inclusions following the stone’s atomic structure, which would indicate that it is not a paste.

2.4.1.3 Green With mainly a blueish green hue, the green stones of the notebook look more uniform in colour. They are medium dark to very dark in tone, but they are not too vivid. In UV light the stones have a faint to medium red fluorescence. In magnification some of the green stones show fissures (fig. 47). The combination of these factors points to emeralds, a medium or darker green to blue-green

17 In the GIA Gem Color System ‘purple’ is used instead of ‘pink’. 18 Pink sapphire is also a variety of corundum. There is no general agreement on how to distinguish between ruby and pink sapphire. Scientifically the only difference is the amount of chromium present (Smigel, Arem, Clark, n.d.). 48 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

variety of beryl. Emeralds generally have internal fractures, which make them brittle and vulnerable to damage (fig. 48). Their colour is derived from chromium and/or vanadium; bluish tones are increased by iron. Therefore, some emeralds show a weak orange red to red fluorescence in longwave UV light (Arem, Clark, and Smigel, n.d.a; GIA, n.d.).

2.4.1.4 Colourless A large part of the notebook’s colourless stones fluoresce: most strong blue, some green to yellow (fig. 11a,b). About 25-30% of diamonds exhibit fluorescence. Blue is the most common fluorescence colour (about 97%), but green and yellow also occur (Faber 2018; Moses et al. 1997, 248; Devouard and Notari 2009, 165). The blue fluorescence is confirmative for diamonds. The yellow fluorescence can also point to white topaz, or zircon. The stones that do not fluoresce may be diamonds, but could also be pastes or white quartz.

2.4.2 Enhancements The blue gem materials showed several enhancements, as expected given the large colour difference between them. In UV light B2 shows patches of strong, chalky blue fluorescence, indicating treatment of the stone by a filler – now mostly faded in colour – such as oil or resin (Faber 2018) (fig. 44). Fillers penetrate the stone through small fissures that either occur naturally or are made on purpose.19 Because the refractive indices of oils and resins are closer to those of gem materials than air, the colour and transparency of the stone is enhanced. By adding dyes to the oil or resin, artificial colour may be introduced, enhancing the natural colour of the stone, or simulate another gem (Whalley 2012, S313-14). In magnification, B1, B4 and several pink stones show a metallic lustre coming through the table of the stone, which can indicate foil backing (fig. 49-52). The dark appearance of the colourless stones could be explained by a dark backing or tinting (Figure 53a,b). Setting diamonds over a black substance creates a mirror effect, enhancing its lustre and shine, and was custom in closed-backed settings (Ogden 2018, 144). Diamond imitations should apparently never get such a tint: “It is an extraordinary thing that the diamond, which is the most limpid and brilliant of all earthly stones, gains a thousand-fold in beauty when you, as it were, soil it with a black tint, while all other light stones, as soon as you touch them with a tint, lose their splendour, and turn black” (Cellini 1898, 40).

19 For an account on and historical reconstructions of “opening up” stones by means of alum and vinegar, to colour them with pigments and dyes, see: Bol 2014, 114-121. 49 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2.4.3 Conclusion Examining the gem materials with the naked eye, longwave UV light and digital microscopy, provided some first clues regarding their identity. It was found that many of the stones are indeed real gemstones. The pink gemstones may be ruby or spinel, the green stones emeralds and at least half of the colourless stones are diamonds. The blue stones could not be characterised by their fluorescence. Several enhancement techniques were observed too: foiling of several blue and pink stones, oiling of a blue stone and possibly backing of the colourless stones with a black substance. Further research should confirm these findings. Based on the gemstones being faceted, a dating after 1400 can be assigned. The rose-cut diamonds imply a dating between the seventeenth and mid-eighteenth century.

Figure 46. Detail showing parallel Figure 47. Detail showing fissures Figure 48. Detail showing damage running, crizzling lines in B3. in G7. Credit: photography by of G6. Credit: photography by Credit: photography by Anneke Anneke Hoekstra using a HIROX Anneke Hoekstra using a HIROX Hoekstra using a HIROX Digital Digital Microscope (20 x Digital Microscope (20 x Microscope (20 x magnification). magnification). magnification).

Figure 49. Detail P1 showing possible Figure 50. Detail P7 showing possible foiling. Credit: photography by Anneke pigmented foiling. Credit: photography by Hoekstra using a HIROX Digital Microscope Anneke Hoekstra using a HIROX Digital (60 x magnification). Microscope (magnification unknown).

50 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 51. Detail B1 showing possible Figure 52. Detail B4 showing possible foiling. Credit: photography by Anneke foiling. Credit: photography by Anneke Hoekstra using a HIROX Digital Microscope Hoekstra using a HIROX Digital Microscope (magnification unknown). (magnification unknown).

Figure 53a,b. Detail back cover upper right corner. showing blue fluorescence of two rose-cut colourless stones, confirming that they are diamonds and possible dark backing of the diamonds. Credit: photography by Anneke Hoekstra using a HIROX Digital Microscope (20 x magnification).

51 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2.5 Conclusion

Through visual and scientific analysis, most of the materials of which the notebook’s cover is composed, were identified. The cover is real tortoiseshell. The book fittings and the stylus were identified as a gold-copper-silver alloy, with a high gold content. The type 3 settings consist mainly of copper. The type 1 and type 2 settings were not characterized, but based on their discolouration, they are probably silver. The pink stones are probably ruby and/or spinel, the green stones were identified as emeralds, and certainly half of the colourless stones are diamonds. The other colourless stones, and the blue stones were not characterized. Investigation of the techniques employed in the making and the historical use of the materials and techniques, yielded several first indications for a manufacturing date. The rough saw marks on the metal ornaments suggest a forerunner of the jewellers saw, which emerged after the First Industrial Revolution, dating the ornaments before ca.1760. Because the compositions of the book fittings and the stylus are practically the same, it can be assumed that they were manufactured in the same workshop. The settings are all closed-backed, a commodity until the mid-eighteenth century. The enamels are dated between the sixteenth and the mid- eighteenth century on account of their elemental composition. Based on the gemstones being faceted, they can be dated after 1400. The rose-cut diamonds imply a dating between the seventeenth and mid-eighteenth century. The use of tortoiseshell for the cover narrows it down to the mid-seventeenth and mid- eighteenth century.

52 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

3. Style and Iconography

In its overall style, the notebook’s binding seems rather unique. No book cover – tortoiseshell or other material – was found with comparable decorations of gold, enamel, and gemstones. The only exception being a notebook of similar dimensions made of ivory, displayed in Les Trésors, which got lost around the Second World War (fig. 6).20 In the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam online collection catalogue, the notebook is currently dated ca. 1710 – ca. 1730 and the place of manufacture is believed to be Dresden. Although these dates fit within the timeframe determined by the findings in the previous chapter of a manufacturing date between the mid-seventeenth and the mid- eighteenth century, these are also the approximate years of Anna Petrovna’s birth and death, the ascribed owner of the notebook. A book cover, however, cannot always be dated by its content: printed texts can be inserted later, blanc pages can be inscribed later, and books/pages can be rebound. The cover nor the gold bears any hallmarks that can aid in dating or attributing. The following chapter presents a comparative study on the stylistic features and iconography of the notebook, to propose a more accurate and substantiated dating and a cautious attribution.

3.1 Book fittings To protect the brittle tortoiseshell, the bindings were generally attired with book fittings of a fine quality. Book fittings come in many shapes and sizes, of which some are characteristic for a certain period or region (see Adler 2010; Van Noordwijk 2013, 23). Comparative research of the book fittings on the notebook to other book fittings has yielded very little information. No similar fittings were found. According to Adler, the use of hinges to connect the spine to the coverboards was used from around 1660. He also states that the “Stiftverriegelungsverschlüsse”, a closing with pin or stylus as the one in the notebook, occurs from the eighteenth century (Adler 2010, 48-9, 155). Book fittings were regularly transferred from one binding to another (Van Noordwijk 2006, 212). The notebook’s tortoiseshell shows no traces of previous fittings. The fittings and the stylus are made from the same gold (see section 2.2 Metal), and since this type of closure only emerged in the eighteenth century it can be concluded that the fittings originally belong to this binding and date from the eighteenth century. The profession of the Klausurenmacher, or boekslotmaker in Dutch, which may best be translated as ‘booklock maker’ – who also made book fittings – existed from the mid-sixteenth century, but was often connected to other metal professions, such as the beltmaker (fig. 54).21 Gold and silver book fittings were made by gold- and silversmiths, since the guild law allowed only

20 The ivory notebook was last mentioned in the catalogue of Von Falke (1936, 81) and has since been lost. 21 Note that in this workshop too, no saw is depicted. 53 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

members of these professions to work on precious metals (Adler 2010, 54, 59). A print after a late seventeenth century jewellery designer, indeed shows designs for book fittings amongst designs for jewels (fig. 55).

Figure 54. Der Klausurmacher. Figure 55. Christian Engelbrecht, after Friedrich Jacob Morisson, Credit: Weigel 1698, after 336. Twenty-two designs for jewellery, book covers and fans, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Amsterdam (RP-P-1964-1957), after

1699 – before 1724, Augsburg, Vienna, print, h. 154 mm x w. 250 mm. Credit: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.413185

3.2 Iconography De Foelkersam and Holzhausen both typified the central figures on the cover of the notebook as Harlequins from the Italian commedia dell’arte (De Foelkersam 1913, 17; Holzhausen 1960, 12). Not only the central figures remind of the commedia dell’arte, the mask-like faces on which they stand too. The commedia dell’arte is a theatrical form which developed in Italy in the sixteenth century and gradually spread through Europe. Some of the defining features of the commedia dell’arte are improvisation, acrobatics and music, the use of face masks and many characteristic stock types, with typical costumes and props (Castagno 1989, 236-7; Katritzky 2006, 31). Among the stock types are the zanni, the comic servants. Zanni (with a capital) started as one character, but got subdivided into several variants over the years. Many variants would only differ in name and minor costume details, but some grew into proper characters, with specific properties and attributes. One of these proper zanni-characters – and according to the scholar Katritzky the most popular and most researched one – is Harlequin (or Arlecchio). From the 1630’s Harlequin was depicted in a patched costume. Instead of Harlequins, the figures on the notebook are better identified more generic as zanni’s. Their iconography is very varied. Some characteristics are a (feathered) hat, collars, ruffs, jacket buttons and sometimes shoulder streamers, as well as the carrying of a musical instrument – mainly a guitar, but other instruments, 54 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

like the violin, flute, drum or tambourine are found too – or a jug, and a bent knee and/or turned up leg (fig. 56,57). According to Katritzky, the most artistically influential set of images on the general iconography and portrayal of the commedia dell’arte are Jacques Callot’s series of engravings Balli di Sfessania. (Katritzky 2006, 17, 102, 189-91; Katritzky 1997, 381-3). The costumes of the figures on the notebook bear some resemblance to these engravings (fig. 58,59).

Figure 56. Jacques Callot, Two Zanni, National Gallery of Art, Figure 57. Gabriel Weyer, Washington (1949.5.214), c. 1616, France, print. Credit: National Zanni with jug, 1615, ink. Gallery of Art Washington, https://www.nga.gov/collection/art- Credit: Katritzky, M. A. 2006, object-page.36655.html. 601.

Figure 58. Jacques Callot, Two street artists as Razullo Figure 59. Jacques Callot, Riciulina and and Cucurucu. From the series: Balli di Sfessania, Metzetin, Leaf 7 of the serie “Balli di Sfessania”. Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Amsterdam (RP-P-OB- Kupferstich-Kabinet, Dresden (A 58926), 1622, 20.884), 1621-1622, Nancy, etching. Credit: print, 69 x 92 mm. Credit: Staatliche Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Kunstsammlungen Dresden, https://skd- http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.4073 online- 2 collection.skd.museum/Details/Index/879105

55 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

3.3 Re-attribution to the workshop of Köhler? From the second half of the sixteenth century until the mid-eighteenth century, the commedia dell’arte became more and more popular at the courts of German-speaking countries, of which paintings and prints, but also figurines and statuettes are a reminder (fig. 60,61). A particular fan was August the Strong (1670 – 1733), Elector of Saxony, who had strongly encouraged the German fashion for commedia costumes in court parades, pantomimes, carnival masquerades and porcelain figurines (Katritzky 2018, 99-104). Holzhausen points to the diamonds set in silver, the engraving on the golden mounts, and the head of a Turk on the stylus as details of the notebook that indicate the art of goldsmithing in Dresden. He places the object in the border area of the two court jewellers Johann Heinrich Köhler and Johann Melchior Dinglinger. Based on the blue and green enamel, Holzhausen’s scale tilts over to Köhler (Holzhausen 1960, 12). Köhler was born in 1669 in Langensalza, where he probably was an apprentice of his uncle, the goldsmith Michael Köhler. He moved to Dresden in the mid 1690’s, where he started working as a journeyman. In 1701 he received the title of master goldsmith and in 1703 his own workshop was first documented. In the workshop he always had two journeymen working, which was the maximum allowed by the guild in Dresden. Already prior to 1705 he was one of the goldsmiths with whom purchases for August the Strong’s collection were made, and in 1718 he was appointed court jeweller (Syndram and Weinhold 2019, 13-5).

Figure 60. (left) Johann Christoph Ludwig Lücke, Scaramuz, Grünes Gewölbe, Dresden (VI 236), 1729/30, Dresden, ivory, silver, h. 23.8 x w. 8.2 x d. 7.4 cm. Credit: Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, https://skd-online- collection.skd.museum/Details/I ndex/117943#.

Figure 61. (right) Anonymous, Coupe, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Amsterdam (BK-17090), ca. 1600 – ca. 1625, Palts, bandagate, gold, metal, h. 12.8 x w. 10.1 x d. 7.0 cm. Credit: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM 0001.COLLECT.332213.

56 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

The online catalogue of the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam still states that the object was made in Dresden, but an attribution to Köhler has been rejected. The curly decorations, the green and blue enamel, the commedia dell’arte iconography, the chandelier, and the small button-like setting for diamond flints; as well as the use of precious stones, precious metals and natural materials are all elements that can be found generally in goldsmithing art in and around Dresden at the beginning of the eighteenth century (fig. 62-65). A “hat pin”, very similar to the notebook’s stylus, with the same dimensions, and attributed to the circle of Johann Melchior Dinglinger, is currently at auction at Kunsthaus Lempertz (fig. 66). On account of one very small, underexposed detail, the following section will propose a very careful re-attribution to the workshop of Köhler, or his circle: the leaf-like diamond settings (the type 3 settings). Gemstone settings come in many shapes. Over the centuries they evolved, following trends in technological advancements and fashion, and can thus be of aid in dating and attributing. They have, however, rarely been the subject of research. The only studies that have sorted settings on their types and individual forms known to the author are from Fritz Falk. They date from 1975 and 1980 and cover settings from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries. The type 3 settings therefore do not occur in these studies. The type 1 settings, with a decorated bezel, were found in other artworks from the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century, in the German countries and in others (fig. 67). After digging through many objects from the beginning of the eighteenth century, however, it was found that all artworks that include a similar leaf-setting were attributed to Köhler – except for one, which had no attribution. Figure 68a-j shows a compilation of the leaf-settings. It seems like they become more sophisticated in his later works. Of Köhler’s hand, one other tortoiseshell notebook is known, of which the piqué-posé work – when the metal is inlayed in the tortoiseshell – was done by Pierre Triquet (fig. 69a,b). This notebook is quite different than the notebook BK-17172. It has a snap lock, of which the large diamond is the push-button, and contains two thin ivory plates, which served as writing tablets (Syndram and Weinhold 2019, 138-41). It is not stated if the ivory tablets were used, but this notebook seems to have had merely a decorative function. The decorations on this notebook are way more delicate and make the decorations on the notebook BK-17172 look quite crude. There are some similarities however: the turquoise basse-taille enamelling, the green fabric lining and the use of diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. Possibly the goldsmith worked the tortoiseshell himself, since this can be done with basic goldsmithing tools, perhaps the booklet was acquired ready-made and the goldsmith was responsible for attaching the goldsmithing elements. The final stage of binding was probably done by a bookbinder (Shenton 1992, 177).

57 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

3.4 Conclusion Through comparative research it was possible to propose a substantiated approximate dating and a cautious re-attribution of the cover of the notebook to the workshop or circle of Johann Heinrich Köhler. The earliest date that can be assigned to the notebook is around 1700, when this type of closure with a pin or stylus first started to appear. Gold and silver book fittings were made by gold- and silversmiths. The central figures are zanni’s from the commedia dell’arte. This was a very popular theatre form at the courts of eighteenth-century Germany and found its way into the visual arts of that time, including the art of goldsmithing. There is one specific element that seems to be unique to Köhler’s work: the leaf-settings. Based on the quite simple variation of the leaf- setting and the somewhat crudely executed decorations, the notebook seems to be an early work and may therefore be dated in the first decade of the eighteenth century. To be certain of this attribution further comparative research, both art historical and scientific, is proposed.

Figure 62. Johann Melchior Figure 63. Anonymous, Fröhlicher Figure 64. Jean Louis Girardet, Dinglinger, Gold powder box, Winzer, Grünes Gewolbe, Dresden Soldier with spear and sable, Grünes Gewölbe, Dresden (VI g (VI 100), first quarter of the 18th Grünes Gewolbe, Dresden (VI f), 1701-1708, Dresden, gold, century, probably Frankfurt am 81 b), ca. 1709-1725, Berlin, enamel, diamonds, h. 5.4, dm. 3.0 Main, baroque pearls, gold, baroque pearls, gold, silver, cm. Credit: Staatliche enamel, silver, diamonds, emerald, diamonds, rubies, enamel, Kunstsammlungen Dresden, ruby, sapphires amethyst, ivory, h. 9.8 x w. 7.5 x d 6.1 cm, https://skd-online- carnelian, glass, h. 8.8, w. 6.8, d. 4.9 foot 6.1 x 6.1 cm. Credit: collection.skd.museum/Details/I cm. Credit: Staatliche Staatliche Kunstsammlungen ndex/118015. Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Dresden, https://skd-online- https://skd-online- collection.skd.museum/Details collection.skd.museum/Details/In /Index/118033 dex/170256.

58 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 65. Circle of Johann Melchior Dinglinger, Two Commedia Figure 66. Circle of Johann dell’Arte characters, The Museum of Wine in Art, early 18th century, Melchior Dinglinger, A gold, silver, probably Germanic countries, silver-gilt and silver decorated with enamel gem-set hat pin with an enamel, pearls, chalcedony, and diamond, h. 11.5 cm. Credit: The Oriental figure, 17th century, Museum of Wine in Art, https://www.chateau-mouton- probably Dresden, gold, silver, rothschild.com/the-museum-of-wine-in-art#. enamel, gemstones, 12 cm. Credit: Kunsthaus Lempertz, https://www.lempertz.com/en/ca talogues/lot/1066-1/26-a-gold- silver-enamel-gem-set-hat-pin- with-an-oriental-figure.html.

Figure 67. Showing similar bezelsettings as the type 1 settings in the notebook in a late 17th century Portuguese reliquary of the Holy Cross. Anonymous, Holy Cross reliquary, Cathedral of Évora, late 17th century, Portugal, gold, silver and gemstones, 51 x 25 x 25 cm. Credit: De Carvalho 2014, 121.

59 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 68a-j. showing a compilation of several leaf-like settings bearing a resemblance to the leaf-like settings on the notebook, ordered according to date. a. Type 3 setting on the notebook. b. Detail of Anonymous, Skating Dutchman, Grünes Gewölbe, Dresden (VI 96), um 1700- 1705, probably Frankfurt am Main, baroque pearl, gold, silver, partly gilded, enamel, rubies, diamonds, glass, mirror glass. Credit: Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, https://skd-online-collection.skd.museum/Details/Index/118001. c. Detail of Johann Heinrich Köhler, Shoemaker in the workshop, Grünes Gewolbe, Dresden (VI 189), 1708, Dresden, ivory, silver, gilded, enamel, gemstones, h. 8.5 cm. Credit: Syndram and Weinhold 2019, 86. d. Detail of Johann Heinrich Köhler, Scissors sharpener, Grünes Gewolbe, Dresden (VI 188), 1708, Dresden, ivory, silver, gilded, gold, enamel, gemstones, glass, h. 9.6 cm. Credit: Syndram and Weinhold 2019, 113. e. Detail of Johann Heinrich Köhler, Jewellery box on panther supports, Grünes Gewolbe, Dresden (VI 9), beginning of the 18th century (1709?), Dresden, chalcedony, gold, silver, gilded, enamel, gemstones, cameos, h. 8.5 cm. Credit: Syndram and Weinhold 2019, 103. f. Detail of Johann Heinrich Köhler, Dealer (Savoyard), Grünes Gewolbe, Dresden (VI 190), 1709, Dresden, ivory, silver, gilded, gold, enamel, gemstones, h. 13.3 cm. Credit: Syndram and Weinhold 2019, 115. g. Detail of Johann Heinrich Köhler, Couple of gardeners under a tree, Grünes Gewolbe, Dresden (VI 206), um 1720-1725, Dresden, ivory, silver, gold, enamel, gemstones, glas, baroque pearls, h. 21 cm. Credit: Syndram and Weinhold 2019, 78. h. Detail of Johann Heinrich Köhler, Potter in the workshop, Grünes Gewolbe, Dresden (VI 184), um 1720-1725, Dresden, ivory, silver, partly gilded, gold, enamel, gemstones, h. 11.7 cm. Credit: Syndram and Weinhold 2019, 116. i. Detail of Johann Heinrich Köhler, "Dwarf" as grenadier, Grünes Gewolbe, Dresden (VI 85), vor 1725, Dresden, baroque pearl, gold, enamel, silver, partly gilded, diamonds, h. 13.1 cm. Credit: Syndram and Weinhold 2019, 124. j. Detail of Johann Heinrich Köhler, Small decorative altar with Saint Joseph, Grünes Gewolbe, Dresden (VI 28), 1729-32, Dresden, silver, gilded, gold, enamel, gemstones, h. 30.1 cm. Credit: Syndram and Weinhold 2019, 150.

Figure 69a,b. Notebook closed, and open. Johann Heinrich Köhler (goldsmith) and Pierre Triquet (tortoiseshell work), Notebook from the tortoiseshell set, Grünes Gewolbe, Dresden (VIII 218), before 1733, Dresden, 125 brilliants, 40 diamonds, 16 emeralds, 6 rubies, 1 opal, tortoiseshell, ivory, gold, silver, gilded, enamel, h. 7,6 x w. 11.2 cm. Credit: Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, https://skd-online- collection.skd.museum/Details/Index/22 5425#

60 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

4. The content: owner, function, and use

Every artwork or artefact is a carrier of culture and historical information. The previous chapters concerned the origin of the notebook: how, when, and where was it made? After artworks are made, they are owned and have a certain function. In this light, the inscriptions are an interesting aspect of the notebook. They form a connection to the past, and represent certain people, moments, and places in history. The booklet does not have a name or monogram on its cover and was therefore probably not produced with a specific owner in mind. Based on the content, however, some previous sources have already made some remarks about the ownership and function of the notebook (see section 1. Previous research). By carefully investigating the content – although it remains somewhat dubious – and by comparing the booklet to similar, contemporary objects, this chapter will attest several of these assumptions on its ownership and explore some new ideas on its function and use.

4.1 Content

4.1.1 Content description The notebook contains 24 pages with inscriptions, varying from scribbled lines, to names, to (fragmentary) sentences of a romantic nature, and two childlike drawings. Photographs, a transcription and an English translation of the content can be found in Appendix IV and V. The small size of the notebook allows no more than two to three words per line. There are several different handwritings present, in various languages and scripts. Most of the text proves challenging to read: the inscriptions are in a light colour on a light paper background; they are not written in an order from the first to the last page; and quite some words and sentences are crossed out, written over each other, or written upside-down. Although some names appear in the booklet, it is not directly clear to whom they refer, and if the different inscriptions and handwritings belong to them. Holzhausen makes it seem as if the inscriptions form a clear dialogue between people, this is, however, not the case (1960, 13).

4.1.2 Languages and scripts The inscriptions in the notebook appear in different scripts, different languages, and in different handwritings. This suggests that multiple people, perhaps with different nationalities, have contributed. According to Holzhausen the languages in the notebook are Russian (partly Old Slavic) and German (partly Low Saxon) (1960, 12-3). He fails to mention the French words that the notebook contains. Because the inscriptions are very fragmentary, it is hard to identify the exact languages and dialects. According to the scholar Jos Schaeken the inscriptions in Cyrillic

61 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

script are indeed Russian, but “partly Old Slavic” is not the correct terminology. The term Old Slavic is generally reserved for a Medieval variant of a Slavic language, or an alternative term for Church Slavic. He dates the inscriptions seventeenth to eighteenth century, and therefore neither of these are applicable. Possibly Holzhausen uses the term ‘Old Slavic’ to refer to the spelling, which is from before the Russian Revolution of 1917 and is different from contemporary spelling (Jos Schaeken, Personal communication, May 8, 2019). Apart from the Cyrillic script, two other scripts are found in the notebook: Latin script and the Deutsche Kurrentschrift. The Deutsche Kurrentschrift originated in the sixteenth century from the Late Medieval Gothic script Bastarda. The Deutsche Kurrentschrift occurred in several variations, until the forms were finalized by Michael Bauernfeind in 1710 (Newton 2003, 185). Apart from some modifications, the script stayed the same until the middle of the twentieth century. It was used in German speaking countries, while in the rest of Europe the Latin script – more or less as we still know it today – had become customary (Seidl 1996, 7, 13). According to Holzhausen there are German passages in the notebook, which are partly Nedersaksisch (Low Saxon). This term is ambiguous (See Lenz, Gooskens, and Reker 2009). Low Saxon can be determined as a group of dialects within Low German, a West Germanic dialect used throughout the north of Germany (Langer 2003, 281-2; Lenz, Gooskens, and Reker 2009, 9, 19-22). Low German is very close to the Dutch language and owes its name to its geographical location in Germany. By the mid- or late seventeenth century, Low German had virtually disappeared from writing and was exchanged for High German (Langer 2003, 283). Holzhausen must be referring to the passages written in the Deutsche Kurrentschrift. If they actually are written in a Low Saxon dialect or another dialect is yet unclear. It would be interesting to have an academic in historical German languages date and locate the dialect, to attribute the texts to a specific person. It should be stressed, however, that the German passages are not all written in the same handwriting, and thus probably belong to multiple people.

4.1.3 Names The names appear rather sudden in the notebook and are not really connected to the larger passages and sentences – which are all anonymous. Throughout the notebook one recurring name is found: “Anna”. The name appears as an isolated word in its entirety in Cyrillic script three times, and partly in Latin script once (“an”). The larger inscription in Cyrillic script speaks about “Crown princess Anna Petrovna” (see Appendix V). This must refer to Anna Petrovna (1708-1728), the eldest daughter of Tsar Peter I ‘the Great’ (1672-1725) and his second wife Catharina I (1684- 1727).22

22 In Cyrillic script: Анна Петровна. 62 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Halfway through the booklet, the name “Carl Peter Ulrich” appears. Carl Peter Ulrich (1728-1762), who would later become Tsar Peter III, was the only child of Anna Petrovna and Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp (1700-1739). Another reference to the family of Holstein- Gottorp is “Adolph Frede”, which must refer to Karl Friedrich’s cousin Adolph Frederick (1710- 1771), who became king of Sweden in 1751.23 The notebook contains several other names, which cannot be placed: “I.K. Solms”, “Mademoiselle Ruthengelm”, “Pavel and Jakov”, “Joseph Franz […]”, “William E. Philips”, and “Jim Milor A.P.A.V”. I.K. Solms may refer to a person of the House of Solms, a German noble family. No member of this family, however, was found with the initials ‘I.K.’. Perhaps the initials ‘I.K.’ are transcribed incorrect, since they are very hard to discern, or they may be fictitious, as is suggested by Holzhausen (1960, 13).

4.2 The owner As became clear from the above, there are several clues that point to Anna Petrovna as the owner of the notebook: the notebook contains Russian; her first name appears several times, as well as her full name in a Russian passage, preceded by the Russian word for crown princess; the person addressed is mainly female; in one of the German passages the owner of the notebook is addressed as ‘your majesty’; and the name of her husband’s cousin appears in the notebook.

4.2.1 Upbringing and education of Anna Petrovna Anna Petrovna was the oldest daughter of Tsar Peter ‘the Great’ and Catharina I (fig. 70,71). Anna Petrovna’s untimely death did not let her from becoming the mother of the Romanov dynasty, for all Romanov rulers – with the exception of Ivan VI – were of her issue (Russel 2008, 17). Current literature provides limited insight into the court life of Anna Petrovna. When she is mentioned or discussed, it is brief and mainly as ‘daughter/wife/mother of …’. Her younger sister, Elizaveta Petrovna (1709-1762), who reigned over Russia as Tsarina Elizabeth I from 1741 until her death in 1762, has received more scholarly attention. Since the two sisters share the same parents and are only one year apart in age, it can be assumed that their upbringing and education correspond. During the reign of Peter I, Russia underwent some significant changes. Since his youth, Peter had a fascination for foreign cultures, and he spent much of his younger years in the Foreign Quarter of Moscow. In 1697 he took a trip abroad in the form of a Grand Embassy. He set sail to inter alia the Dutch Republic and England, where he spent over four and three months respectively, learning about shipbuilding. Before heading back to Moscow in 1698, he resided briefly in Vienna. Allegedly, it was during this trip – in which he also visited factories, workshops,

23 In German: Adolf Friedrich. 63 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

whaling fleets, hospitals and developed a fascination for curiosities and rarities – that Peter realized that in order to stay independent, Russia needed to change. He had experienced how much Russia lagged behind in terms of social, economic, technological and cultural development. Furthermore, Europe’s image of Russia – and of Peter himself – was rather negative. Thus, started Peter’s ‘Westernisation’ of Russia, and by adopting Western institutions, technologies and military, social and cultural practices, its transformation into a major European power (e.g. Offord 2015; Hughes 2008; Vodarskii 1996). In practice this Westernisation was also evident in the education of his children. Peter himself was able to converse in German and had an enthusiasm for Dutch. In their early years, Anna and Elizabeth learned the Russian spoken language, customs, and practices from their nannies, who came from the common folk. To prepare his daughters for marriage into European dynasties, Peter brought in foreign educators to teach them Western languages, dances, and court etiquette, starting from ca. 1716 onward. Elizabeth – and thus may be assumed Anna too – was apparently able to read and write by the time she was eight years old, fluent in French and German, and could understand Italian, Swedish and Finnish (Offord et al. 2015, 2; Naumov 1996, 67-8; Wieczynski 1976, 178).

4.2.2 Anna Petrovna and Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp At the age of seventeen Anna got married to Karl Friedrich (1700-1739), duke of Holstein-Gottorp and potential heir of King Charles XII of Sweden, on May 21, 1725 – just a few months after the death of Peter I. Their diplomatic marriage was arranged by Peter I probably somewhere around March 1721, when the 21-year-old Karl Friedrich came to Russia at the invitation of Peter and Catherine. He spent the following years in and around St. Petersburg courting Anna, who was thirteen at the time of his arrival (Hughes 2008, 101; Russell 2008, 15-7). A beautiful picture of his first summer in St. Petersburg is painted by Philip Longworth: “These were days full of sweetness, sun and music. The Duke brought his private orchestra to serenade them [Anna and Elizabeth] with strains of Tartini, Schütz and Telemann; there were picnics, dinners, parties in the Summer Gardens, trips to Peterhof where there were ponds to fish and woods to scamper in – and admiration everywhere” (1972, 156). When Anna came of marriageable age, they got married. The historian Martin Russell argues that Karl Friedrich was an “odd choice” as suitor for Anna. Both his claims to Schleswig – which he lost to Denmark during the Great Northern War (1700-1721) – and to the throne of Sweden were continuously being ignored. In turn, Anna, despite being the daughter of the Tsar, had been rejected by other royal houses. Although the exact reasons are unknown, it may have had something to do with Anna being born out of wedlock (Peter and Catherine got officially married only after the birth of their daughters), or with the unsettled diplomatic climate. Russell argues that Karl Friedrich may have had figured that Peter 64 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

would have supported him in his claims to Schleswig, but summarizes his argument as follows: “An itinerant king without a throne and the bastard daughter of Peter the Great, they were likely not each other’s first choice” (2008, 16-7). After their marriage they moved to Kiel, Holstein, and just weeks after giving birth to their son in February 1728, Anna died. According to Catherine the Great (1729-1796) – who was married to their son – Anna and Karl Friedrich’s marriage was far from happy, which contrasts sharply with the anecdote on courting Anna: “Two months after the birth of her son she [Anna] died of consumption [tuberculosis], in the little town of Kiel, in Holstein, a victim to grief and finding herself established in such a place and married so badly. […]

He [Karl Friedrich] was a weak prince, ugly, little, sickly, and poor.” (1859, 2).

Figure 70. Christian Albrecht Wortman, Portrait of Crown Princess Anna Petrovna, The Hermitage State Museum, St. Petersburg (ЭРГ-12386), 1720’s, St. Petersburg, engraving, 35.2x23.8 cm. Credit: The Hermitage State Museum, https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/p ortal/hermitage/digital- collection/04.+engraving/1508309.

65 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 71. Family tree of the Russian Emperors and Empresses. Credit: Raleigh 1996, 2.

4.3 Function and use

4.3.1 Souvenir d’amitie? Carnet de bal? Album amicorum? Considering the content of the notebook, it is safe to say that it was very personal. De Foelksersam classifies the notebook as a precursor of the Souvenir d’amitié (1913, 18). According to Holzhausen it is a carnet de bal, a dance card (1960, 12). This terminology is a bit confusing. In principle they embody the same item. A Souvenir d’amitié started as a small container, often with these two words inscribed in it. The containers usually held ivory or bone leaves and a pencil or stylus (C.L.A. 1924, 125) (fig. 72,73). These leaves are the first forms of dance cards. However, the custom of dance cards did not yet exist in the time of Anna Petrovna. Later the Souvenir would also take on other forms (fig. 74). Dance cards and these holders emerged during the second half of the eighteenth century, as a result of changes in social dance, and were used until the beginning of the twentieth century. They knew many different forms, following the fashion of that time. Some were very luxury, others more sober (fig. 75-77). Essentially they had the same principal function: for a woman to record the names of the gentlemen with whom she would dance over the course of the evening (see Frazier 2020, for an elaborate research on the form and function of dance cards).

66 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Köhler’s notebook displayed in figure 68, shows that small notebooks with ivory leaves did exist around that time. The notebook of Anna Petrovna also reminds of the tradition of the album amicorum, a ‘friendship book’. Generally, they were small, empty booklets or sheets bound in leather (fig. 78). Alba amicorum emerged in the beginning of the sixteenth century, and were mainly used in the German countries, Scandinavia, and the Netherlands (Thomassen and Bosters, n.d. 9). In these alba, male students collected inscriptions – often in Latin – from important people, coats of arms, and miniatures, while they were studying abroad or traveling (fig 79). The purpose was to have a memento of their meetings with authoritative professors, noblemen and fellow students. Around 1550 noblewomen and women from the high society started to keep alba amicorum too. They would become more popular in the eighteenth century. Being less educated than their male equivalents, the content of their alba looked slightly different: they would record cherished texts themselves, in their native language, but also used the album as a guestbook for friends and acquaintances, who would write down their name, signature and/or (parts of) existing or made up poems or songs. Some alba contain small signs like a little flower or heart, and occasionally a date, but almost never the place where the book was inscribed. The scholar Sophie Reinders believes that the social aspect of collecting inscriptions was more important than the content of the inscriptions. The women were frugal with the paper. Typical for women alba are ‘minimal inscriptions’, containing a family name, a date and a short motto, written out or indicated only by the first letter of each word. In some alba there are over ten of these small inscriptions on one page (fig. 80). Most women would stop collecting inscriptions once they got married (Reinders 2013, 198-9, 209; Thomassen and Bosters, n.d. 9). The cover of Anna’s notebook is not typical for an album amicorum, but its content – the names, the different handwritings, the cluttered pages, the poetry and the small signs – shows remarkable resemblance to the tradition of the female album amicorum (fig. 81).

67 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 72. Louis Cousin, Case for a notebook, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Amsterdam (BK-17176), 1777-1778, Paris, gold, silver, glass, mother of pearl, ivory, gouache, diamond, h. 8.5 x w. 5.4 x d. 0.9 cm. Credit: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.1776 6

Figure 73. Anonymous, Souvenir, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (17.190.1373a–c), 1770- 80, British, gold, enamel, ivory, 7.9 x 5.1 cm. Credit: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/searc h/193987

Figure 74. Bury Frères, Engagement tablets, Victoria & Albert Museum, London (M.45:1 to 4-1948), ca. 1842, Geneva, ivory, tortoiseshell, gold. Credit: Victoria and Albert Museum, http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O113661/engage ment-tablets-bury-freres/. 68 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 75. Anonymous, Balboekje, Centraal Museum Utrecht, Utrecht (20034), 1840-1850, tortoise, silver, gold, ivory, h. 6 x w. 3.5 x d. 1 cm. Credit: Centraal Museum Utrecht: https://www.centraalmuseu m.nl/nl/collectie/20034- balboekje.

Figure 76. (left) Anonymous, Carnet de bal, The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (96.1288.A-.C), c. 1840-60, European, gold, diamonds, enamel and ivory. 1.3x6.4x9.5 cm. Credit: The Museum of Fine Arts, https://emuseum.mfah.org /objects/35162/carnet-de- bal?ctx=a13d93a42d4a808 1275ede805d03fd0f73574 306&idx=0.

Figure 77. (right) Dance card from 1919 (17786/004). Credit: Centraal Museum Utrecht, https://www.centraalmuse um.nl/nl/collectie/17786- 004-balboekje.

69 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Figure 78. Album Amicorum of Jean Figure 79. Michael van Meer, Album Amicorum. Foreign Knight in Vivien, Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Armour. fol. 116r, Laing Collection, University of Edinburgh, Haag (KW 74 F 19), 1570-1603, Edinburg, 1613-1648, Dutch. Credit: University of Edinburgh, Antwerpen/Brussel/Valenciennes, https://images.is.ed.ac.uk/luna/servlet/detail/UoEwmm~2~2~41 paper. Credit: Koninklijke 465~102127 Bibliotheek, https://opc- kb.oclc.org/DB=1/PPN?PPN=3109 16372.

Figure 80. fol. 158r from the album amicorum of Figure 81. sign of a crowned heart in Walraven van Stepraedt. Collection Gelders notebook BK-17172. Credit: photography by Archief. Credit: Reinders 2013, 202. Anneke Hoekstra and Suzanne van Leeuwen on 28-03-2019.

70 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

4.3.2 When was it used? Holzhausen speculates that the notes were written during a dance event, possibly at the court of August the Strong (1960, 13). The reason for suggesting this court is probably because he is sure that the notebook originates from Dresden. De Foelkersam believes that the content was written down amidst a crowd, where part of the questions and answers were verbal and part were written down (1913, 18). It is likely that the content was not recorded at one specific event, but over a longer period of time. Given that the name of her son is inscribed – assuming she did this herself – she used it up until right before her death. A second time indication is the Russian title Cesarevna, meaning crown princess. Anna and Elizabeth received this title in 1721, the year in which the Great Northern War ended and Peter the Great assumed the title of emperor (Naumov 1996, 69). This Russian text thus dates after 1721. The name “Adolph Frede[rick]” is written down just under the German text “Ich bin ins Grab / ein unterteniger / sohn”, but in a different handwriting. Possibly the German text is written by him, and to remember who wrote it, his name was written next to it by Anna. The larger German passage “Darf ich / dich nür / sterbens / Kußen ist / mihr och im / grabe woll / wan ich nür / zu deinen / füßen alß / ein sclave / sterben sol / diech allein” is written in a different handwriting. Given its romantic nature, it is certainly possible that it is authored by Karl Friedrich somewhere between 1721-1725, when he was still courting Anna. A contribution of Karl Friedrich was found in an album belonging to Johannes Conradus Ihring (fig. 82). The passage is written in Latin and thus in Latin script, not in Deutsche Kurrentschrift, which makes comparing it to handwritings in Anna’s notebook difficult. Holzhausen presumes that the now-lost ivory counterpart displayed in Les Trésors in all probability belonged to Karl Friedrich (Holzhausen, 13). The State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg owns a “notebook purse” of similar dimensions, dated early eighteenth century, which was supposedly owned by Elizabeth Petrovna (fig. 83). The cover is made of tortoiseshell, too, but bears no further resemblance. Unfortunately, the content of these notebooks is unknown. Studying and comparing the contents could provide further clues on how, when and where Anna’s notebook was used.

4.4 Conclusion

By studying the content of the notebook, it was found that it was owned by Anna Petrovna. There are only some indications of when she used it. The form of address Cesarevna proves that this text dates from after 1721. If some of the German text is authored by Karl Friedrich, it may be assumed that it was inscribed before their marriage in 1725. She used it until around her death in 1728, when she wrote down the name of her son. Although they exterior appearance of the cover is not

71 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

reminiscent of an album amicorum, it seems that the notebook did have a similar function as one. The generic term ‘notebook’ might, however, be more correct to use. The rather large amount of crossed-out text in the notebook remains peculiar. This says something about how the notebook was used. Apparently, even though it was made with extremely precious materials (see section 2. The Making), Anna was not too careful with keeping the appearance of the inside neat. Perhaps this is in line with Reinders comment that the social aspect of collecting inscriptions was more important than the content of the inscriptions.

Figure 82. Contribution of Karl Friedrich duke of Holstein in the album of Johannes Conradus Ihring. Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag, KW 74 H 47, 6 February 1726, Utrecht. Credit: https://opc- kb.oclc.org/DB=1/PPN?PPN=310951194.

Figure 83. Anonymous, Notebook Purse, The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg (Э-1354), 1700’s, France, tortoiseshell, gold, silver, mother of pearl, cut diamonds, paper, silk, 11x6.6 cm. Credit: The State Hermitage Museum, https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/digital- collection/09.+jewellery/95958.

72 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Conclusion

The aim of this object-based research was to answer the question: ‘how can an interdisciplinary study of the manufacture, function and history of the notebook BK-17172 in the collection of the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam support its interpretation?’. It is currently dated ca. 1710 – ca. 1730, it has no attribution, but is believed to originate from Dresden. The research was two-fold and by implementing various research methods, two important moments in the ‘life’ of the object were studied. Firstly, it focused on the notebook as an art object and answered questions on its origin: how, when, and where was it made? Secondly, it answered questions on the notebook as an article of use: how was it used and by whom? Previous studies dated the notebook somewhere between the second half of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth century. Most sources believed that it was manufactured in Germany, one thought it was Italian. By one study the Dresden court jewellers Johan Heinrich Köhler or Johan Melchior Dinglinger were suggested as creators. The materials were identified as tortoiseshell, gold, enamel, and gemstones, but it was not stated how. By visual and technical analysis, it was confirmed that the notebook consists of very valuable materials. The cover is made of tortoiseshell. The book fittings and the stylus are made of a gold-copper-silver alloy with a high gold content. The leaf-settings are made of copper-silver- gold alloy, with a high copper content; the other settings are probably silver. The gemstones are ruby and/or spinel, emeralds and at least half of the colourless stones are diamonds. The other colourless stones were not identified, just as the blue stones. By studying the techniques employed in the making and by reflecting on the historical occurrence and use of the materials and techniques it was determined that the notebook was manufactured between the mid-seventeenth and the mid-eighteenth century. Comparative study of the stylistic features and iconography of the notebook resulted in a very careful re-attribution to the workshop of Johann Heinrich Köhler: the leaf-settings appear to be unique in his work. The notebook was certainly made after 1700, when the closure with a pin or stylus first appeared, and possibly in the first decade of the eighteenth century. By studying the content of the notebook, it was found that the notebook was very personal and owned by Cesarevna Anna Petrovna. Although the materials are very precious, she was not afraid to use it. She used it until around her death in 1728, but it is not sure when she first used it. The Russian texts where she is addressed as Cesarevna date from after 1721. The different handwritings, scripts, and languages show that it functioned as something similar to an album amicorum. Why there is so much text crossed out, remains peculiar. In short, by studying the manufacture, function, and history of the notebook, it was demonstrated that the notebook consists of very valuable materials. It was made after 1700 and

73 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

possibly in the first decade, potentially in the workshop of Johan Heinrich Köhler. It was used by Anna Petrovna, for whom it functioned as a personal notebook, fairly similar to an album amicorum, which explains the different handwritings, languages and scripts in the notebook.

74 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Further research

Regarding technical research, Raman spectroscopy is proposed to identify the exact gem materials, their treatments, and their inclusions. Gem materials, as well as their imitations, have a distinctive Raman spectrum, which is dependent on the material’s crystal structure. An acquired spectrum of an unknown sample must be compared to existing spectra. One of the most reliable reference libraries is the online RRUFF project. For a more assured attribution, further comparative research, both art historical and scientific, is proposed. Does the leaf-setting really occur only in his artworks? Are there similarities in the metal content of the leaf-settings, compared to the leaf-settings on works that are certainly made by Köhler? It would also be interesting to compare the composition of the enamels, especially the dark blue enamels, which had a slightly deviating composition, compared to other sixteenth-nineteenth century analysed dark blue enamels. There are still large gaps in the biography of the notebook. It remains unclear how the notebook got from Dresden to St. Petersburg, and how Anna Petrovna obtained it. Perhaps it was a gift from Peter the Great, from one of his travels, or from Karl Friedrich. Knowing this could improve our understanding of the early modern court culture.

75 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Bibliography

Adler, Georg. 2010. Handbuch Buchverschluss und Buchbeschlag. Terminologie und Geschichte im deutschsprachigen Raum, in den Niederlanden und Italien vom früher Mittelalter bis in die Gegenwart. Wiesbaden: Reichert.

Afonso, F. S., M. M. M. Neto, M. H. Mendoça, G. Pimenta, L. Proença, and I. T. E. Fonseca. 2009. “Copper corrosion in soil: influence of chloride contents, aeration and humidity.” Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry 13, no. 11: 1757-1765. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10008- 009-0868-4

Arem, Joel, and Donald Clark. n.d. “Sapphire Value, Price, and Jewelry Information.” International Gem Society. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.gemsociety.org/article/sapphire- jewelry-and-gemstone-information/.

Arem, Joel, Donald Clark, and Barbara Smigel. n.d.a “Emerald Value, Price, and Jewelry Information.” International Gem Society. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.gemsociety.org/article/emerald-jewelry-and-gemstone-information/.

Arem, Joel, Donald Clark, and Barbara Smigel. n.d.b “Spinel Value, Price, and Jewelry Information.” International Gem Society. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.gemsociety.org/article/spinel-jewelry-and-gemstone-information/.

Barone, G, D. Bersani, J. Jehlicka, P. P. Lottici, P. Mazzoleni, S. Raneri, P. Vandenabeele, C. Di Giacomo and G. Larinà. 2015. "Nondestructive investigation on the 17-18th centuries Sicilian jewelry collection at the Messina regional museum using mobile Raman equipment". Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 46: 989-995. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.4649.

Barone, G, D. Bersani, P.P. Lottici, P. Mazzoleni, S. Raneri, and U. Longobardo. 2016. “Red gemstone characterization by micro-Raman spectroscopy: the case of rubies and their imitations.” Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 47: 1534-1539. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.4919.

Barone, Germana, Danilo Bersani, Paolo Mazzoleni, Simona Raneri. 2017. “Portable XRF: A Tool for the Study of Corundum Gems”. Open Archaeology 3, no. 1: 194-201. https://doi.org/10.1515/opar-2017-0011.

Beentjes, Tonny and Vivianne Veenemans. n.d. “Research into organic materials.” Thesis.

Beentjes, Tonny. 2019. “Casting Rodin’s Thinker: Sand Mould Casting, the Case of the Laren Thinker and Conservation Treatment Innovation.” PhD diss., University of Amsterdam.

Benois, Alexandre, and Adrian Prakhov, eds. 1902. Les Trésors d'art en Russie, no.12: 309-10, plate VI.

76 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Biringuccio, Vannoccio. 1990. The Pirotechnia of Vanniccio Biringuccio. The Classic Sixteenth- Century Treatise on Metals and Metallurgy. Translated and edited by Cyril Stanley Smith and Martha Teach Gnudi. New York: Dover Publications.

Bischoff, Cordula. 2007. “Presents for Princesses: Gender in Royal Receiving and Giving”. Studies in the Decorative Arts 15, no. 1 (Fall-Winter): 19-45.

Blancourt, Jean Haudicquer de. 1699. The Art of Glass. Shewing how to make all sorts of Glass, Crystal and Enamel. Likewise the making of Pearls, Precious Stones, China and Looking- Glasses. London: n.p.

Bol, Marjolijn. 2014. “Coloring Topaz, Crystal and Moonstone. Gems and the imitation of Art and Nature, 300-1500”. In Fakes!? Hoaxes, Counterfeits and Deception in Early Modern Science. Edited by Marco Beretta and Maria Conforti, 108-29. Sagamore Beach: Watson Publishing International LLC.

Breeding, Christopher M., Andy H. Shen, Sally Eaton-Magaña, George R. Rossman, James E. Shigley, Al Gilbertson. 2010. “Developments in Gemstone Analysis Techniques and Instrumentation During the 2000s.” Gems & Gemology 46, no. 3 (September): 241-257. https://doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.46.3.241

Buckton, David. 1982. “Enamelling on gold, a historical perspective”. Gold Bulletin 15, no. 3: 101- 9.

Burns, Thea. 2012. The Luminous Trace. Drawing and Writing in Metalpoint. London: Archetype Publications Ltd.

C.L.A. 1924. “XVIII Century Vanities”. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 19, no 5. (May): 124-127.

Carlson, Raymond, and Jordan Katz. 2020. “Casting in Frames.” In Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France. A Digital Critical Edition and English Translation of BnF Ms. Fr. 640. Edited by Making and Knowing Project, Pamela H. Smith, Naomi Rosenkranz, Tianna Helena Uchacz, Tillmann Taape, Clément Godbarge, Sophie Pitman, Jenny Boulboullé, Joel Klein, Donna Bilak, Marc Smith, and Terry Catapano. New York: Making and Knowing Project. https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/essays/ann_010_fa_14

Castagno, Paul Christopher. 1989. “The Early Commedia Dell’Arte (1550-1621): The Mannerist Context.” PhD diss., The Ohio State University.

Catherine the Great. 1859. Memoirs of the Empress Catherine II. London: Trübner & co.

Celini, Benvenuto. 1898. The Treatises of Benvenuto Cellini on goldsmithing and sculpture. Translated by Charles Robert Ashbee. Strand: Edward Arnold.

77 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Chaiklin, Martha. 2016. “Imports and Autarky: Tortoiseshell in Early Modern Japan.” In Luxury in Global Perspective: Objects and Practices, 1600–2000, edited by Karin Hofmeester and Bernd-Stefan Grewe, 218–41. Studies in Comparative World History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Doi: 10.1017/9781316257913.009.

Clark, Donald. n.d. “Evaluating Gem Color: Hue, Tone, and Saturation.” International Gem Society. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.gemsociety.org/article/evaluating-color-hue-tone- and-saturation/#Hue.

Craddock, Paul. 2009. Scientific Investigations of Copies, Fakes and Forgeries. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Cycleback, David. 2018. Authenticating Art and Artifacts. An Introduction to Methods and Issues. Hamerweit Books.

Dahm, Kristi. 2004. “The Stylus Revealed: A Metalpoint Identification Study of Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Italian Drawings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.” The Paper Conservator 28, no. 1 (January): 75-86. https://doi.org/10.1080/03094227.2004.9638642

Davey, Christopher J. 2009. “The early history of lost-wax casting.” In Metallurgy and Civilisation: Eurasia and Beyond. Edited by Jianjun Mei and Thilo Rehren, 147-154. London: Archetype.

Day, Lesley. 2015. “Analytical Imaging Techniques for the Authentication of Tortoiseshell.” ANAGPIC Conference Student Papers & Posters. Presented in 2015. http://resources.conservation-us.org/anagpic-student-papers/wp- content/uploads/sites/11/2016/01/2015ANAGPIC_Day_Poster.pdf

De Carvalho, Rui. G. 2014. “Evolution of Diamond Cuts in Portuguese Jewellery and Sacred Objects During the 16th–18th Centuries:A Brief Review.” The Journal of Gemmology 34, no. 2: 114-128.

Devouard, Bertrand, and Franck Notari. 2009. “The Identification of Faceted Gemstones: From the Naked Eye to Laboratory Techniques”. Elements 5: 163-8. DOI: 10.2113/gselements.5.3.163.

Diderot, Denis and Jean d’Alembert. 1971. Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Art et des Métiers. Paris 1751-1780. Milano: Tipolito Macchi.

Drayman-Weisser, Terry, and Mark T. Wypyski. 2005. “Fabulous, Fantasy or Fake? An Examination of the Renaissance Jewelry Collection of the Walters Art Museum”. The Journal of the Walters Art Museum 63: 81-102.

78 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Duval, A., H. Guicharnaud, and J.c. Dran. 2004. "Particle Induced X-ray Emission: A Valuable Tool for the Analysis of Metalpoint Drawings." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 226, no. 1-2: 60-74. doi:10.1016/j.nimb.2004.02.020

Faber, Lily. 2018. “Focus on Gemstone Fluorescence: Looking for the Light.” Gem-A. The Gemmological Association of Great Britain. Posted September 7, 2018. https://gem- a.com/gem-hub/gem-knowledge/focus-on-fluorescence.

Falk, Fritz. 1975. Edelsteinschliff und Fassungsformen im späten Mittelalter und im 16. Jahrhundert. Studien zur Geschichte der Edelsteine und des Schmuckes. Ulm: Verlag Wilhelm Kempter KG, 1975.

Falk, Fritz. 1980. “The Cutting and Setting of Gems in the 15th and 16th Centuries”. In Princely Magnificence: Court Jewels of the Renaissance, 1500-1630. Edited by Victoria and Albert Museum, 20-6. London: Debrett’s Peerage Limited.

Falke, Otto von. 1936. Katalog der Sammlung F.M. Unpublished.

Farmer, Vivienne. 1994. “Sand cast aluminium.” Conservation Journal 11. http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/journals/conservation-journal/issue-11/sand-cast- aluminium/)

Foelkersam, (Baron) A. de. 1913. “L'écaille et son application aux arts.” Edited by V.A. Veresagin. Starye Gody 1-3 (March): 3–20.

Frazier, Erica Travis. 2020. “Pencil me in: the fashion and Function of Dance Cards”. Master Thesis, S.U.N.Y. Fashion Institute of Technology, New York.

Frazier, Jack and Reiko Ishihara-Brito. 2012. “The occurrence of tortoiseshell on a pre-Hispanic Maya mosaic mask.” Antiquity, no. 86: 825-837.

Gettens, Rutherford J., Elisabeth West Fitzhugh, and Robert L. Feller. 1974. “Calcium Carbonate Whites.” Studies in Conservation 19, no. 3 (August): 157-184.

GIA. n.d. “Emerald Quality Factors.” Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.gia.edu/emerald-quality-factor.

Groat, Lee A. 2012. “Gemstones”. American Scientist 100, no. 2 (March-April): 128-137. www.jstor.org/stable/23222847.

Haga, M. D. 1974. "Mannheimer, de onbekende verzamelaar." Bulletin van het Rijksmuseum 22, no. 2/3: 87-95. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40381680.

Hainschwang, Thomas and Laurence Leggio. 2006. "The Characterization of Tortoise Shell and its Imitations." Gems & Gemology 42, no. 1 (spring): 36-52.

79 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Ham, Gijs van der. 2000. 200 jaar Rijksmuseum. Geschiedenis van een nationaal symbool. Zwolle/ Amsterdam: Waanders, Rijksmuseum.

Hermens, Erma. 2019. “Technical Art History: Unravelling the Secrets of Making.” Looking Through Art. Posted May 15, 2019. https://lookingthroughartblog.wordpress.com/2019/05/15/technical-art-history- unravelling-the-secrets-of-making/.

Hesse, Rayner W. 2007. Jewelrymaking through History: An Encyclopedia. Westport: Greenwood Press.

Holzhausen, W. 1960. "De Dresdense barok in het Rijksmuseum." Bulletin van het Rijksmuseum 8, no. 1: 12-22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40381241.

Hughes, Lindsey. 2008. “Transformation: 1682-1725.” In The Romanovs: Ruling Russia, 1613- 1917. London: Hambledon Continuum.

Johnson, Emily, D. 2006. How St. Petersburg Learned to Study Itself: The Russian Idea of Kraevedenie, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.

Jonker, J.P.B. 2013. “Mannheimer, Fritz (1890-1939).” Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland. Last modified November 12, 2013. http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/bwn1880- 2000/en/lemmata/bwn5/mannheimer

Kaldenbach, Kees. 2014a. “Fritz Mannheimer’s purchases via the art trade from Russia, circa 1928-1933.” Self-published, Academia.edu.

Kaldenbach, Kees. 2014b. “Mannheimer: an important art collector reappraised. History and ownership from 1920-1952: From Mannheimer to Hitler; recuperation and dispersion in Dutch museums, based on archival documents.” Self-published, November 12. https://kalden.home.xs4all.nl/mann/images/Mannheimer%20PDF%20Kaldenbach.pdf

Katritzky, M A. 2018. “German-Speaking Countries.” In Commedia Dell'Arte in Context, edited by Christopher B. Balme, Piermario Vescovo, and Daniele Vianello, 98–105. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Katritzky, M. A. 1997. “Harlequin in Renaissance pictures”. The Society for Renaissance Studies 11, no. 4: 381-419.

Katritzky, M. A. 2006. The Art of Commedia: The Study in the Commedia Dell’arte 1560-1620 with Special Reference to the Visual Records. Amsterdam: Brill Academic Publishers.

Kieslinger, Franz, and Kajetan Mühlmann. ca. 1941. Sichergestellte Kunstwerke in den besetzten niederländische Gebieten. Wenen.

Laer, Willem van. 1721. Weg-wyzer Voor Aankoomende Goud en Zilversmeden. Verhandelende veele weetenschappen, die Konsten raakende, zeer nu voor alle Jonge Goud en Zilver- Smeeden. Amsterdam: Fredrik Helm.

80 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Landsman, Rozemarijn, and Jonah Rowen. 2020. “Creating Original Patterns for Casting in Ms. Fr. 640”. In Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France. A Digital Critical Edition and English Translation of BnF Ms. Fr. 640. Edited by Making and Knowing Project, Pamela H. Smith, Naomi Rosenkranz, Tianna Helena Uchacz, Tillmann Taape, Clément Godbarge, Sophie Pitman, Jenny Boulboullé, Joel Klein, Donna Bilak, Marc Smith, and Terry Catapano. New York: Making and Knowing Project. https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/essays/ann_010_fa_14.

Langer, Nils. 2003. “Low German.” In Germanic Standardizations. Past to Present. Edited by Ana Deumert and Wim Vandenbussche, 281-301. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Leeuwen, Suzanne van, Joosje van Bennekom, and Sara Creange. 2014. "Genuine, Fake, Restored or Pastiche? Two renaissance Jewels in the Rijksmuseum Collection." The Rijksmuseum Bulletin 62, no. 3: 270-287. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24642107.

Lenz, Alexandra N., Charlotte Gooskens, and Siemon Reker. 2009. “On the Low Saxon Dialect Continuum. Terminology and Research.” In Low Saxon Dialects Across Borders – Niedersächsische Dialekte über Grenzen hinweg, 9-26. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag.

Lieven, (Baron) G. 1901. Kaiserliche Ermitage: Führer durch die Peter-Gallerie. St. Petersburg: Böhnke.

Linden, Veerle van der, Olivier Schalm, Jos Houbraken, Mienke Thomas, Eva Meesdom, Annemie Devos, Rita Van Dooren, Hans Nieuwdorp, Elsje Janssen, and Koen Janssens. 2010. “Chemical analysis of 16th to 19th century Limoges School ‘painted enamel’ objects in three museums of the Low Countries.” X-ray Spectromotry 39: 112-121. doi:10.1002/xrs.1207

Longworth, Philip. 1972. The Three Empresses: Catherine I, Anne, and Elizabeth of Russia. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Making and Knowing Project, Pamela H. Smith, Naomi Rosenkranz, Tianna Helena Uchacz, Tillmann Taape, Clément Godbarge, Sophie Pitman, Jenny Boulboullé, Joel Klein, Donna Bilak, Marc Smith, and Terry Catapano, eds. 2020. Secrets of Craft and Nature in Renaissance France. A Digital Critical Edition and English Translation of BnF Ms. Fr. 640. New York: Making and Knowing Project. https://edition640.makingandknowing.org.

Moses, Thomas M., Ilene M. Reinitz, Mary L. Johnson, John M. King, and James E. Shigley. 1997. “A Contribution to Understanding the Effect of Blue Fluorescence on the Appearance of Diamonds”. Gems & Gemology 33, no. 4 (Winter): 244-259.

Mottana, Annibale. 2017. "Counterfeiting Gems in the 16th Century: Giovan Battista Della Porta on Glass 'Gem' Making". The Journal of Gemmology 35, no. 7: 852-888. http://dx.doi.org/10.15506/JoG.2017.35.7.652.

81 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Naumov, Viktor Petrovich. 1996. “Elizaveta Petrovna”. In The Emperors and Empresses of Russia. Rediscovering the Romanovs. Edited by Donald J. Raleigh. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1996.

Newton, Gerald. 2003. “Deutsche Schrift: The Demise and Rise of German Black Letter”. German Life and Letters 56, no. 2 (April): 183-204. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0483.00252.

Niece, Susan la. 2016. “Sandcasting in the Islamic World.” In Verborgenes Wissen. Innovation und Transformation feinschmiedetechnischer Entwicklungen im diachronen Vergleich. Edited by Barbara Armbruster, Heidemarie Eilbracht, Oliver Hahn, and Orsolya Heinrich- Tamáska, 263-276. Berlin: Edition Topoi.

Noordwijk, Bernard van. 2006. Zondags Zilver. Drie eeuwen versierde kerkboekjes. Heerenveen: Uitgeverij NBG.

Noordwijk, Bernard van. 2013. Zilver voor de Zondag. ‘Boecxkens met Pragtigh Sluytwerck’. Heerenveen: Uitgeverij Protestantse Pers.

Offord, Derek, Gesine Argent, Vladislav Rjé outski and Lara Ryazanova-Clarke. 2015. “Introduction”. In French and Russian in Imperial Russia. Vol. 1. 2 vols. Edited by Derek Offord, Lara Ryazanova-Clarke, Vladislav Rjé outski, and Gesine Argent, 1-24. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Ogden, Jack. 1992. “The Technology of Medieval Jewelry.” In Ancient & Historic Metals. Conservation and Scientific Research. Edited by David A. Scott, Jerry Podant, and Brian B. Considine, 153-182. Malibu: J. Paul Getty Trust.

Ogden, Jack. 1999. Age & Authenticity. The Materials and Techniques of 18th and 19th Century Goldsmiths. London: National Association of Goldsmiths.

Ogden, Jack. 2018. Diamonds. An Early History of the King of Gems. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

Raleigh, Donald. 1996. The Emperors and Empresses of Russia. Rediscovering the Romanovs. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1996.

Reiche, Ina, Martin Radtke, Achim Berger, Wolf Görner, Thomas Ketelsen, Silke Merchel, Josef Riederer, Heinrich Riesemeier, and Michael Roth. 2004. “Spatially Resolved Synchrotron- Induced X-Ray Fluorescence Analyses of Metal Point Drawings and Their Mysterious Inscriptions.” Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 59, no. 10-11: 1657–1662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sab.2004.07.023

Reinders, Sophie. 2013. “Zonder eer geen adel. Het album amicorum van Henrica van Arnhem”. Virtus 20: 196-209.

Richter, Rainer. 1994. “Between Original and Imitation: Four Technical Studies in Basse-Taille Enameling and Re-Enameling of the Historicism Period.” The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art 81, no. 7 (September): 222-251. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25161461

82 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Rijkelijkhuizen, Marloes. 2008. Handleiding voor de determinatie van harde dierlijke materialen: bot, gewei, ivoor, hoorn, schildpad, balein en hoef. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

Rijkelijkhuizen, Marloes. 2010. “Tortoiseshell in the 17th and 18th Century Dutch Republic.” In Ancient and Modern Bone Artefacts from America to Russia. Cultural, technological and functional signature, edited by Alexandra Legrand-Pineau et al., 97-106. Oxford: Archaeopress.

Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. n.d. “Operation Night Watch.” Accessed September 18, 2019. https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/nightwatch.

Rivers, Shayne, and Nick Umney. 2003. Conservation of Furniture. Oxford: Butterworth- Heinemann.

Russell, Martin E. 2008. “Ritual and Religion in the Foreign Marriages of Three Muscovite Princesses.” Russian History 35, no. 3-4 (Fall-Winter): 362-381.

Santos, Hellen Cristine, Claudia Caliri, Lighea Pappalardo, Roberto Catalano, Andrea Orlando, Francesca Rizzo and Franscesco Paolo Romano. 2015. “Identification of forgeries in historical enamels by combining the non-destructive scanning XRF imaging and alpha- PIXE portable techniques.” Microchemical Journal 214 (January): 241-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2015.08.025

Saviello, Julia. 2018. “Schildkröte – the Turtle’s Shield.” In Object Fantasies: Experience & Creation. Edited by Philippe Cordez, Romana Kaske, Julia Saviello, Susanne Thürigen, 107-24. Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter GmbH.

Scott, David A. 1983. “The Deterioration of Gold Alloys and Some Aspects of Their Conservation.” Studies in Conservation 28, no. 4 (November): 194-203.

Seidle, Johannes. 1996. Schriftbeispiele des 17. Bis 20. Jahrhunderts zur Erlernung der Kurrentschrift. Perchtoldsdorf: Marktgemeinde Perchtoldsdorf.

Shang, Phoebe. n.d. “Garnet Symbolism.” International Gem Society. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.gemsociety.org/article/garnet-symbolism-legends/.

Shenton, Helen. 1992. “The History and Conservation of Tortoiseshell Bookbindings.” In Papers of the Conference on book and paper conservation held in Budapest 4-7 september 1990, 174-186. Budapest: Technical Association of Paper and Printing Industry and the National Széchényl Library.

Smigel, Barbara, Joel Arem, and Donald Clark. n.d. “Ruby Value, Price, and Jewelry Information.” International Gem Society. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.gemsociety.org/article/ruby-jewelry-and-gemstone-information/.

83 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Smith, Pamela H. 2004. The Body of the Artisan: Art and Experience in the Scientific Revolution. Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press.

Smith, Pamela H. 2016. “Historians in the Laboratory: Reconstruction of Renaissance Art and Technology in the Making and Knowing Project”. Art History 39, no. 2. (April) : 210-233.

Solomakha, Elena. 2009. “The Hermitage, Gosmuzeifond, and Antikvariat.” Treasures into Tractors. The selling of Russia’s Cultural Heritage, 1918-1938, edited by Anne Odom and Wendy R. Salmond, 111-135. Washington, DC: Hilwood Estate, Museum & Gardens.

Speel, Erika. 1998. Dictionary of Enamelling. Aldershot: Ashgate.

Stuart, Barbara H. 2007. Analytical Techniques in Materials Conservation. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.

Syndram, Dirk, and Ulrike Weinhold. 2019. Der Dresdner Hofjuwelier Johann Heinrich Köhler. Dinglingers schärfster Konkurrent. Dresden: Michel Sandstein.

The Making and Knowing Project. Intersections of Craft Making and Scientific Knowing. n.d. “About.” Accessed June 11, 2020. https://www.makingandknowing.org/about-the- project/

Theophilus. 1963. On Divers Arts. The Treatise of Theophilus. Translated by John G. Hawthorne and Cyril Stanley Smith. Chicago: Chicago University Press.

Thomassen, Kees, and Cassandra Bosters. n.d. Alba amicorum : vijf eeuwen vriendschap op papier gezet: het album amicorum en het poëziealbum in de Nederlanden Maarssen: Schwartz- SDU.

Trench, Lucy. 2000. Materials & Techniques in the Decorative Arts: an Illustrated Dictionary. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Untracht, Oppi. 1982. Jewelry concepts and technology. London: London Hale.

Vodarskii. 1996. “Peter I”. In The Emperors and Empresses of Russia. Rediscovering the Romanovs. Edited by Donald J. Raleigh, 4-36. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe.

Ward, Gerald. 2008. The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art. New York: Oxford University Press.

Weigel, Christoph. 1698. Abbildung Der Gemein-Nützlichen Haupt-Stände Von denen Regenten Und ihren So in Friedens- als Kriegs-Zeiten zugeordneten Bedienten an, biß auf alle Künstler Und Handwercker. Regenspurg: n.p.

Whalley, Joanna. 2012. “Faded glory: Gemstone simulants and enhancements”. Studies in Conservation, no. 57: S313-21. https://doi.org/10.1179/2047058412Y.0000000041.

84 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Whalley, Joanna. 2013. “Smoke and Mirrors. The enhancement and simulation of gemstones in Renaissance Europe”. In The Renaissance Workshop. Edited by David Saunders, Marika Spring and Andrew Meek, 79-89. London: Archetype Publication.

Wieczynski, Joseph Leon. 1976. The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History. Gulf Breeze, FLa: Academic International Press.

Williams, Donald C. 2002. “Tortoiseshell and Imitation Tortoiseshell.” In The Meeting of East and West in the Furniture trade. Proceedings. Sixth International Symposium on Wood and Furniture Conservation, 26-43. Amsterdam: Stichting Ebenist.

Wyneken, Jeanette, Matthew Godfroy, and Vincent Bels, eds. 2007. Biology of Turtles: From Structures to Strategies of Life. Boca Raton, London, New York: CRC Press.

Wypyski, Mark T. 2000. “Technical Appendix: Compositions of Enamels on the George Watch.” Metropolitan Museum Journal 35: 150-2.

Wypyski, Mark T. 2002. “Renaissance Enameled Jewelry and 19th Century Renaissance Revival: Characterization of Enamel Compositions.” MRS Proceedings 712. Cambridge University Press: II6.6. doi:10.1557/PROC-712-II6.6.

85 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Summary

July 2020, Anneke Hoekstra (10454780)

In the MA thesis project at the University of Amsterdam ‘Writing the Biography of a Notebook: interpreting a richly decorated baroque notebook from the collection of the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam’, the object BK-17172 is the primary source. The aim of the research was to answer the question: ‘how can an interdisciplinary study of the manufacture, function and history of the notebook BK-17172 in the collection of the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam support its interpretation?’. The notebook had received little scholarly attention thus far. By studying the previous research, the materials and techniques employed in the making, the style and iconography, and the content of the notebook two important moments of the ‘life’ of the object were investigated. The research answers questions on its origin: how, when, and where was the notebook made? And on the use and function of the notebook: how was it used and by whom? To answer these questions the research combined literature study, visual and technical analysis (digital microscopy, longwave ultraviolet photography (365nm), and X-Ray fluorescence), art technological source research, and comparative, stylistic, and iconographic research. It was found that the notebook consisted of very valuable materials: tortoiseshell, gold, copper and silver, enamel and the gemstones ruby and/or spinel, emeralds and diamonds. Not all gemstones could be characterized. The notebook is made after 1700, possibly in the first decade of the eighteenth century, and before 1728. There are indications that it originated in the workshop of Johann Heinrich Köhler. It was owned by Anna Petrovna, who used it as a personal notebook, which may best be described as an album amicorum. The attribution to the workshop of Köhler has yet to be verified by means of comparative research, both art historical and scientific. The gap between the notebook’s origin and its use has not yet been filled, how the object got from Germany (Dresden) to St. Petersburg is a topic for further research.

86 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Appendix I. Technical information

Digital microscopy A digital microscope has a camera attached instead of an eyepiece, that outputs the image directly to a computer monitor. A HIROX 3D digital microscope was operated by Anneke Hoekstra at the Metal Conservation Studio in the Ateliergebouw.

Ultraviolet (UV) Photography UV-light (10nm-400nm) is electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than that of visible light (400nm-700nm). While some materials remain dark, others have a characteristic reaction to UV-light. This characteristic reaction is called fluorescence, a type of photoluminescence, which is the emission of light in the visible spectrum, when a material is excited by light of a shorter wavelength with higher energy. The material will absorb the UV- radiation and, depending on the availability of excited electrons, emits energy in the form of visible light that we see as fluorescence. UV-photography using longwave UV-radiation (365nm) was performed by the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam.

X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) XRF is based on the principle of ionising atoms of the analysed material by means of an X-ray beam. Every element has a characteristic electron structure. When inner shell electrons are ejected from an atom, electrons from shells with less binding energy fill the holes and may release x-ray radiation equivalent to the difference in energy between the level the electrons came from to that which they went. The radiation beams released from the analysed spot are characteristic to the elements that are present and can be registered in a spectrum. XRF is suitable for elemental analysis of Na (Z=11) to U (Z=92). XRF spot analysis was carried out using the Bruker Artax μ-XRF spectrometer at the Ateliergebouw. All spots were analysed for 120 seconds at 50kV at 600 µA. To detect light elements – from Na(11)-Ar(18) – the ARTAX is equipped with a helium purging system. For this research helium purging was not available. The lighter elements may therefore have not been detected. The analysis was performed by Han Neevel (RCE).

87 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Appendix II. XRF Measurements

The following pages contain the 13 XRF spectra of the measurements performed on 7 May 2019 (Bruker Artax μ-XRF spectrometer, spot size 0.6 mm, 50 kV, 600 µA, 120sec, no He-flush). The numbers of the spectra correspond to the numbers on figure 1. Measurement spots.

6

7

4

8 9

5 2 11 10 1

3

12

13

Figure 1. Measurement spots. Credit: image made by Anneke Hoekstra

88 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

1. Enamel Light Blue Front

x 1E3 Pulses 200

150

Co Mo Ni Ag As Mo Co Bi K Cu Au Bi Ag Ni Pb Si Fe Si Pb K Fe Cu Au As Mo Ag Au Pb Bi 100

50

0 0 5 10 15 20 - keV -

89 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2. Enamel Dark Blue Front

x 1E3 Pulses

200

Ag 150 Mn Ca As Ni Pb Si Co Mo Ag Ni Pb K Fe Si Bi Ca Mn Co Bi Mo Cu Au K Fe Cu Au As Mo Ag Au Pb Bi 100

50

0 0 5 10 15 20 - keV -

90 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

3. Enamel Black Front

x 1E3 Pulses 200

150 Ag Ca As K Cu Mo Ni Mo Co Bi Bi Si Fe Si Pb Ag Ca Fe Ni Pb Mn Au K Mn Co Cu Au As Mo Ag Au Pb Bi 100

50

0 0 5 10 15 20 - keV -

91 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

4. Enamel Green Front

x 1E3 Pulses

200

Ni Ca 150 Mn Si Si Ag As K Fe Mo K Mn Ni Mo Cu Au Ag Ca Fe Cu Au As Mo Ag Au

100

50

0 0 5 10 15 20 - keV -

92 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

5. Enamel White Front

x 1E3 Pulses

150

Fe Sn Au Cu Mo Pb 100 Mo As Pb Sn Fe Cu Au As Mo Sn Au Pb

50

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 - keV -

93 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

6. Patina Metal Deco

x 1E3 Pulses

150

100

Ag Cu Au Ag Cu Au Ag Au

50

0 5 10 15 - keV -

94 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

7. Metal Deco

x 1E3 Pulses

150

100

Ag Cu Au Ag Cu Au Ag Au

50

0 5 10 15 - keV -

95 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

8. Arm Man Front

x 1E3 Pulses

150

100 Fe Ca Ag Cu Au Ag Ca Fe Cu Au Ag Au

50

0 5 10 15 - keV -

96 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

9. Chin Man Front

x 1E3 Pulses

150

100 Fe Ag Cu Au Ag Fe Cu Au Ag Au

50

0 5 10 15 - keV -

97 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

10. Stone Setting Back (is spine of the book)

x 1E3 Pulses

150

100 Fe Ag Cu Au Ag Fe Cu Au Ag Au

50

0 5 10 15 - keV -

98 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

11. Stone Setting Front

x 1E3 Pulses

150

Ca100 Fe Ag Cu Au Ag Ca Fe Cu Au Ag Au

50

0 5 10 15 - keV -

99 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

12. Point Stylus

x 1E3 Pulses

150

Ca100 Fe Ag Cu Au Ag Ca Fe Cu Au Ag Au

50

0 5 10 15 - keV -

100 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

13. Tip Stylus x 1E3 Pulses

150

Ca100 Fe Ag Cu Au Ag Ca Fe Cu Au Ag Au

50

0 5 10 15 - keV -

101 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Appendix III. Wax patterns for the notebook’s figures?

About the materials that patterns were made of, much has yet to be uncovered. According to Beentjes, wax patterns were less suitable for sand mould casting than wood or metal, because they can stick to the sand, or deform by the pressure applied during moulding (Beentjes 2019, 22). Wax patterns are, however, mentioned by Van Laer, together with wood, plaster, sulphur and lead (Van Laer 1721, 156). BnF Ms. Fr. 640 mostly treats casting recipes with already existing patterns – as is the case with life-casting of animals and plants for example. However, in the few instances where the manuscript indicates the procedure for making a pattern, wax is often included. For example, in the instruction for making ‘Cast of wax to represent an animal that one has not got’. In the margins the author of the manuscript notes that these wax models cannot be reused, because they are “not for releasing and that one needs to burn [the wax] in the mold à noyau [in the core] before opening it” (Making and Knowing 2020, fol. 139v). Biringuccio’s eighth book contains a chapter called: The methods of moulding various kinds of reliefs. The translation of this text is a bit confusing due to the apparent use of the word ‘mould’, for both the casting mould, as the pattern (Biringuccio 1990, 326-333). But it seems like wax patterns – which do survive – can be used for the making of full relief items: Having made these moulds of wax, let them dry and they will become hard enough so that they can be moulded with powder [natural or artificial casting sand, see book VIII chap. 1] when you wish (Biringuccio 1990, 331). In his chapter on medals, Cellini gives a somewhat clear procedure, in which the wax model also survives:

Now as to their making. The first thing to be done is to make a model in white wax of the head, the reverse, and whatever there may be, to the exact size and relief of the final work. The white model in wax is made as follows: take a little pure white wax, add to it half of the quantity of well-ground white lead, & very clean turps. […] With wooden sticks it is worked on a surface of stone, bone, or black glass, &thereupon […] it is made in the gesso just as the cardinals’ seals were […]. (1898, 72)

The wax model as described by Cellini, might look something like the model in figure 1 (Landsman and Rowen 2020). In his description on making cardinals seals, Cellini makes a “matrix” with gesso by pouring it over the wax model and removing it after it is set. The gesso matrix is then used as the model for sand casting (Cellini 1898, 60-1). However, this way one will cast the negative of the original pattern. This negative mould is then used to strike the medals. The notebook’s figures are most likely not struck in this same manner, but cast as described before. Cellini, or any other

102 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

source, does not give an instruction on duplicating the wax pattern in a sturdier material, but one can speculate: a possibility, although very laborious, is by making a metal cast of the gesso matrix (thus duplicating it) and use this metal mould direct for casting, or use this mould to make the pattern in a sturdier material, which can then be cast in sand. All these extra steps will of course take its toll on the definitions of the item to be cast. Therefore, the direct use of a wax model – possibly mounted on a surface, as described by Cellini – may not be the most suitable, but seems more legit. If the figures were made in an open mould, the force applied to the patterns would be much less. Even if a two-part mould frame was used, the force might not be too high, since it concerns a small ornament that does not need to be pressed into the sand very deep. In further research it would be very interesting to find out more about the making and materials of patterns.

Figure 1. Anonymous, The Virtue Prudentia, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia (1943-95-96), c. 1800, red wax with black paint mounted on slate. Credit: Philadelphia Museum of Art, https://philamuseum.org/collections/perman ent/49160.html.

103 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Appendix IV. Photographs content notebook

The following pages contain photographs of the 24 pages of the notebook (BK-17172) that include inscriptions. They were taken on 28 March 2019 by Suzanne van Leeuwen and the author at the Metal Studio in the Ateliergebouw, Amsterdam. The photographs have not been white balanced, but, using GNU Image Manipulation Program (GIMP) 2.10.10, they were adjusted individually in such a manner that the content became best visible to the author. The photographs are arranged in order, and with the top of each page up. This last aspect – the notebook having a top and bottom, and front and back – has not always been taken into account by the users of the booklet. As a result, some of the text is written, and thus depicted, upside-down.

1.

104 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

2.

3.

105 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

4.

5.

106 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

6.

7.

107 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

8.

9.

108 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

10.

11.

109 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

12.

13.

110 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

14.

15.

111 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

16.

17.

112 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Appendix V. Transcriptions and translation content notebook

The table below shows the transcriptions and English translations of the inscriptions in the notebook that were more or less discernible and readable, in the order as they occur in the notebook. For the transcriptions, the author relied heavily on the transcriptions present in Les Trésors d'Art en Russie and in Starye Gody (fig 1,2). The transcriptions in Latin script and in Deutsche Kurrentschrift in these two sources were compared to each other and to the inscriptions in the notebook.24 The final table is a synthesis of the three sources, in which it was decided to stay true to the grammar and spelling as found in the notebook. The transcriptions in Cyrillic script were all converted to Latin script and translated to Dutch by prof. dr. Jos Schaeken, professor of Slavic and Baltic Languages at Leiden University. All English translations were made by the author. When the inscriptions could not be transcribed, this is indicated by “[…]”, whereas “[?]” denotes uncertainties in transcription. When the transcriptions could not be translated “n/a” is noted. Although several question marks still remain, this table offers the reader an improved transcription in Latin script, and an English translation of the foreign languages in an organised way.

Figure 1. Transcription in Les Trésors. Figure 2. Transcription in Starye Gody. Source: Foelkersam, Source: Benois, Alexandre, and Adrain (Baron) A. de. 1913. “L'écaille et son application aux arts.” Prakhov, eds. 1902. Les Trésors d’art Edited by V.A. Veresagin. Starye Gody 1-3 (March): 19. en Russie, no. 12: 309-10.

24 Part of the text is written in the Deutsche Kurrentschrift. The following websites proved helpful in getting familiar with this script: php?hoofdstuk=3>; 113 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

Table 1. Transcription and translation of the inscriptions in the notebook. Page25 Transcription English translation 1. r 1. No. 1348 1. No. 1348 2. Stein Mademoiselle Ruthengelm 2. n/a 3. Shuticha 3. (female) fool26 2. l 1. Nepravda, Pavel i Jakov 1. Lie, Pavel and Jakov27 2. r 1. Hertz Puppchen 1. Lovable doll/sweetheart28 2. Sudarynka moja dorogaja 2. Lady/sweetheart. my dear29 3. Raht wer ist das 3. Guess who it is 3. l 1. mein hertz bin ich angst den […] 1. my love, I am afraid for the […] 3. r 1. Anna 1. Anna 6. l 1. Rahten ihr hoheiten mahl wer das 1. Guess, your highness(es), who has geschrieben hat written this30 6. r 1. Mademoiselle 1. Miss 2. Carl Peter Ulrich 2. Carl Peter Ulrich 7. r 1. mein I.K. Solms 1. my I.K. Solms 2. Anna 2. Anna 8. l+r 1. […]31 1. My dearest,32 if chance/coincidence brings you here, and if your heart informs you about getting to know the unhappy/hopeless character of this author, then I ask in my remembrance to keep our promises from both sides33 9. l 1. je vous aime 1. I love you 2. Ich bin ins Grab ein unterteniger 2. Until the grave I will be a humble sohn son34

25 The notebook does not have page numbers, therefore the numbers in this table correspond to the numbers given to the photographs in Appendix IV, r = right and l = left. 26 Dutch translation by Jos Schaeken: ‘(vrouwelijke) dwaas’; the gender marker ‘–a’ denotes that the person who is addressed is a woman. 27 Dutch translation by Jos Schaeken: ‘leugen, Pavel en Jakov’. 28 ‘Hertz’ is a variant of ‘Herz’ (‘heart’); ‘Püppchen’ literally means ‘little doll’, and is used as a pet name for someone dear. 29 Dutch translation by Jos Schaeken: ‘vrouwe/liefje, mijn dierbare’. 30 ‘Ihr’ (second-person plural) was the polite form to address someone of noble rank. The plural forms ‘Rahten’ and ‘Hoheiten’ suggest that more than one person is addressed. 31 The reason there is no transcription in Latin script available for this section, is that only the translations were provided by Schaeken. 32 The gender marker ‘–я’ denotes that the person who is addressed is a woman. 33 For this translation I followed Schaeken’s translation of the transcription in Starye Gody, which seemed more plausible than the transcription in Les Trésors d’Art en Russie. Dutch translations by Jos Schaeken: [Starye Gody] ‘Mijn liefste [NB de vorm geeft aan dat dit om een vrouw gaat – JS], als het toeval u hierheen brengt en als uw hart u bericht over het leren kennen van het ongelukkig/kansloos karakter van deze schrijver, dan vraag ik te mijner herinnering om vast te houden als onze beloften van beide kanten’; [Les Trésors] ‘Mijn liefste [NB de vorm geeft aan dat dit om een vrouw gaat – JS], als het toeval bal (onbegrijpelijk, i.p.v. ‘vam’ ‘u’ in de versie hierboven) hierheen brengt en als uw hart u bericht over het leren kennen van het ongelukkig/kansloos karakter van deze schrijver, dan vraag ik te mijner herinnering om vast te houden zo als onze beloften sabel in de kroon’. 34 ‘Untertenig’ is a variant of ‘Unterthänig’ see consulted on 31-05-2019. 114 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020

Writing the Biography of a Notebook

3. Adolph Frede 3. Adolph Frede 4. mein hertz lieben 4. My beloved/sweetheart35 9. r 1. mein hertz lieben ich bin dein 1. My beloved/sweetheart, I am your dienerin servant36 2. Sodarynja 2. lady37 10. l 1. Joseph Franz […] 1. Joseph Franz […] 2. William E. Phillips 2. William E. Phillips 11. l 1. ihr das die mich Roin[?] […] mich 1. n/a 12. l+r 1. Darf ich dich nür sterbens Kußen ist 1. Even if I could kiss you only while I’m mihr och im grabe woll wan ich nür zu dying, it would still be nice in the grave, deinen füßen alß ein sclave sterben sol if I could die at your feet as a slave. Only diech allein you. 13. l 1. Jim Milor A.P.A.V. 1. Jim Milor A.P.A.V. 14. l 1. an 1. an 14. r 1. Anna 1. Anna 15. l 1. […] admire[?] quant j’adore[?] […] 1. n/a 15. r 1. wilst du dich fluchen grausahm 1. Do you want to curse yourself cruelly? 16. r 1. Cesarevna zdravstvuet(e) 1. The crown princess reigns38 2. [SG] Cesarevna Anna Petrovna 2. [SG] Crown princess Anna Petrovna zdravstvuet nam na shest: o let is with us (reigns) for six years [LT] cesarevna Anna Petrovna [LT] Crown princess Anna Petrovna, zdravstvuj Na mnoshestva let may she live for many years39 17. l 1. Mad C Mad P Mada z Madam Anna 1. n/a Pet [all crossed out]

35 ‘Herzlieb’ is the New High German form of ‘harte(n)lief’ meaning ‘beminde’, ‘geliefde van het hart’ see consulted on 31-05-2019. 36 The gender marker ‘–in’ in the word ‘dienerin’ indicates that the author of the text was female. 37 Dutch translation by Jos Schaeken: ‘vrouwe’. 38 Dutch translation by Jos Schaeken: ‘de kroonprinses heerst’. 39 Both the transcription of Starye Gody and Les Trésors d’Art en Russie are included in this table, since both seem plausible options. Dutch translation by Jos Schaeken: [Starye Gody] ‘Kroonprinses Anna Petrovna is bij ons (heerst) voor zes jaar (?)’; [Les Trésors] ‘Kroonprinses Anna Petrovna leve zij voor vele jaren’.

115 Hoekstra, UvA, 2020