Federalism-E
Prime Minister Justin Trudeau: Transformational Leadership in the Federal Government
By: Demyan Plakhov Western University Political Science
Federalism-E is founded by the Royal Military College of Canada and the Institute of Intergovernmental Relations at Queen’s University
Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018)
Federalism-E is an online, undergraduate student-run journal focusing on the theory of federalism. Federalism-E publishes academic articles and essays focusing on federalism, multi-level governance, and intergovernmental relations. Publishing in both English and French, the journal has a mandate to provide a forum encouraging research and scholarly debate with respect to a wide variety of issues concerning federalism, both within Canada and abroad.
Editors-in-Chief Officer Cadet Melissa Thérèse Sanfaçon, Royal Military College of Canada Officer Cadet Derek van der Velden, Royal Military College of Canada
Associate Editors: Alex Howkins, Dalhousie University Officer Cadet Cameron Moors, Royal Military College of Canada Erin McEntee, Dalhousie University Officer Cadet Jake Herrmann, Royal Military College of Canada Lauren Bech-Hansen, Dalhousie University Noah Fry, Mount Allison University
Faculty Advisor: Dr. Christian Leuprecht, Royal Military College of Canada, Institute of Intergovernmental Relations at Queen’s University
Contact Information: Address: Royal Military College of Canada 13 General Crerar Crescent Kingston ON, K7K 7B4
Email: [email protected]
Website: https://ojs.library.queensu.ca/index.php/fede
Federalism-E is founded by the Royal Military College of Canada and the Institute of Intergovernmental Relations at Queen’s University
Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 1
Introduction
Prime Minister Justin Trudeau entered the national political arena with a message of change and hope, attracting a grand amount of Canadian voters. Trudeau’s energized election campaign was led on the basis of change and stronger leadership that will move
Canada forward. With two years in the Prime Ministerial seat, Trudeau made good on some of his promises and produced a global Trudeaumania phenomenon due to his leadership. Moreover, it could be said that his effectiveness in some areas derives from how well his leadership typology parallels his leadership message and goals. It is important to note, that Trudeau’s leadership should be accredited to his own individual agency as a leader as well as his team of advisors, supporters, and aids that helped form and maintain this type of federal leadership.
In determining Trudeau’s leadership typology in a bipartite paradigm of transactionalism and transformationalism, it is important to establish the proper definitions of both categories due to the multiple interpretations available in leadership literature.
Although several interpretations may be pointed out, James MacGregor Burns’ outline of transformational and transactional typologies will be most effective for the use of this essay, due to its simplicity and popular use. Burns, as written in Leadership (1978), dictates that a transformational leader, most importantly, works with subordinates to identify needed change and implements the change by collaborating with members of their group. Burns also specifies that an another key determinant of transformational leadership is the leader’s ability to meet their followers initial needs and to mobilize them through the use of higher morale and motivation. In contrast, a transactional leader will
Federalism-E is founded by the Royal Military College of Canada and the Institute of Intergovernmental Relations at Queen’s University
Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 2 accentuate managerial leadership by focusing on supervision and promoting compliance through rewards or punishments.
Likewise, Jean Blondel noted the significance of evaluating leaders through an analytical framework, such as this bipartite paradigm, and to stray away from more normative examinations of good and bad. Following Blondel’s reasoning, Trudeau’s case will not be assessed based on good or right leadership. Furthermore, in parallel to what
Blondel pointed out in Political Leadership, “The reality is different, because it is complex.
There are many types and ‘grades’ of leadership,” Trudeau’s case is complex as well.
Although this leadership may not be an exact example of transformational typology, this paper will argue that the present evidence will categorize Trudeau’s federal leadership as transformational through the lens of a bipartite paradigm. His grade of transformational leadership, and whether his typology of leadership is successful or not, is a subject for additional debate.
In understanding the complexities of these concepts as presented by Burns and
Blondel, the evidence presented in this paper will help depict the categorization of
Trudeau’s federal leadership as transformational in several key areas. Trudeau’s federal leadership effectively and consistently delegates partial responsibilities to various cabinet ministers and advisers. By doing so, Trudeau is able to bring change with the help of his inner political team and to parallel the interests of his followers. Moreover, Trudeau’s public messages exemplify his will to work with the people and to motivate others,
Canadian citizens and world leaders included, in collaborating for higher moral standing.
In addition, Trudeau individual charisma is also a key indicator of transformational
Federalism-E is founded by the Royal Military College of Canada and the Institute of Intergovernmental Relations at Queen’s University
Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 3 leadership, as Peter Northouse, Robert House, and Bernard Bass would indicate. For those in agreement with this theory, Trudeau’s charismatic features will prove to be a by- product of transformational leadership. Therefore, by examining available contemporary evidence in these key areas, this essay will argue that Prime Minister Justin Trudeau’s federal leadership classifies more as transformational rather than transactional.
Working with Subordinates
Trudeau’s leadership attempts to bring change with the help of his group members and to parallel the interests of his followers by collaborating with subordinates. There are many instances that can prove this phenomenon, including his appointment of Oxford- educated Randy Boissonnault to special-adviser on LGBTQ2 issues, creating the Prime
Minister’s Youth Council, executing several cabinet retreats, collaborating with his security adviser in light of releasing a Canadian pastor from North Korea, and the multi- layered collaboration on NAFTA negotiations.
1. Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs
Not only is Trudeau the Prime Minister, he is also the Minister of Intergovernmental
Affairs and Youth. The role of the Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs is to facilitate the relations between the federal and provincial governments of Canada, and also well- known by its epithet, “unity minister”. As the first Prime Minister to take on this role,
Trudeau shows his dedication of prioritizing collaboration with his subordinate political elite, beyond the federal level, to make good on his campaign promises. In this role, more specifically, Trudeau must constantly ensure that relations between other domestic
Federalism-E is founded by the Royal Military College of Canada and the Institute of Intergovernmental Relations at Queen’s University
Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 4 governments are coordinated to address major concerns and to achieve the goals his leadership has set out. Since Canada has not formally entrenched intergovernmental mechanisms in the Constitution, Trudeau is solemnly responsible for establishing effective partnership and mechanisms with his subordinates.
An example of Trudeau’s work as the Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs can be observed from the First Ministers’ Conferences (FMC or FMM). During these FMCs,
Trudeau brings together Canada’s most senior political leaders on an ad hoc request, as it is only for the Minister to decide whether or not to hold these conferences.
Consequently, Trudeau has utilized this position to exemplify a transformational leadership style by working with Provincial and Territorial political leaders, providing a chance for governments to determine shared interests and coordinate policy directions covering a variety of issues. These FMCs have grown to encompass an increasing amount of councils of Federal, Provincial and Territorial Ministers’ councils, as well as specialized interest groups with the intention of progressing collaboration in specific sectors, including agriculture, education, environment, finance, health, internal trade, sport, tourism and transport. Furthermore, these conferences some time even result in
Federal-Provincial/Territorial agreements (FPAs) to solidify certain action, and in recent time, these agreements have increased in number. As of recently, Trudeau sat down with premiers to converse on the subjects of marijuana legalization and tax reform as his future policy agenda. By doing so, Trudeau will able to work with Provincial leaders to carry out legal policies concerning the price of marijuana, health standards, retail infrastructure and other procedurals methods to create effective policies and implementations. Trudeau’s emphasis on collaborating with Premiers was reinstated in November when he Federalism-E is founded by the Royal Military College of Canada and the Institute of Intergovernmental Relations at Queen’s University
Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 5 congratulated the selection of Paul Quassa as the Premier of Nunavut, “I look forward to working with Premier Quassa and the new government. By coming together in a spirit of cooperation, I know we can deliver true, meaningful reconciliation between Canada and
Indigenous Peoples, and bring about a better quality of life for Indigenous Peoples in
Nunavut”.
2. Coordinating with Cabinet Members Trudeau has also demonstrated his motivation of working with subordinates by organizing multiple Cabinet retreats. Back in August of 2016, Trudeau coordinated a cabinet retreat to Sudbury, where he reiterated the importance of re-innovating the nation-to-nation relationship with Canada’s Indigenous peoples. Later in January of 2017, Trudeau carried out a
Cabinet retreat to Calgary for the purposes of planning how to continue, “creating good, middle- class jobs and delivering economic growth”. In addition, the reason for Trudeau’s multi-location cabinet retreats is to show Canadians, from coast to coast, that his transformational leadership style considers their interests and factors them when making policy decisions. Furthermore, it was at this cabinet retreat that Trudeau coordinated a response to the White House’s renegotiation of the NAFTA agreement. Discussions included Dominic Barton who will head
Trudeau’s influential council of economic advisers, and even Roland Paris who was Trudeau’s former foreign policy adviser. In preparation for the negotiations, Trudeau adapted to US
President Donald Trump’s trade strategies by readjusting his cabinet, placing Chrystia Freeland to Foreign Affairs due to her specialization in trade. Trudeau also collaborated with retired
General Andrew Leslie by appointing her as parliamentary secretary due to her favourable connections with fellow former US military commanders who now operate within the Trump
Federalism-E is founded by the Royal Military College of Canada and the Institute of Intergovernmental Relations at Queen’s University
Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 6 administration, and with Canada’s ambassador in the US, David MacNaughton, to provide his expertise during the negotiations.
3. NAFTA Negotiating Team
The enticing NAFTA negotiations have prompted Trudeau to seek further assistance from private Canadian stakeholders, sending Andrew Leslie and the
Agriculture Minister Lawrence MacAulay to meet with agricultural stakeholders. However, when investigating Trudeau’s NAFTA council members, it includes political and business elite from a diversity of backgrounds. This team includes Marc-André Blanchard, Perry
Bellegarde, Spohie Brochu, Linda Hasenfratz, Brain Topp, and even Rona Ambrose.
Trudeau selected Blanchard due to his stature as a well-known lawyer, diplomat and former CEP of one of Canada’s largest law firms who is the current Canadian ambassador to the United Nations. Bellegarde, Brochu, Hasenfratz, and Topp were selected to represent the interests and concerns of the First Nations people, energy industry, automotive manufacturing industry, and arts/culture and labour, respectively. Trudeau even cut across political party lines to bridge with the rival Conservative Party through
Ambrose. The former dynamic opposition leader and rival, brings her experience from eight different ministerial backgrounds of government, and is a vital asset to Trudeau’s negotiating team. By selecting a negotiating team from various locations, backgrounds, experiences, and interests, Trudeau’s NAFTA negotiating council resembles a definitive mode of transformational leadership.
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Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 7
4. Prime Minister’s Youth Council
In similar style, Trudeau created a Prime Minister’s Youth Council for the purposes of helping young Canadians aged 16 to 24 to voice their non-partisan advice and concerns. This maneuver shows Trudeau’s willingness to work with youth and to encourage them to help improve their country. Trudeau even outlined his passion for collaborating with youth when he described the council to be, “something that’s tremendously important to me, and its been an objective of mine since even before I got into politics. But for me, the most important thing is that the policy be informed and created by all of you,” when speaking to the PM Youth Council publicly. On May 4-6, 2017, the
PM Youth Council led the push for the reconciliation with Indigenous Peoples. The advice received from the PM Youth Council and other advisory boards led Trudeau to acknowledge Canada’s role during his United Nations General Assembly address a few months later to, “deliver true, meaningful, and lasting reconciliation between Canada and
First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples”. Moreover, during the same congratulatory address to Paul Quassa that was mentioned above, Trudeau also emphasized on working together to “continue to work with Indigenous, territorial, and provincial partners to co- develop a new Arctic Policy Framework that better reflects the needs and priorities of the
North, and builds stronger, more sustainable communities in the region”.
5. International and Domestic Coordination
In the area of diplomacy and security, Trudeau’s leadership and administration was able to negotiate a release of a Canadian Pastor stuck inside North Korea. In response to this crisis, Trudeau’s government was actively engaged in rescuing Rev.
Hyeon Soo Lim on all levels of government. Daniel Jean, national security and intelligence
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Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 8 adviser to Trudeau, led the six-member delegation team into Pyongyang for the purposes of negotiating the release. In addition, this transition would not have been possible without collaborating with Swedish authorities for reinforcing the recapture of Mr. Lim. By partnering with an international ally and delegating partial responsibility to a mission team to carry out an effective release, Trudeau was able to embody the great success of transformational leadership.
6. Meeting Stakeholders
More evidence can be observed in proving how Trudeau’s leadership considers and collaborates with stakeholders in an attempt to continue this transformational leadership style. Within his first months of holding office, Trudeau sat down with 13 lobby groups to listen to their proposals on future government action. Trudeau conversed on several occasions about cloud computing with Quebec’s container company, Vaudreuil-
Dorion Conteneurs Experts S.D. In November, Trudeau communicated with Scotiabank, with the help of Katie Telford and Chrystia Freeland, on international trade issues. In the same month, Trudeau met with The Quebec Food Processing Council, and the American
Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO). His further meetings continued with The Hospital for Sick Kids, Engineers without Borders, Canadian
Museum Association, and the International Union of Operating Engineers. That trend did not stop then because Trudeau’s leadership continued to invest time in considering stakeholders during NAFTA negotiations including labour, softwood lumber industry, financial sectors, tech sector and natural resources sector representatives.
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Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 9
7. Selecting a Special Advisor on LGBTQ2 Issues
Trudeau selected Oxford-educated Randy Boissonnault as his special adviser on
LGBTQ2 issues. In representing the LGBTQ2 community federally, Boissonnault proposed a mandate to the Prime Minister including a public apology to the community stating that, “We have to address the historical wrongs because the government did some terrible things to really good people”. Advocating for an apology, Boissonnault advised that such action is mandatory in officially recognizing the government’s past wrongdoing in this area. Consequently, acknowledging the advice of Boissonnault on behalf of the
LGBTQ2 community, Trudeau enforced an official apology for the discrimination face by
LGBTQ2 individuals, their families, and communities. Moreover, Trudeau’s administration will be taking further action to address these injustices under federal legislation, policies, and programs. This action is seen by his formation of the LGBTQ2 advisory council of 11
Canadian members, from various backgrounds. As a result, Boissonnault responded to these government actions stating, “Our government believes in the equality and dignity of all Canadian regardless of whom they love or how they express who they are”.
8. Coordinating a Response to the Syrian Refugee Crisis
It is difficult to comprehend the influence of Trudeau’s transformational leadership in many policies. However, certain policies emerge as clear evidence of his ability to listen to his followers major interests, to motivate a higher moral standing, and to lead an initiative with the collaboration of the government and citizens. No other policy stands out more in proving this phenomenon than the new Canadian government policy on Syrian refugees, promoted by the federal Liberal government. The conflict in Syria had released major turbulence in the Canadian society, many advocating for the acceptance of fleeing
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Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 10
Syrian refugees. Due to the previous administration’s failure to adequately respond,
Trudeau’s leadership took the initiative to listen to what he believed to be the majority of the Canadian public, and promised the resettling of 25 000 Syrian refugees to Canada.
Trudeau’s initiative in working with private sponsors, NGOs, and all levels of governments, helped welcome more than 40 000 Syrian refugees. The result of this operation proved to be successful, but more importantly in this context, Trudeau’s actions in coordinating such a response proves his transformational leadership style.
In combination, this evidence exemplifies Trudeau’s serious consideration for his subordinate’s advice, and works together with elites and citizens to collaborate on solving certain issues. As a result, Trudeau is able to keep his public approval and political party favourability considerably high by utilizing these transformational leadership skills.
Whether he is forced to be a transformational leader by the constitution, rule of law, institutional pressures, media pressure, or is simply motivated by maintaining party support is not the main question here. In fact, admitting these factors would mean to accept that Trudeau is indeed a transformational leader.
Public Motivation of Collective Mobilization
The 2015 Canadian Federal Election is one of the best indicators of Trudeau’s public motivation of collective mobilization. By reinforcing messages of unity, collaborative work, and partnership with the combination of the idealogical messages in facing
Canada’s most recent challenges, Trudeau was able to win the election and become
Prime Minister. By participating within the Canadian public during the election, Trudeau
Federalism-E is founded by the Royal Military College of Canada and the Institute of Intergovernmental Relations at Queen’s University
Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 11 was also able to level himself with the people, symbolizing his commitment to considering the citizens’ concerns if elected. These concepts, if proven, point to the characteristics of a transformational leader.
Following the examination produced by The National (CBC), during Trudeau’s
2015 election campaign it was clear that, “While most candidates live in the bubble of the campaign, Trudeau dives into the crowd as though fuelled by social interaction of the crowd”. This is visible from the first day of the 2015 campaign, where Trudeau attended a Toronto Pride Parade in hopes of showing his determination in participating in citizen events and supporting LGBTQ2 rights, a widely contested subject in need of attention.
Here, Trudeau’s gift for levelling with the public was first seen as he hugged and greeted with dynamic energy, as Chief of Macleans Magazine Martin Patriquin explains, “you get to see what this guy is like, without the pretentiousness of power”. In instances like these,
Trudeau was able to communicate to the Canadian citizens that his interests were inline with their interests, and that he would work to create policy that would represent those interests. Even after successfully winning the election, Trudeau did not stop to reinforce this message by visiting one of Montreal’s subway station. On October 20, 2015, Trudeau spent his time greeting Canadian citizens and discussing their needs on an informal basis.
Journalist and editor-in-chief of The Walrus Jonathan Kay also concluded that Trudeau is “so hyper social,” helping him to connect with Canadian citizens.
On July 1, 2017, Trudeau carried the message of unity acknowledging the interests of Indigenous Peoples, immigrants, refugees, veterans, francophones, and others. In doing so, Trudeau combined messages of diversity and unity followed suit of a
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Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 12 transformational leader, with idealogical pretext in acknowledging the concerns of those categories of people who were neglected, not properly fed, and physically, psychologically, and sexually abused. Committing to these transformational leadership characteristics, Trudeau expressed one key phrase linking these concepts together, “we have to work together to combat climate change, one of the greatest crises facing our planet”. He urges action and mobilization from the Canadian public, ranging from citizen to government elite, following Burns’ key concept of elevating the followers and himself to higher moral standing.
Even before politics Trudeau had this characteristic as a former speaker and Chief of Katimavik, where he inspired youth to participate in solving key issues and to engage in active citizenry. This instance and others are evidence of Trudeau’s consideration for what the key issues of young Canadians were, such as education, the environment, their generation's economic prospects. In finding this, Trudeau’s motivation as a leader came from this fundamental place to help improve the voices of the youth, creating the Prime
Minister Youth Council mentioned above. During his 2015 election campaign, Trudeau focused on publicizing his focus on building a “new, truly national movement of progressive Canadians, bringing hundreds of thousands of Canadians into politics, most for the first time,” echoing his dedication in working on a grass-roots level.
In August of 2017, Trudeau urged Canadians to combat racism and Islamaphobia during his Eid al-Adha by standing together. Contending with similar issues during his administration’s proposal of the Syrian refugee acceptance policy, Trudeau continued with his message of uniting Canadians and to mobilize citizens in fighting racism and
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Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 13
Islamaphobia. During the same day, Trudeau also added to this message by meeting with the Saskatoon Tribal Council, stating that, “we walk forward on the path of real reconciliation and partnership and friendship and shared responsibilities […] It’s an opportunity to sit down and hear from you, listen to concerns and talk about how we’re going to move forward together”.
In his latest United Nations General Assembly address on September 17, 2017,
Trudeau emphasizes mobilization of all in order to create change in the world stating, “We cannot build a better world unless we work together,” encompassing his transformational leadership style. Whether its down ‘on the ground’ participation with Canadian citizens, or by bringing together world leaders at the United Nations General Assembly, Trudeau has consistently publicly announced his determination for collective mobilization on key issues derived from the public with moral overtones.
Charisma For Future Studies
It is completely possible that Trudeau has been able to transmit this image of a transformational leader through the many means including the growing influence of
‘photo-ops’ in the age of social media. As referenced by Peter Northouse’s Leadership,
Robert House’s (1976) and Bernard Bass’s (1985) theory of the relationship between charisma and transformational leadership can provide additional proof of Trudeau’s transformational leadership. As Northouse suggests, charisma is described in ways that make it similar, to if not synonymous with, transformational leadership”. For those in agreement with the theory that charisma is one of the key factors of transformational
Federalism-E is founded by the Royal Military College of Canada and the Institute of Intergovernmental Relations at Queen’s University
Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 14 leadership, proving Trudeau’s charismatic features will therefore prove his transformational leadership. Trudeau’s charismatic characteristics can help explain his transformational typology by understanding how he is able to communicate and mobilize support through his self-confidence, strong desire to influence others, strong a sense of one’s own moral values, and high expectations of his followers.
In understanding charisma, Northouse proposes to comprehend it as a special gift that only a few individuals enjoy, giving them the ability to complete extraordinary tasks.
House outlines charismatic leadership to be closely linked to transformational leadership if the leader is dominant, self-confident, retains a strong desire for influence, and is reflective. These create effects such as, followers trust, obedience and follower confidence. Some of these characteristics can be proven when examined, but the effects listed above can be easily proven by Trudeau’s incredibly successful campaign in winning a majority government and maintaining a high public approval rating.
Following Northouse’s reference of Bass’s theory on charisma, Trudeau can also be easily established to be a charismatic leader, and thus, a transformational leader. To do this, Trudeau must be have evidence of being a strong role model, appear competent to followers, articulate ideological goals with moral overtones, communicate high expectations for followers, and arouse task-relevant motives for followers. These factors can be proven by further examining Trudeau’s revolutionary comments on feminism and establishing a first gender-balanced cabinet, Trudeau’s 2015 election victory speech arousing high expectations of followers, and Professor of Journalism Paul Adams’ examination of Trudeau’s charisma. Since charisma is still a contested factor of
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Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 15 transformational leadership, for the purposes of this essay, charisma will not be further investigated. Nonetheless, these steps will provide a foundation for further research in applying the theoretical relationship between charisma and transformational leadership by utilizing Trudeau’s case.
Conclusion
Therefore, by examining available contemporary evidence in these key areas, this essay has argued that Prime Minister Justin Trudeau classifies more as a transformational rather than a transactional leader. Following the definitions and concepts provided by Burns and Blondel to understand the theoretical dichotomy, a proper framework was created for categorizing Trudeau’s leadership style accurately. Trudeau effectively and consistently delegates partial responsibilities to various subordinates, and by doing so Trudeau is able to bring change through collaboration with his group members and parallel the interests of his followers. Eight key points of evidence were presented to depict Trudeau as a transformational leader in this context including: (i) his work as the
Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs, (ii) his coordination with his cabinet ministers, (ii) his diverse assembly for the NAFTA negotiating team, (iv) founding the Prime Minister’s
Youth Council, (v) collaborating between international and domestic levels during crisis,
(vi) networking with stakeholders, (vii) selecting a special advisor on LGBTQ2 issues, and
(viii) his coordinated response to the Syrian refugee crisis. Moreover, Trudeau’s public motivation exemplifies his dedication in collectively mobilizing to create change, including
Canadian citizens and world leaders, for the purpose of higher moral standing. His consistent transformational leadership style has proven to be popular and successful,
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Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018) Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Transformational Leadership 16 landing him the Prime Minister position, and due to his consistency, it seems that he will continue to utilize this style in the future.
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Federalism-E is founded by the Royal Military College of Canada and the Institute of Intergovernmental Relations at Queen’s University
Federalism-E Vol. 19, No.1 (2018)