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ISSN 1810-0775

Small for small farms

Second edition )$2'LYHUVLÀFDWLRQERRNOHW Diversification booklet number 14

Small animals for small farms

R. Trevor Wilson

Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome 2011 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of FAO.

ISBN 978-92-5-107067-3

All rights reserved. FAO encourages reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Non-commercial uses will be authorized free of charge, upon request. Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes, including educational purposes, may incur fees. Applications for permission to reproduce or disseminate FAO copyright materials, and all queries concerning rights and licences, should be addressed by e-mail to [email protected] or to the Chief, Publishing Policy and Support Branch, Office of Knowledge Exchange, Research and Extension, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy.

© FAO 2012 ■ Preface v

■ Acknowledgements vii

■ Introduction 1 ■ Small animals 1 ■ Market potential 3 ■ Profits for improved livelihoods 4 ■ Purpose of the booklet 5

■ Benefits of small animals 7 ■ Small animals at household level 7

■ Small animals and the farming system 8 of contents Table ■ Health and nutrition 9 ■ Food security 10 ■ Equity, gender development and opportunities for the disabled 11 ■ Financial rewards 14

■ Key steps in the livelihood activity 17 ■ The right and breeds: , , 17 ■ Smallholder production systems 24 ■ Housing 31 ■ Feed and water 33 ■ Health care 35 ■ Sources of stock 36 ■ Labour needs 37 ■ Indicative costs 37

■ Strategies for successful and sustainable trade 39 ■ Market appraisal 39 ■ Products: , fur, skins, eggs and breeding stock 40 ■ Adding value 50 ■ Marketing channels 53 ■ Marketing strategies 55 ■ Support services to promote small animals 59 ■ Technical support 59 ■ Business, marketing and entrepreneurial skills training 61 ■ Market information 61 ■ Organizational options: producer groups 62 ■ Financial services 64 ■ Veterinary services 65 ■ Transport infrastructure 67 ■ Public policy 68 ■ Sustainable services for all 70 ■ Role of the advisor 72

■ Opportunities and challenges 73 ■ Opportunities 73 ■ Challenges 74

■ Selected further reading 77

■ Sources of further information and support 83

Table of contents Preface

The purpose of the FAO Diversification booklets is to raise awareness and provide decision support information about opportunities at farm and local community level to increase the incomes of small-scale farmers.

Each booklet focuses on a farm or non-farm enterprise that can be integrated into small farms to increase incomes and enhance livelihoods. The enterprises profiled in the FAO Diversification booklets selected are suitable for smallholder farmers in terms of resource requirements, additional costs, exposure to risk and complexity. The products or services generated by the enterprises are suitable for meeting demand on a growing, or already strong, local market and are not dependent on an export market. However, in this particular booklet, export markets will be considered. This is because small enterprise development and local markets are influenced by international market demand for furs, hides and skins, and for some specific small animals’ meat.

The main target audience for these booklets are people and organizations that provide advisory, business and technical support services to resource- poor small-scale farmers and local communities in low- and middle-income countries. It is hoped that enough information is given to help these support service providers to consider new income-generating opportunities and how Small animals for small farms these might enable small-scale farmers to take action. What are the potential benefits? What are farmer requirements and constraints? What are critical ‘success factors’?

The FAO Diversification booklets are also targeted to policy-makers and programme managers in government and non-governmental organizations. What actions might policy-makers take to create enabling environments for small-scale farmers to diversify into new income-generating activities?

The FAO Diversification booklets are not intended to be technical ‘how to do it’ guidelines. Readers will need to seek more information or technical

v support, so as to provide farmer advisory and support activities relating to the introduction of new income-generating activities. To assist in this respect, each booklet identifies additional sources of information, technical support and website addresses.

A CD has been prepared with a full series of FAO Diversification booklets and relevant FAO technical guides, together with complementary guides on market research, financing, business planning, etc. Copies of the CDare available on request from FAO. FAO Diversification booklets can also be downloaded from the FAO Internet site.

If you find this booklet of value, we would like to hear from you. Tell your colleagues and friends about it. FAO would welcome suggestions about possible changes for enhancing our next edition or regarding relevant topics for other booklets. By sharing your views and ideas with us we can provide better services to you.

vi Acknowledgements

Gratitude is owed to David Hitchcock, Senior Enterprise Development Officer, Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division, (AGS), FAO, for reviewing and providing detailed advice on the booklet. Special thanks go to Alexandra Röttger, Agribusiness Officer, (AGS), Jerome Mounsey, Associate Professional Officer, (AGS) and Martin Hilmi, Small Enterprise Management and Marketing Consultant, (AGS), for providing reviews and comments. Thanks are also owed to Äke Olofsson, Rural Finance Officer, (AGS), for carefully reviewing and providing inputs on the sections in the booklet related to finance.

Acknowledgements for the series Gratitude is owed to Doyle Baker, Senior Technical Officer, Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division (AGS), FAO, for his vision, encouragement and constant support in the development of the FAO Diversification booklet series. Martin Hilmi managed the development, production and post-production of the series and provided technical support and inputs. Michael Breece undertook the design and layout of the booklets and desktop publishing. Small animals for small farms

vii booklet No.15Pigsforprosperity profits, and products diverse for 9 No. booklet Diversification FAO 8 1 ■ ot f hs s cle ‘classic’ called so these of Most health andwealth, o e ate sep gas n pigs and goats sheep, cattle, be to considered are animals farm Common opportunities. additional farmers scale in especially small- provides areas urban expanding and aspirations, income lifestyle disposable growth, increased population from resulting many origin of products for demand in provides over. growing world The the countries livelihoods and income improved of source important an is sector livestock The 6 No. booklet Diversification FAO see Higher valueadditionthrough hidesandskins,

delicacy inmanypartsofthedeveloped anddevelopingworld. as a skins. Frogsaregreatlyappreciated as havingvaluable meat andeggsaswell provide animals. Smaller reptilessuchasgreenandblackiguanasaremore‘user friendly’ and acceptedasfarm products. have become In someareas,forexampleEthiopia, are usedforfoodandother and monitorlizards crocodiles including reptiles Many larger and Amphibians Reptiles occasionally manurecanalsobeimportantforfarmuseortosell. protein andlowerinfatthanmoreconventionalmeat.Otherproducts suchasskinsandfur adaptable. highly and prolific extremely are They oftenthriveonadietofweedyvegetationandkitchenscraps. Their meatishigherin small these of Many animal. small the capybara,althoughthisisconsideredbysometoberatherlarge forconsiderationasa animals. RodentsincludeGuinea pigs, giant ratsandcane(orgrasscutters)aswell In additiontothewellknownrabbit,othermammals–mostlyrodents –aresuitableassmall Rabbits andRodents BOX 1 Small animals Rabbits, RodentsandReptiles FAO Diversification booklet No. booklet Diversification FAO FAO Diversification Diversification FAO Sheep and goats Sheep andgoats Introduction for Milk for 1 . small-scale farmers in rural, peri- peri- rural, urban andareas(seeBox1). in farmers small-scale for enterprises viable as Rs’) ‘3 (the reptiles and rodents rabbits, promoting however, and awareness creating on is focus the booklet, this In mention. of worthy and farmers small-scale for small these animal categories are viable All enterprises fish). small (and other animals insects, , reptiles, rodents, rabbits, of kinds thousand one than more by constituted are sources’ ‘protein These to ‘microlivestock’. referred as commonly are what or animals’ ‘small from derives people for protein animal of source major the world, the projects. of parts other in However, development been in traditionally favoured have livestock 1

Small animals for small farms Some small animal species, is scarce and parts of the community, including notably the and Guinea particularly women and children, pig, are completely domesticated and lack adequate income and nutrition. raised in recognizable production Economic niches not available to systems and often in close contact larger species are occupied by small with their owners. Other species, animals. They are useful for people including many small mammals and outside or at the margins of the cash reptiles, are totally free ranging or economy because they require very only semi-domesticated. Some small little start-up capital, are a relatively animals are only collected in the wild small financial risk, produce rapid although for many of these attempts at returns on investment and allow for – in order to preserve a flexible production process. They the wild resource – are being made. also provide a steady source of food If this broad concept of small animals or income, generate employment, are is accepted it is clear that they have likely to be successful because they been essential to human nutrition are numerous, are easily transportable for thousands of years. In the future and are often efficient converters of these small animals are certain to feed to protein. Other benefits include be of increasing importance in food the small size of the ‘package’, security, environmental conservation, efficient use of space, low capital animal production and economic needs for housing (see Figure 1), diversity. use of non-conventional feeds, easy Small animal production can be management, and provide numerous an important subsystem where land by-products.

FIGURE 1 Grasscutters in pen constructed mainly from local materials, Cotonou, (Photo by R. T. Wilson)

2 Among the many advantages of and development as well as in more starting a small animal enterprise geographical areas of the world. are: ■ Market potential • they require little space; Market-oriented small animal • mostly they do not compete production enables farming directly with people for food; communities to produce surplus • they are usually socially products that can be sold to consumers acceptable and have few taboos; in rural, peri-urban and urban areas • demand for their products for the benefit of economic growth outstrips supply; and the improvement of livelihoods • they generally have high in a rural community. This has the reproductive rates; potential to create linkages between • veterinary costs are relatively poorer rural areas and richer urban low; areas and contributes to a more equal • cash inflow arrives in a short distribution of the benefits from period; economic growth. • financial returns are from high to Almost 50 percent of the world very high; population lives in urban areas. The • housing and other capital costs trend to urbanization is expected are low; to continue or even to accelerate. • nutritional and supposed Apart from the ease of transporting medicinal value of products is such small animals to urban settings, high; and production can be conveniently Small animals for small farms • they require little foreign situated in urban and peri-urban exchange for their operations but areas as a result of limited space can contribute substantially to requirements needed by small foreign exchange. animals. Small animals can be raised successfully in peri-urban However, the strongest argument and in urban centres as in rural and for promoting rabbits, rodents and remote areas and production facilities reptiles is that people already make are easily mobile. For example use of them. This recognises their Guinea pigs and their cages can be value sufficiently to suggest that moved from rural and remote areas more attention should be paid to into peri-urban and urban kitchen or them at policy level, in research vegetable or roof gardens easily (see

3 FAO Diversification booklet No.2 Marketing also involves transport Livelihoods grow in gardens). and most smallholders sell their Small animals are not difficult to livestock in the local village raise and require training that is not market. However, small animal overly complicated. Production can production offers potential sales in easily be carried out by all members urban markets because most of its of the farm family: women and output can easily be transported, for children as well as sick or disabled example by bicycle or on a bus. This members of the farm family. Labour clearly represents an opportunity requirements are not excessive and for economic growth. Despite the animals’ small size and their increased demand, however, it is confinement requirements mean easy to saturate local markets. One that production can be located close possible approach to increasing the to the homestead. market potential is the development Earning a profit involves not only of marketing associations which production but also and importantly could share transport costs to larger marketing. One of the main elements regional markets. Developing a in marketing is finding out what stable relationship with customers -- consumers need and want. Demand whether they are individuals, retailers for livestock is growing faster or wholesalers -- is to ensure and in developing countries than the guarantee a steady supply of product demand for staple crops. Typically in order to make a viable business such a rise in demand for animal venture for all parties involved. protein is associated with higher levels of disposable income and ■ Profits for improved livelihoods more consumer sophistication. This Effective poverty reduction means that consumer demand will measures can only be successful focus on quality, regularity of supply if the livelihoods of the rural poor and reasonable prices. All these can be improved and importantly elements can be provided fairly maintained. Profits and the earning easily with small animals, so long as of profits is an essential element of appropriate production practices are any farm enterprise, including small upheld, mainly concerning health animals. Small-scale farmers need and hygiene as well as appropriate profits so costs can be covered, fair and balanced feed. returns on efforts to produce and

4 market the farm enterprises can be Small animal production creates gained and importantly money can other jobs directly or indirectly be put aside, in terms of savings, as linked to production through well as investments can be made in supplying inputs and services to productive assets. Productive assets farmers. Small traders, for example are assets which have the capacity to are an important and often a cost generate more income, for example, effective link between producers and investing money in new and better consumers, while also generating housing facilities for rabbits. income for themselves. Market- Small-scale farmers with small oriented development of small animals may not produce large animals also creates a market quantities of meat, but carcass sizes for service providers such as are manageable and the ‘harvest’ is transporters, traders, pharmacies, easy to process and store. Even if financial institutions, , smallholders do not fully participate small shops and agricultural advisory in formal markets and barter their services. Development of input and products for other household goods supply services generates economic cash is released for other and perhaps activity and has a positive effect on essential purchases. Other sources of rural livelihoods. income accrue from fur from Angora rabbits and , rabbit skins, ■ Purpose of the booklet eggs and the speciality skins This booklet highlights the most of reptiles. Improved production important issues in the best use of techniques and better management small animals ( rabbits, rodents can lead to considerably higher yields and reptiles) in the expectation that Small animals for small farms which could then be marketed more development workers and policy- systematically. This in turn leads to a makers will recognize and act upon more even cash flow within and across the numerous opportunities such a year which cannot be achieved by small animals offer. This would not the very occasional sale of a ‘large’ only result in improved livelihoods animal. Small animals also contrast for producers but also assist in many food and cash crops that are expanding employment and income harvested and sold only once or twice opportunities in general. The booklet a year and with which the labour input focuses on important aspects of this is unevenly distributed. business.

5 In summary the aim of this in terms of income; booklet is threefold and is to: • identify the key inputs into smallholder livestock systems to • highlight the benefits of keeping improve productivity; and small animals for small- • identify the range of support scale farmers and the many services required and the opportunities they offer, not only challenges of service provision.

6 Benefits of small animals

■ Small animals at household level Small animals add to food A well managed integrated production security, improve human health system comprising several diverse through a more varied , enterprises including small animal generate a steady cash flow that production adds considerable value to a increases household income, farm household. There are synergistic have an important role in poverty benefits to integrated and associated alleviation, contribute to the farming systems. In addition there empowerment of women and are several non-marketed benefits in children as well as the sick and the relation to the function of animals as disabled and other marginalized security and savings and as a means groups, make productive use of of financing sudden or periodic labour and valorise local feedstuffs expenditure such as payment for and feedstuffs not normally suitable medical expenses or school fees. for direct consumption by people.

CASE STUDY 1 Guinea pigs and livelihoods in Bolivia

In the forest margins of the tropical Bolivian provinces of Sara and Ichilo, some 100 km north-west of the city of Santa Cruz, farmers keep small animal species on their farms, generally to contribute to food security, although, in times of need, production not needed for home consumption, is sold. Under traditional management, commonly scavenge around homesteads for the bulk of their feed, receiving only Small animals for small farms occasional supplements of household scraps and cracked grain. Pigs also scavenge, while receiving occasional offerings of chopped , while sheep graze and browse along roadsides and in fallow-lands. They receive no or veterinary treatment and find their own shelter where they can.

Although they receive no veterinary care, guinea pigs are the exception, since they are usually kept in sheds, or in the family kitchen, where they are fed freshly-cut forage, often of kudzu (Pueraria phaseoliodes). Monitoring showed that the productivity of chickens and ducks was reduced by the attacks of a range of controllable diseases and natural predators, while losses from pigs and sheep were as a result of accidents and internal parasites. Guinea pigs had few identifiable problems, with low levels of losses, restricted almost entirely to theft and accidents, often involving dogs belonging to neighbouring families.

7 CASE STUDY 1 Guinea pigs and livelihoods in Bolivia (Cont.)

As a result of the use of almost zero inputs, apart from the labour of women and children, the return from small animal species can represent up to 30 percent of annual family income, when home consumption is costed at the prevailing, local market prices.

Source: Adapted from Paterson, R.T. & Rojas, F. 2004. Small animal species in the livelihoods of small-scale farmers in Tropical Bolivia, In E. Owen, T. Smith, M.A. Steele, S. Anderson, A.J. Duncan, M. Herrero, J.D. Leaver, C.K. Reynolds, J.I. Richards & J.C. Ku-Vera (Eds.) Responding to the Livestock Revolution: the role of globalisation and implications for poverty alleviation, BSAS Publication 33, Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, , pp.117-132

■ Small animals and the farming to local conditions but also that it system will not become an invasive pest. Small animals are an important Environmental damage pathway of diversification and purportedly attributed to farming intensification in a wide variety of conventional livestock has been of farming systems. Small animal well documented and perhaps production is a form of intensive overexposed. Small animals can, agriculture. Large volumes of however, occupy niches that large produce can be obtained from very animals cannot. Green iguanas, small areas of land if the animals for example, have long been an are provided with adequate water important food source for eggs and food, and pests and diseases and meat in Central America, are controlled. They ensure better have been (and are increasingly uses of the means of production being) semi-domesticated and including land, labour and capital. can therefore occupy both They can make excellent use of wild and farm environments farm and industrial by-products. (see Figure 2). Rabbits, rodents Many kinds of small animals and reptiles can enhance total are best used locally in their native farm yields and supply diversified environment. Before attempting products in a way that is compatible to introduce a new species or with many situations and in many breed careful research should farming systems. They can be be undertaken. This should be highly productive in environments designed to ensure that the animal that are unsuitable for other kinds to be introduced is not only adapted of animals: these include steep

8 FIGURE 2 Green iguanas on a farm in Costa Rica (Photo by R. T. Wilson) hillsides, highly degraded areas and a paradigm shift whatever species urban localities. In some parts of the may be considered. Veterinarians, tropics large livestock may be totally agronomists and animal production unsuitable whereas local species of specialists trained along traditional small animals may thrive. The use lines need to modify their Small animals for small farms of locally adapted small animals conceptions and attitudes and reduces the pressure to alter the donor agencies should give further environment dramatically in order to consideration to providing support accommodate conventional livestock for small animals as more and more production. technical and scientific knowledge The development of small animal and expertise are available in this farming – one of whose principal animal production subsector. objectives is to progressively abandon the uncontrolled harvest ■ Health and nutrition of these species and thus to prevent Meat produced by small animals has their extinction in the wild – requires a positive effect on family nutrition

9 both directly and by making more the fight against HIV/AIDS through products available for consumption. boosting the immune system. People Small animal meat, like all meat, infected with HIV/AIDS need to is generally easily digestible, is an eat more saturated fats in order to important source of protein and help augment the blood cholesterol of essential amino acids, minerals level. The rapid reproductive cycle (especially iron and zinc) and and high rates of growth of the vitamin B for the family. Most animals provides for a regular supply of these nutrients are not present and relatively large source of food or present in only small and often (see Box 2). unbalanced amounts in the staple starchy that comprise the major ■ Food security dietary intake of most people. Meat Food security is now a priority helps to alleviate protein deficiency, objective worldwide. In very recent contributes to improved growth and times (prior to 2010) it has been physical activity in children and recognized even by politicians in to better health and less disease in the as a potential the family. Well fed and healthy source of conflict. Food security (or children – and there are far too few rather insecurity) was considerably of these across the world – suffer exacerbated over the last 20 less from learning difficulties than years of the twentieth century do children who do not possess these as increased human populations characteristics. Animal foods provide began to approach or exceed the a particularly dense combination of capacity of land to support them. critical nutrients. Consumption of The problem will intensify as the meat (and of other livestock products numbers of people continue to grow such as milk and eggs) also helps in and especially in the developing

BOX 2 The nutritional value of Rabbit meat

Rabbit meat has a high protein content of about 21 percent and a low fat content of around 8 percent. Rabbit meat is low in stearic and oleic acids with a high proportion of polyunsaturated linolenic and linoleic acids. Some vitamins, notably nicotinic acid and pantothurate, are higher in rabbit than in other and calcium and phosphorus are also high. Rabbit meat is thus a good source of protein and some other essential elements and is relatively low, at 160 kcal/100 g meat, in energy.

10 countries and in many areas it will often crucial to household nutritional be associated with a continuing strategies. They usually demand rapid increase in urbanization. reduced labour inputs, are resistant The overall effect of increased to disease and provide nutritional human populations on agriculture diversity. This is especially will be greater demand for human important in regions where increasing food, competition for animal feed dependency on cereal staples such as resources and increased pressure on can lead to vitamin deficiency land. The major challenges are to diseases. increase food production, improve productivity and ensure that systems ■ Equity, gender development and are sustainable. Equally important opportunities for the disabled are distribution and accessibility of Small animal production initially food to ensure that a balanced diet is involves small-scale activities that available to everyone. require some skills but usually low Increased food production capital investment. It can combine must not, however, be achieved well with traditional domestic roles at the irreversible expense of and this makes it an accessible the environment and especially livelihood option for people with overexploitation of marginal limited resources, including women, land, more and loss of children and old people (see Case biodiversity. Small animals are an Study 2). Very few animals are important resource that are able to sufficient initially to participate contribute to meeting the increasing in production. Even the landless demand for animal protein, especially poor can keep small animals. In the Small animals for small farms in the developing world. Small longer term, however, smallholders animals contribute to food security in will need more animals in order to various ways but perhaps especially develop a profitable enterprise. because they are characterized by Small animal production should high reproductive and growth rates have a positive or, at worst, a neutral and can thus produce large quantities impact on the most vulnerable of nutritious food in a short period. members of the household and the They play a disproportionately large community. It may be necessary to role in food security systems as undertake some gender awareness they thrive on degraded vegetation activities in the community to and non-conventional feeds and are ensure people understand why it is

11 CASE STUDY 2 Smallholder rabbit production in south-western

A combination of ultrasmall (keeping two or less breeding does) and small units (three to 10 breeding does) constitute 80 percent of all rabbit farmers in south-western Nigeria. Medium scale (11 to 50 breeding does) accounted for 15 percent of units and large scale (greater than 50 does) the final 5 percent. Rabbit farmers cut across all ages and professions including retired persons. The primary reason for keeping rabbits was for home consumption with occasional sale of surplus stocks. The market chain involved direct sale of live animals to consumers or other farmers. Some 57 percent of rabbit keepers indicated that all members of the family were involved in animal care and management. Breeds used were invariably crosses among imported commercial meat type rabbits (mainly New Zealand White, Californian and Chinchilla). There was no reliable and steady supply of breeding stock, so foundation and replacement stocks were mostly acquired from friends and other smallholder farms. There was no standard type or design of animal house and use was made of assorted materials (wood, wire mesh, tires, etc.) in the construction of rabbit cages. Cages were mostly single-tiered and placed outside the house. Mating of does was seasonal as a result of seasonal heat . About 70 percent of the farmers noted that doe receptivity and conception rates were markedly low during the dry season. Principal constraints facing the units included getting reliable and stable sources for foundation/replacement stocks, feeds, theft and access to information on rabbit management.

Source: Adapted from Oseni et al.2008. Smallholder rabbit production in Nigeria, 9th World Rabbit Congress, June 10-13, Verona, Italy important that people are rewarded • the availability of labour; and for their efforts. It may also be • community or cultural factors necessary to find innovative ways of that facilitate production and strengthening control by the normally trade. disadvantaged over their earnings, for example by promoting group Development of small animal savings. Social and organizational production can make a strong positive factors that contribute to whether contribution to the empowerment of or not production is successful and the marginalized members of society provides for growth include: whether they be rural or urban or men, women or children. Small • women’s involvement and their animal production can contribute to control over any income that is equal participation and involvement generated; in economic growth. Women’s

12 involvement in management of sectors of the population including assets and cash income – for example women, children and disabled through membership and leadership persons (see Figures 3 and 4). In this of producer associations – increases context they are an important factor their social status and their influence for social promotion. on decisions important for the daily Throughout much of the life of many families. Small animals developing world women and are almost perfectly tailored to small children primarily undertake small and landless farmers as they require animal production. It is important neither large capital (investment) to ensure that they also participate in nor recurrent costs. Small animals sharing the benefits of their labour, provide employment opportunities especially as production enterprises for the socially more vulnerable become more commercialized. Small animals for small farms

FIGURE 3 Boy with rabbits ready for market, Western Escarpment, Burundi (Photo by R. T. Wilson)

13 FIGURE 4 Women feeding Guinea pigs in Peru (Photo: FAO/17459/A. Odoul)

Women and youths must also be stronger voice can be helped by involved in marketing their produce ‘professional’ organizations which as well as in retaining control over can arise from the keeping of small the money they earn. This will not animals. only allow women to become more self-sufficient and independent but ■ Financial rewards will also increase their capabilities in Small animals can have many looking after the family and improve financial advantages compared their social status in the immediate to raising larger animals and household and wider community. especially for small-scale farmers. Improved use of resources Conventional stock by their very is a valuable background and nature must be bought and sold in introduction to more active large units. Saving up to buy a cow participation in policy formulation may take a very long time and if an and rural development planning. accident or illness occurs the entire Even greater participation with a investment is lost.

14 Investment in small animals financial rewards is enhanced. In can initially be small and then promoting small animal production incremental. It is also spread over emphasis should be put on the several units and thus contributes potential to provide good nutritious considerably to reduced risk. Smaller food for the family while concurrently animals reach sexual maturity faster developing the concept of marketing and can reproduce quickly which surplus produce and additional non- further expands the investment. food products for cash. Several types of small animals are raised in backyards or inside the home and do not require large areas of land per unit of output. Production for home use and/or market is distributed more evenly throughout the year which results not only in more even subsistence but also can contribute to a steady income that can be more easily controlled in response to market conditions. Most small-scale farmers cannot hope to compete in the market with large, high input, single species industrial enterprises but can perfectly well cater to specialized niche or exotic markets and obtain a good price for Small animals for small farms their product (consumers in pay up to three times more for meat from cane rats or grasscutters than they do for , for example). Small animal products are also capable of providing higher incomes through processing into value added products. As familiarity with production technology increases, the rewards for developing husbandry skills increase and the potential for increasing

15 ■ voided, the faeces re-ingested and and digestion thencompleted. re-ingested faeces the voided, digested, partially is Feed rumination. to analogous coprophagy, as known system, digestive a developed have world. Most rabbits in the broad sense the of parts many in commonly found are “Rabbits” Glives. superorder the in order the in Lepidae , family the of Palaeologinae and spp.) similar (which the includes Leporinae subfamilies the in genera several to belong Rabbits Rabbits These ‘leporaria’ are the origins of of origins the are ‘leporaria’ These monks. by later and garrisons Roman as (known rabbits newborn and foetuses ‘ (called walls stone had usually that It enclosures fenced in animal. reared later was expanded, a empire as throughout Roman the as spread, it and ago years 000 3 about . several The rabbit was known in originally North and southwest to native were comprises These subspecies. cuniculus, ’), for sport and to provide provide to and sport for leporaria’),

), for consumption by the the by consumption for laurices), h tu rabbit, true The rabbits, rodentsandreptiles The rightspeciesandbreed: Key stepsinthelivelihoodactivity Oryctolagus Oryctolagus Lepus Lepus ae en sd vr h yas to years the over used been have there arenomajorentrenched taboos. them, eating to resistance initial some production (see Figure 5) and, while there may be smallholder to suitable eminently are They food. human for directly compete not) should systems smallholder in (and do necessarily and not units small in manageable in tropicalandsubtropicalcountries. highest is person per consumption but volume of overall of terms centre in production the domestic remains Europe managed fowl. similarly compete with to rabbits ‘broiler’ enabled has quantitative of use the and prolificacy expansion population rapid very enable and Precocity available. easily not was meat other when wars and have been especially popular during decline and popularity of cycles several undergone have animals Rabbits domestic as widespread. or hutches became in cages rabbits keeping and the right to own rabbits) were abolished had landowners only which (in systems around 1 600 AD when European feudal numbers ofrabbitsarestillfound. large where warrens European many Many traditional breeds of rabbit of breeds traditional Many rear, to easy relatively are Rabbits domesticated truly were Rabbits 17

Small animals for small farms FIGURE 5 Rabbits in a small-scale production system (Photo: FAO/14106/ Ch. Errath) produce meat, fur and skins. Several as this tends to cause development western European countries had a of the digestive tract but this is offset large number of breeds of varying by the reduced cost of feeding. size and reproductive and growth Some species that are not performance. Modern fast growing lagomorphs show similar and prolific breeds, such as California morphology to the rabbits. The Hyline, New Zealand White and (a Spanish word from the Chinchilla (not to be confused with Quechan Indian language), Lagidium the of that name) (see Figure viscacia, a rodent of the upper 6), reach weights of 2.2 kg at 80 to Andes, is native to southern Peru, 90 days. Dressing percentages are most of Chile, and parts of Bolivia 60 to 70 percent and increase with and Argentina. It has a head and age, independently of weight. The that could lead to it being confused higher value hind quarters and loins with the true rabbit but its very comprise about three-fifths of the short front legs and long tail serve carcass. Carcass yield is slightly less to distinguish it. The long greyish- in animals fed bulk roughage feeds coloured fur, often tinted with a rich

18 FIGURE 6 Chinchilla breed meat rabbits in a modern unit, Lumle, Nepal (Photo by R. T. Wilson) brown hue, is similar in composition fur (coypu, whose fur is the highly to, but not as valuable as, that of the valued ‘nutria’ and chinchilla of even chinchilla, to which it is very closely more value) and skins or hides. A related. few only of this vast range of animal life are described as examples of the Rodents order. Small animals for small farms The order Rodentia comprises more Chinchilla, along with the than 2 200 species and 40 percent rabbit-like viscacha, belong to the of all species are rodents. family Chincillidae. There is little They range in size from tiny (the noticeable difference between the African Pygmy Mouse weighs 7 g) two species of chinchilla except that to quite large (the Capybara weighs Chinchilla brevicaudata has a shorter up to 80 kg). Many species of rodent tail, a thicker neck and shoulders and are suitable or potentially suitable shorter ears than C.lanigera. The for small animal production either latter species, from which domestic as fully or partly domesticated stock. chinchilla are thought to descend, is They produce meat (rats, capybara), now rare in the wild. It is everywhere

19 illegal to hunt wild chinchilla but the South American Andes. It had outside the domesticated types already been domesticated and was they are on the verge of extinction familiar to the aboriginal Inca and because of continuing illegal hunting. other populations of the highlands are gentle, timid and of Peru, Ecuador and Colombia by intelligent animals. An adult animal the time the Spaniards arrived in the can grow up to 30-36 cm long New World (see Figure 7). Guinea including its bushy tail which alone pigs rarely weigh more than 1 kg can measure up to 12.5 cm. A fully at maturity. They do not burrow grown animal weighs between 600 although they have four strong claws and 800 g. on the front feet and three on the Guinea pigs belong to the genus hind. Several domesticated types Cavia of the family Cavidae in the have developed. The Peruvian is a order Rodentia. Domestic Guinea rather large variety with long silky pigs are also known as cavies, a hair. The English or Bolivian breed is corruption of the Quechan ‘cuy’, a short-haired type. An ‘Abyssinian’ the onomatopoeic South American type has hair in a series of whorls. Indian word derived from the Cane or African giant rats of the animal’s alarm call. The domestic genus Cricetomys and grasscutters of species Cavia procellus is native to the genus Thryonomys of the family.

FIGURE 7 Guinea pigs in a traditional system, Cuzco, Peru (Photo by R. T. Wilson)

20 Thryonomidae are widespread and prefer damp or wet places in Africa in all except the driest although the few reports on their areas (see Figure 8). They appear ecology are conflicting. The West to be commoner in African grasscutter, Thryonomys than elsewhere but this is possibly swinderianus, is a large non- because they are seen more often burrowing rodent. Cane rats range in offered for sale on roadsides and body length from 35 to 60 cm. They in markets as they are used as commonly weigh 6-7 kg in captivity food. The West African rat that is but some wild specimens attain 10 most used for food is Cricetomys kg. They are heavily-built rodents, gambianus which is mainly a species with bristly brown fur speckled with of the savanna areas. Cricetomys yellow or grey. Other ‘rats’ are also emini is also used for food but is important food species in some areas. more restricted in distribution and The capybara, Hydrochoerus occurs only in rain forests. Giant rats hydrochaeris (suborder Cavimorphae, are burrow-dwelling, usually solitary family Hydrochoridae, subfamily Small animals for small farms

FIGURE 8 A grasscutter in a small-scale production system (Photo by R. T. Wilson)

21 21 Cavioidae), is the largest rodent of Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay in the world (see Figure 9). The and to the northeast of Argentina. capybara is indigenous to and widely The subspecies H.h.isthmius has distributed in lowland tropical a separate distribution in Panama, South America where it is known western Columbia, western by several local names. This semi- Venezuela and the Pacific coast of aquatic animal is rarely found more Ecuador. Many capybaras are kept than 500 metres from open water. in captivity around the world. They The subspecies H.h.hydrochaeris are of a quiet disposition and quickly extends from the eastern plains come to accept being handled. of Columbia, through Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, Surinam and Reptiles to the Amazonian parts of Ecuador, Reptiles of the class Reptilia are air- Peru and Bolivia, hence the whole breathing and generally ‘cold-blooded’

FIGURE 9 A Capybara in Brazil (Photo: FAO/1855/ A. Brack)

22 (poikilothermic) animals whose skin Central and South America. These is usually covered in scales or scutes. are mainly herbivorous species of the The four living orders are Crocodilia genus Iguana in the family Iguanidae (crocodiles, gavials, caimans and of the order in the class alligators [23 species]), Sphenodontia Sauropsida. These reptiles feed (tuataras from New Zealand [2 mainly on leaves, flowers and fruits species]), Squamata (, snakes and are likely to be more suitable and worm lizards (about 7 900 for smallholder production than species) and Testudines (turtles and carnivorous reptiles. The species about tortoises [about 300 species]). Most which most is known is the green reptile species are oviparous (egg- iguana Iguana iguana. It is likely that laying) although some squamates are its close relatives the black or spiny- either ovoviviparous (egg retention) tailed iguanas including Ctenosaura or viviparous (give birth to live young similis, C.acanthura, C.hemilopha which they may then care for). Extant and C.pectinata have similar reptiles range in size from a tiny characteristics. The common South gecko, Sphaerodactylus ariasae, that American name for green iguanas is grows to only 1.6 cm to the saltwater ‘gallina de palo’ or ‘chicken of the , Crocodylus porosus, that trees’. Green iguanas are found in may reach 6 m in length and weigh their preferred tropical lowland forests over 1 000 kg. usually close to water in central and Many reptiles have been important northern South America and several contributors to human welfare for Caribbean islands (and there are millennia. They provide meat, eggs some feral populations in parts of the and skins and are often a source of United States of America). Spiny- Small animals for small farms supplementary income when they tailed iguanas have a more restricted are shot, trapped or hunted with dogs distribution in Central America in over much of Asia, Africa and South drier open woodland areas. One other America. Several species of smaller genus which may prove suitable as reptile are suitable for domestication small animals is which or at least for commercial production. includes T. rufescens and T. teguixen Most attention in the recent past (other both are known as tegus. Tegu, like than the large number of species crocodiles, produce a valuable leather kept as ‘’ or companion animals) and, although they are most common has been given to the iguanas of in Argentina and Paraguay they are

23 found as far north as Colombia and on Management of a rabbit enterprise the island of Trinidad. is possible at three reproductive levels. In extensive systems gestation and ■ Smallholder production systems lactation are not concurrent events: Rabbits young are weaned naturally at 5 to 6 Rabbits are very suitable for intensive weeks, does are bred after weaning and management systems and in recent give birth every two and half months. years the use of quantitative genetics, In semi-intensive cycles, does are bred along the lines of those used for 10 to 20 days after kindling and young poultry broiler production, have weaned at 4 to 5 weeks. There is some improved their productivity. Hybrid overlap of gestation and lactation but lines capable of high reproductive for 60 to 65 percent of the time does rates and very good feed to meat are only pregnant or only lactating. conversion ratios are readily available In intensive systems does are served (see Table 1). For production other on the day, or at the latest within four than for home use and a small surplus days, of kindling. Weaning should for sale, maximizing the reproductive take place not later than 28 days after rate is the major factor affecting parturition and a reproductive cycle of productivity. less than 35 days is possible.

TABLE 1 Production characteristics and trends in intensive rabbit systems in Europe Parameter Year 1950 1960 1970 1980 Number sold/breeding <25 30 45 60 female/year Interval between litters >90 70 54 42 (days) Ratio concentrate feed: gain 6.0 4.5 3.6

Pure Pure breeds x Rabbit type Unselected Hybrids breeds improved bucks

Man hours/doe/year 16.0 16.0 10.0 7.5

Labour (min)/carcass (kg) 27.0 22.0 9.5 6.2

Unit size 80 - 100 100 - 150 200 - 250 350 - 1000 Source: Adapted from FAO, 1997a

24 The most intensive system should reduced by about 30 percent. Water only be attempted where conditions are requirements are greater at higher optimal. Progressive breeders adjust temperatures. cycles to feed availability and doe Production systems in the tropics are condition. Females with 7 to 8 young still at an early stage of development. In are usually mated immediately whereas the Caribbean, for example, the levels of those with larger litters are held back a production (see Table 2) are comparable few days. Feed intake and nutritional to those achieved in Europe in the 1950s needs vary with age and reproductive (see Table 1). It should be possible, status and less energy is needed in however, to increase production and warmer than colder conditions. At productivity very rapidly by drawing on 30 °C energy demand is 50 percent European experience and adapting it for lower than at 5 °C but weight gains are the tropics.

TABLE 2 Rabbit performance in the Caribbean

Trait Unit Mean

Reproduction

Litter size (total young) Number 5.0

Litter size (born alive) Number 4.5

Litter size (weaned) Number 3.5 Small animals for small farms Pre-weaning mortality Percent 20

Age at first mating Months 6.0

Period between parturitions Days 80

Litters/year Number 4

Young/doe/year Number 12 - 16

Reproductive life Months 12 - 18

Age at culling Months 18 - 24

25 TABLE 2 Rabbit performance in the Caribbean (Cont.)

Trait Unit Mean

Growth

Birth weight grams 45

Weaning weight (28 days) grams 320

Weight at 13 weeks grams 1600

Pre-weaning daily gain grams 10

Post-weaning daily gain grams 22

Mature weight grams 3000

Dressing percentage at 13 weeks 52

Post-weaning feed efficiency (concentrate:gain) 3.6

Source: Adapted from Rastogi, 1989

Rabbits are sometimes selective 4:1 for intake/gain. Attempts to feeders but will eat a wide variety replace true proteins with non- of plants. In modern systems protein nitrogen, such as urea, have a series of standards have been not been successful. established for different production stages. Protein quality, determined Rodents by essential amino acid levels The Spaniards discovered the (especially methionine, lipine chinchilla in 1524 and shortly and arginine), is as important as afterwards Queen Isabella of Spain quantity. Unbalanced proteins was presented by one of the early reduce growth rates by up to 14 explorers with a chinchilla coat. percent and increase the normal It was to be another 350 years, feed conversion ratios of 3:1 to however, before Sir John Murray,

26 an Englishman working in Chile, bordering the Gulf of Guinea where set up the first known chinchilla commercial grasscutter farms, breeding farm in 1874 and tried to each with more than one thousand develop the domestic animal. Over animals, are achieving high levels the next 50 years various attempts of production and productivity. were made to set up chinchilla Many capybara are still taken ‘ranches’ with animals of both wild from the wild by traditional (and caught or bred in captivity. modern) hunters. The species Cane rats have been extensively is, however, eminently suitable hunted in the past although in the for raising as a domestic animal savanna area of West Africa people in both extensive and intensive have traditionally captured from systems. The capybara is easy to the wild and fattened animals in handle once it has become tame. It captivity. Cane rats are not the has been shown at several locations most prolific of rodent species but in South America that captive the high demand, attractive market breeding and close confinement price and the small amount of for intensive or semi-intensive investment required make them a production is quite feasible. suitable small animal activity for Disease problems might, however, income generation in many parts of be somewhat severe if husbandry West and Central Africa. Research is not of a high standard. Pens carried out towards the end of the should contain only one male or twentieth century has allowed there will be considerable fighting. the selection and improvement of For extensive production (i.e. stock for captivity and much of the free range grazing) enough room Small animals for small farms knowledge and techniques for cane must be allowed for the animals rat breeding has been determined to select their preferred feeds or from work carried out at the Benin- losses from starvation might be Germany breeding station which exceptionally high. Under this was established in the mid-1980s type of management it is claimed (see Case Study 3). Practical that capybara are three and a half information is now more readily times more efficient than cattle and available for farmers interested bring in cash returns three times in breeding. This is higher than cattle when the two are reflected, for example, in countries stocked together.

27 CASE STUDY 3 Grasscutters in West Africa

Wild grasscutters and cane rats are victims of their success with consumers and becoming increasingly scarce in areas surrounding the capitals of West and Central Africa. In Côte d’Ivoire hunters kill an estimated eight million wild grasscutters every year. At present the concept of rearing small game is mainly taking hold in countries where bush meat is firmly entrenched in local dietary practice as in the Congo basin. In consumption of game is said to be twice that of beef. Développement d’Alternatives au Braconnage en Afrique Centrale (DABAC) is a project financed by the European Development Fund (EDF) aimed at developing alternatives to in Central Africa. It has been attempting to satisfy some of the high demand by rearing game on the outskirts of towns, most of which is sold without the use of middlemen on the urban markets. First launched in Gabon the project now also operates in and Congo. Almost anyone can start a small household activity based on a few grasscutters but scaling up to the next level of a viable and regular output with a view to regular sales is altogether more challenging. Success depends largely on developing clear technical strategies based on sound veterinary and animal husbandry research and the diffusion of affordable production methods that are suited to small- scale producers. Rearing grasscutters has proved successful in West Africa thanks to years of research on all aspects of this type of farming including buildings and equipment, feeding, reproduction, health and livestock behaviour. Studies began in Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire and Nigeria in the 1970s before being launched in Benin with support from the German development corporation GTZ. The primary objective of this joint Benin-German project was to resolve problems linked to grasscutter habitat, captivity and disease. The experience gained in Benin should soon be made available to farmers in other sub-Saharan African countries as far down as South Africa through the creation of national networks.

Source: Adapted from Spore.2008. Mini-livestock keeping: Think big with minilivestock, No. 133 (Available at http://spore.cta.int/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=343&Item id=99999999)

Reptiles America iguanas are the preferred Reptiles have been traditionally game animal and are hunted regardless exploited for centuries by hunting and of sex and reproductive status so capturing in the wild or by taking their that egg-carrying females are taken eggs after they have been laid by the to the detriment of the population female. In South America, however, as a whole. Because of the green as in Africa for the some iguana’s popularity in the trade species have been hunted so ruthlessly (more than 800 000 were imported that they are now endangered in many into the United States of America in areas. In much of Central and South 1995 alone) and as a food source in

28 Latin America they are listed in the example, in an iguana farming Convention on International Trade in project in Panama and Costa Rica Endangered Species of Wild Fauna which raised more than 10 000 and Flora (CITES), also known as the green iguana in its first five years Washington Convention, Appendix of operation, pens were constructed II, as a species whose “trade must be of sheet metal sunk 30 cm into the controlled so as to not harm the species ground with each enclosure having in the future”. Captive breeding or ample shelter made from bamboo domestication has several advantages and other vegetation. These shelters over indiscriminate and uncontrolled protect the lizards from predators, are hunting including the much higher raised from the ground and food is survival rate of young (more than 90 provided underneath. Some 20 to 60 percent of young wild iguana may young iguanas can be kept on 10 m². be taken by predators in the first few Tunnels provided as artificial nest months of life) and the possibility sites can ensure almost 100 percent of restocking wild populations. For hatching (see Case Study 4).

CASE STUDY 4 The green iguana in Costa Rica

Every year in early spring female green iguanas climb down from the tall trees of Costa Rica’s rain forests and lay their eggs in sandy beaches along the ocean. And every year people are waiting to catch and eat them. Eating iguanas, which the local people call ‘chicken of the trees’ is an ancient tradition in Costa Rica. Spring is the best time for Costa Ricans to trap iguanas as pregnant females move slowly when they are weighed down with dozens of eggs. Now, because of these hunts, climate change and loss of habitat, iguanas are in danger. The Costa Rican government now forbids Small animals for small farms hunting iguanas but that does not stop the local people from still enjoying one of their favourite traditional dishes.

Edsart Besier, a Dutch conservationist who founded the Iguanaverde Foundation in 2001, is one of several people trying to save the green iguana from extinction. Some have created refuges for green iguanas in their natural habitat whereas others are training farmers to raise them for food so there will be plenty of iguanas for future generations. Even though they face many obstacles these environmentalists still believe their work is making a difference. “I’m very positive” Besier said. “The project is growing a lot every year. Every year we get a lot more knowledge, and people write about it. There is publicity about it, and in the area it is very well known, in a positive way. I have never heard negative things, other than from local kids who walk on the street, especially at time when they catch the iguanas. They don’t look at me that friendly, but that’s fine. I can live with that.”

29 CASE STUDY 4 The green iguana in Costa Rica (Cont.)

Besier estimates there are less than 2 000 green iguana left along the southern part of Costa Rica’s Caribbean coast. Researchers at the National University of Costa Rica say that is about one third of what there should be in order for the species to survive. So with money he raises from renting cabins to tourists and from donations, Besier has created a safe place where females can lay their eggs without being caught. Besier collects iguana eggs and takes them to an 800-square-mile reserve near the town of Punta Uva on the Caribbean Coast in the Gandoca-Manzanillo Wildlife Refuge.

In 2009 the females laid about 400 eggs, the biggest number yet. A big part of Besier’s project is educating local school children about the iguana’s plight. He helps students raise iguanas and set them free in the wild. He wants to show them that there are other ways to think about iguanas besides food. Sometimes he takes students to the Kekoldi Indian Reserve where Gloria Mayorga Balma and the Kekoldi tribe have been raising iguanas on a farm in the damp rain forest for 15 years. Balma makes sure the iguanas’ sandy nesting boxes are covered with a black tarpaulin and the eggs are kept warm. When the eggs hatch at the end of summer she moves the tiny green reptiles to another cage, where they spend the next two years. They are then set free. Balma said she worries about losing the forest to banana plantations and timber companies but her biggest concern is that local people still steal iguanas from the farm. Yet she, like Besier, remains hopeful and says the best hope is educating children so that the future can be different for the iguana.

Source: Adapted from Miller, A. 2009. Saving Costa Rica’s Green Iguanas (Available at http://teacher.scholastic.com/scholasticnews/indepth/endangered_species/news/index. asp?article=gr)

Peri-urban and urban production Individual household plots, waste systems ground and roadsides are propitious Intensified production systems for sites for increasing the family food small animals are required not only supply and for producing a small in rural areas. Urban and peri-urban surplus to sell. City farmers have systems must be further developed developed small and medium sized and intensified to secure a continuous enterprises specializing in producing supply of fresh produce to the animal products for sale in city human populations living in these markets. This activity is becoming areas. Animal production within and more popular especially as it provides around cities is already a preferred employment and income for women activity for many unskilled migrants. and young farmers.

30 ■ giig rnil i considering in principle guiding A enterprises. other from scavenged from local materials or even materials possible whenever constructed and cheap simple, be should it contrary be should it the On expensive. and sophisticated that mean not does This from predators. from protection and weather for housing important suitable is booklet this in considered species the of many For IUE1 Wire meshcagewithautomaticdrinker and foodcontainer, Cotonou,Benin FIGURE 10 (Photo byR.T. Wilson)

Housing air shouldbemade. of circulation the or In ventilation for 10). Figure appropriate cases adequate provision (see thatch and local metal expanded mesh, bamboo, wire wood, include for housing materials Suitable or containers. receptacles clean in offered be be preferably should food and available always should Water into animal welfare. and take health to animal account be should housing 31

Small animals for small farms Rabbits are gregarious animals does not like its fur to become and outside the individual soiled. breeding pens they should be given Grasscutters can be kept in a considerable amount of space individual cages or in purpose in which they can exercise and built pens (see Figure 11). socialise. They are also burrowing Considerations for safe and secure animals so any pen should either be housing are similar to those gnaw proof with a hard (concrete) already described for rabbits. floor or the walls – which may be Capybaras are social animals of wire netting, corrugated metal that live in family groups. All or brick or concrete – should be set members of the group cooperate top at least 60 cm below ground. in defence and nurturing of the Hutches for breeding does should young. As capybaras are semi- provide a floor space of 0.45 m aquatic they must have access to height of 0.75 m for an individual water at all times and should also doe and, when they are pregnant, be provided with shelter from the a separate but attached nest box sun. Capybaras are best kept in with an area of 0.4 m with a height large secure paddocks where they of 0.3 m should be provided. Not can graze freely. too much money needs to be spent Green iguanas need to live in an on housing so that capital input environment with high . costs remain low and maintenance If kept outside their natural can be simple and effective where environment they will need to be local materials are used. provided with adequate sources of Chinchillas are rock hoppers water to ensure they can create their that like to scurry about so they own microclimate. Green iguanas prefer floor space in their cages will thrive only in temperatures of rather than height. Cages should 35°C and above and must have be made of welded wire mesh of appropriate sources of light either at least 16 gauge thickness with naturally or artificial. If these the holes no larger than 1.9 cm conditions are absent their bodies square. Raised wire floors allow cannot produce the vitamin D droppings, urine and partially that promotes calcium absorption eaten food to fall through as the which can result in a metabolic chinchilla is a clean animal that bone disease that can be fatal.

32 FIGURE 11 Grasscutter in wire cage with yam offered as feed, Nungua, Ghana (Photo by R. T. Wilson)

■ Feed and water Such resources are usually available The statement that ‘water is essential at very little or no cost. Off-farm to life’ is as applicable in small wastes from industrial crops or animal production as it is elsewhere. agroprocessing including molasses Clean cool water should be available from sugar, brewers grains, oilseed on a permanent basis to all species cakes, cereal by-products like bran, Small animals for small farms of animal. Feed requirements vary pulp from citrus crops converted to according to the animal in question. juice and vegetable trimmings from Small animal production is canning processes can also be made based largely on the feeding and use of. consumption of otherwise difficult Rabbits grow best on feeds with to valorise farm products or even 220-240 calories digestible energy wastes including stalks, straw, per kilo of animal weight. In low hulls, vegetable residues and other intensity and smallholder systems plant material that cannot be used many local plants can be used directly for human consumption. to reduce costs. In Malawi, for

33 example, a roughage supplement of eat yam, cassava and plantain peels, Amaranthus is used along with maize maize chaff and cocoyam and yam grain and bran , groundnut cake and a tubers. pinch of salt, and this allows does to The capybara is a herbivore produce 20 young per year and young that feeds mainly on grasses and rabbits to grow at 15 g per day for aquatic plants but it also eats fruit up to 16 weeks. Groundnut haulms and tree bark. An adult will eat 2.7 are fed in Burkina Faso as well as to 3.6 kg dry matter of grasses per Brachiaria ruziziensis. B.mutica is day. This animal, like the rabbit, is used in the Philippines and could coprophagous and uses its own faeces prove useful elsewhere in the tropics. as a source of bacterial gut flora and Cassava leaves and peel are used in in order to help digest the cellulose Ghana but both need balancing with in its normal diet and extract the protein and fibrous feeds. Bananas, maximum protein. Capybara may coconuts, prickly pear, potatoes and also regurgitate food to masticate it many legumes and grasses are also again and in a manner similar to cud- fed to rabbits in many parts of the chewing by a cow. Average daily tropics. gains of 130 g have been achieved The is a monogastric for capybara weighing 15 to 20 kg herbivore, able to adapt to whatever fed a diet of 50 percent elephant food is available. Of the three grass (Pennisetum purpureum) cut possible feeding systems, one is at 7 weeks of growth and 50 percent based exclusively on fodder, a concentrate. The conversion rate of second is a mixed option consisting feed to gain in this weight range is of fodder plus a concentrate, and a about 5.9:1. third is based on concentrates plus Iguanas have a specialized water and . digestive system in which food Cane rats and grasscutters are is broken down by in an mainly herbivorous but will eat many enlarged chamber. kinds of food. In the wild, cane rats Food is converted to meat in a eat mainly palm fruits and tubers, manner similar to that of ruminants particularly yams, plus a variety but the process takes relatively of other fruits, seeds and insects. longer. Juvenile iguanas often eat There are some differences in dietary faeces from adults in order to acquire preferences between males and the essential microflora to digest their females. In captivity cane rats will low quality diet. Both green and

34 black iguanas are mainly vegetarian and private sector services will need but the latter also feed on insects and to be involved in this operation. small vertebrates. Green iguanas Infectious diseases are a major are able to convert the vegetation of constraint to livestock productivity tall trees to human food much more and there is an urgent need to tackle effectively than any other potential the problem in order to improve and food species. Green iguanas require ensure food security. Diseases caused a rather precise ratio of two calcium by and bacteria are of major to one phosphorus in their diet. concern as they often cause serious Farmed iguanas can be fed a mixture which can severely disrupt of broken rice, meat meal, fish meal, both local and international trade. various fruits and leaves and flowers Parasitic diseases caused, amongst although there is some debate as to other organisms, by helminths whether feeding animal protein has and protozoa are also important long term deleterious effects on the because of their debilitating and iguana kidney. often persistent effects. The first Young iguanas take about 3 years line of defence in the past has been to reach marketable size on a farm. chemotherapy which, although it Alternatively young stock can be may have initial spectacular results, reared to about 10 months and then may not prevent re-. released in trees nearby. If they are Repeated treatment is expensive and fed some supplementary food they time consuming and all too often tend to stay in the vicinity and can be leads to resistance to the drugs in the harvested when they reach a suitable organisms being targeted. size. Tegu are generally carnivorous Disease has direct repercussions Small animals for small farms and will eat snails, insects, small through higher mortality rates and mammals, smaller lizards including indirect ones through its effects on other tegus, various fruits, eggs reduced reproductive performance of birds, turtles and caimans and and on slower growth rates. There occasionally carrion. is also the consideration of animal welfare: a contented and healthy ■ Health care animal will produce more high In the case of small animals there is a quality products in a shorter time than need to maintain and improve animal an unhappy and uncomfortable one. health as in large and medium–sized There is also a high risk that some livestock production. Both public diseases may be transmitted from

35 animals to man, this type of disease Lassa fever and Hanta although being known as a zoonose. The normal health care should obviate first line of defence in animal health these kinds of problems. Capybaras care is thus prevention rather than are known to carry foot and mouth cure. Small-scale farmers should disease and seem to be particularly work closely with their veterinary susceptible to brucellosis as well advisors and ensure that sanitation as to mechanically transmitted and biosecurity measures are of the Trypanosoma evansi. highest order. Metabolic Bone Disease (MBD) Some diseases affect a wide in iguanas is caused by various spectrum of host animals whereas factors including lack of calcium others are more restricted in their and inadequate exposure to ultra effects to just a few or even a single violet light. Metabolic Bone Disease species. It is not possible to describe (MBD) reduces the vitality of or list every disease affecting small iguanas and can result in premature animals but some examples can be death. Green iguanas can carry provided to illustrate the types of salmonella which can be transmitted problems that may arise. to handlers if sensible precautions are The main diseases of rabbits not observed. are , coccidiosis and pasteurellosis. Farmed rabbits can ■ Sources of stock be protected against myxomatosis The sustainability of small animal and calicivirus with a genetically production is in large part based modified but extreme on the availability of breeding and care is needed to ensure that the replacement stock. There is little vaccine does not escape into the problem in this context with rabbits wild. A possible human health issue and Guinea pigs which have been associated with the use of rabbits for kept as domesticated animals over meat is Tularaemia or Rabbit Fever. a very long period. The situation is A risk associated with the eating somewhat different, however, with of rat meat is contacting Weil’s some rodents and reptiles which disease or leptospirosis. Rats are also are relatively new activities. Many notoriously associated with zoonotic of the animals reared are initially diseases such as bubonic plague captured in the wild. Activities based (of which there are still sporadic on wild harvest need to be linked to outbreaks in developing countries), the ability of the natural environment

36 and its animal populations to recover from other enterprises. Family and maintain their output. Factors labour resources are indeed likely that can affect the sustainability of to make better use of the added this second type of small animal value of small animal production. production include: Women and children in particular should have opportunities to acquire • rights of access to the resource additional skills and become more including competing operations; involved in economic activity. This • resource availability; may have the effect of strengthening • the intrinsic ability of the species their position within the family and to reproduce and multiply; the local community. • temporal (seasonal and inter- Labour needs are more specialized annual) availability of the wild and probably more intensive once stock; and individual and group processing • the potential for domestication are undertaken. Training needs and captive breeding. for processing are more particular and more intensive than for simple Wild capture should, however, production. be considered only as an interim measure. Rearing small animals ■ Indicative costs caught in the wild and then breeding The staple diet of many small them in captivity helps to protect the animals is usually inexpensive. It species while providing meat and largely comprises natural vegetation, income for small-scale farmers. fruit and vegetable wastes or rejects and harvest and household waste. Small animals for small farms ■ Labour needs This is a considerable advantage Small animal production on a small- given the current rapidly rising scale is potentially accessible to most prices and often limited availability people. The cost of entry is usually of concentrate animal feeds which fairly low and the major initial input are in turn linked to the soaring cost is family labour. The intensity of of cereals and the limited output of labour use will clearly depend on the petroleum products. type of enterprise but at the primary Other costs are associated with production level labour use should housing, health care and marketing not be excessive and work with small but these, too, are not likely to animals should not withdraw labour prove excessive (see Case Study 5).

37 CASE STUDY 5 Financial analysis of smallholder rabbit production in the Kumasi district of Ghana

Data from nine backyard farms started and operated with family capital and labour were used for this case study. The farms had been in existence between two and six years at the time of the study. The animal population on the farms ranged from 91 to 223. Breeding does kindled (produced young) five times a year and produced an average of 21 fryers for the market. It was estimated that Ghanaian cedis ¢6725.37 (US$ 6052.83) was needed as initial capital for a 50-doe unit meat rabbit farm in Kumasi. The cost of housing (hutches) was 62.4 percent of the initial capital, equipment was 17.2 percent and breeding stock was 8.2 percent with 12.2 percent being needed for operating expenses during the first six months of operation (the period during which the farm could not generate enough money to pay for its running costs). A profitability index (PI) of 1.8 and an annualised rate of return (ARR) of 36.1 percent were calculated for the 5-litter a year breeding programme and the payback period was reached in the third year. A more intensive breeding programme of six litters per doe per year could have improved PI to 2.2 and ARR to 43.9 percent and this would have brought the payback period to the second year. It was concluded that a high return on investment and labour could be obtained if a family uses its own capital and labour to produce backyard meat rabbits and even more so if the doe could be managed to produce six litters in a year.

Source: Adapted from Karikari,P.K. & Asari,K. 2009. An economic analysis of a smallholder meat rabbit production system, Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 5(8), pp. 969-973

Nonetheless many smallholder have little spare income and few farmers or other persons wishing to savings and will probably require a enter small animal production will credit line to enter the business.

38 Strategies for successful and sustainable trade

■ Market appraisal which types of product are popular Smallholders need to be aware of the and what returns can be expected real and feasible opportunities for and whether these will cover the small animal production before they production costs and provide an start an enterprise. At any level of adequate return on investment. If the commercialization it is the market objective is to produce for a larger that drives production. Investments (and probably more demanding) for commercial production should urban market, a more extensive be made only after it has been appraisal process will be needed. established that there is a guaranteed This, of necessity, will involve higher market for small animal products. costs and time as it may involve Market appraisal requires farmers to investigating such aspects as different investigate who the consumers are, product prices in various wholesale what they desire, where they are, or retail outlets, the quantities that the price they are willing to pay, the can be sold at each outlet, quality cost of production, how products requirements (possibly including will be transported to market and the animal welfare considerations) and transport facilities available. Market transport costs. Such an investigation appraisal helps smallholders and may be beyond the capabilities of an their groups or associations to learn individual farmer in terms of money Small animals for small farms about the activities needed to market and time but may well be undertaken their produce. Market appraisal by a group or association of farmers. can reduce considerably the risks Consumers buy to obtain inherent in making and taking the satisfaction so it is essential that the wrong production and marketing marketed produce be of good quality. decisions. Consumers vary according to age The type of appraisal undertaken and gender and with cultural, ethnic depends on the commercial and religious background and these objectives. If, for example, the characteristics and factors need to objective is to supply a local market be taken into account in deciding a simple investigation will establish what small animals to produce.

39 An early – or even an initial – step The domestic rabbit is a short in production, therefore, is market life cycle animal and is regarded appraisal. However, even though a as an efficient producer of meat as market appraisal is a prerequisite for a result of its fast growth rate and any commercial operation, it cannot high fecundity. Rabbits are not as guarantee success. Market appraisals productive in protein and energy can reduce risk and uncertainty output per hectare as grain and potato in decisions about production and crops but they produce more protein marketing, but cannot guarantee than pigs and more protein and energy success. than poultry (see FAO Diversification booklet No. 3 Products and profit ■ Products: meat, fur, skins, eggs from poultry) and sheep. Rabbit and breeding stock meat is of high nutritional value as it contains high quality protein, iron Meat and phosphorus and a low amount of Meat is the main product of most fat. The meat of domesticated rabbits of the small animals discussed in tastes like chicken and is rather this booklet. As for other types of bland but this lends itself to being animal meat, quality is affected ‘improved’ with a variety of flavours. by the treatment an animal Rabbit meat is leaner than beef, receives throughout its life. More and chicken. Rabbit products particularly, however, it is affected are generally labelled as Fryer (a by the way the animal is handled young rabbit of 2.0 to 2.5 kg and up in the lead up to and at slaughter. to 9 weeks old with tender and fine In order to avoid unnecessary grained meat) or Roaster (over 2.5 kg stress and to reduce defects in and up to 8 months of age with firmer meat related to stress, animals and coarser grained flesh that is less should be treated with care and tender than a fryer). consideration. The slaughter Cane rats are widely distributed process itself should be carried out and are the most valued species of quickly and in as humane a manner ‘bush meat’ in West and Central as possible. Slaughtering and Africa. In Ghana up to half of all meat dressing techniques should be of eaten is that of the cane rat. The meat the highest standards to conform is high in protein and low in fat and is to animal welfare and food safety greatly appreciated for its tenderness considerations. and taste. Other ‘rats’ are edible by

40 humans and are sometimes captured except fish, pork, wild birds and and eaten in emergency situations. rats (see Case Study 6) . Bandicoot In some cultures rats are considered rats are an important food source a staple. Among the reasons why rat among some peoples in Southeast meat is not more widely eaten is the Asia. Rice-field rats are a popular strong proscription against it in Halal meat in parts of Southeast Asia and and tradition. Conversely, in Valencia in Spain rata de marjal in the Mishmi culture of India rats was a main ingredient of the original are essential to the traditional diet (although now at least in part as Mishmi women may eat no meat replaced by rabbit).

CASE STUDY 6 Rats for food, livelihoods and the environment

Vijay Prakash of the Bihar State welfare department told a press conference in Patna that “rat meat is a healthy alternative to rice and grains and should be eaten by one and all. Rat and chicken have equal food values not only in protein but throughout the entire spectrum of nutrition. I haven’t tried it myself, but my mother has and she finds it delicious. In fact, whoever has eaten rat says it is more spongy and better than even chicken meat”. Prakash went on to say that “almost 50 percent of India’s grain stocks are eaten away by rodents in fields or warehouses. Increased human consumption of rodents will ease soaring food prices and provide increased employment for rat catchers. We will have a massive media campaign to persuade people to try it. Some hotels in Bihar have started selling rat meat as a starter. If you order patal-bageri at one of our roadside hotels, that’s what you’ll get. In Aizawl in Mizoram State in India smoked rat is a highly prized delicacy. The rodent is much in demand in kitchens in this Northeastern State. Hundreds of smoked rats come in to the city from nearby villages every morning. Rats caught by traps in paddy fields sell like the proverbial hot cakes.” “I don’t keep records of my sales but I normally sell about 200 smoked rats daily,” a Small animals for small farms New Market shopkeeper told the Indo-Asian News Service. “They don’t come cheap either with one smoked rat costing Rupees 15-20.”

In late 2008 Reuters reported that the price of rat meat had quadrupled in Cambodia creating hardship for the poor who could no longer afford it. Cambodia also exports about a tonne of rats daily to Viet Nam as food. The rise in price has encouraged a return to rat catching and children are entering the labour market for rat catchers and are offering rat meat in the local markets.

As an alternative form of protein rat meat is “low in fat, low in food miles and completely free range”. In fact, some claim that “ rat meat is about as ethical a dish as it is possible to serve on a dinner plate.”

Source: Adapted from Food and Wine. 2009. The ubiquitous rat, by P.Brunning, International Wine & Food Society Europe & Africa Committee - issue 98

41 CASE STUDY 7 Rodent trade in Oxchuc, Chipas, Mexico

In Mexico alone, around 100 wild mammal species have known uses by local communities (Lopez-Wilchis et al., 1992; Naranjo et al., 2004; Uribe & Arita 1998). In spite of the fact that small rodent species represent a significant part of mammalian diversity (Ceballos et al., 2002), the recorded use of rodents in Mexico has focused on large and medium-sized species (Guerra 2001; Jorgenson 2000; Naranjo 2002). However, there is evidence of the use of small rodents as sources of food, medicine and ritual objects (i.e., Neotoma albigula, Sigmodon hispidus, and some pocket species) in the highlands of central Mexico (Mellink et al., 1986). In this regard a study in the town of Santo Tomas Oxchuc, in the highlands of Chiapas, Mexico, was conducted. The number of individuals per rodent species traded as well as the biomass, sex, presentation (raw, cooked), and price of each rodent offered by the salesman was recorded. Rodents were sold as food either raw with skin or cooked. Fifty-three percent of all rodents sold were small-sized (<100 g), and most of them (73.1 percent) were sold cooked. The most frequently traded species were Neotoma mexicana, Peromyscus zarhychus, Ototylomys phyllotis, P. mexicanus, and P. aztecus. Small, cooked rodents were more frequently sold than large, raw ones and there was a significant increase in rodent sales in the rainy season (particularly July and August) in comparison with the dry season. Among the three most traded rodent species in Oxchuc, the Mexican wood rat (N. mexicana) was the most frequently sold. The other two species were the hispid pocket gopher ( hispidus) and the Chiapan deer mouse (P. zarhychus). Meat samples obtained from rodents for sale in Oxchuc had a high protein content (78.3 percent), as well as a high percentage (86.06 percent) of total digestibility. At the same time, rodent meat was low in crude fiber (0.93 percent), as well as in fat and non-nitrogenated components. For local inhabitants, such mammals constitute a valuable natural resource producing economic and nutritional benefits. However, uncontrolled rodent exploitation may also have negative effects on some wild populations, such as those of P. zarhynchus, a species endemic to the Chiapas highlands. The rodent demand in Oxchuc is higher for sets of small, cooked mice (Peromycus aztecus, P. levipes, and P. mexicanus) than for large, raw species (N. mexicana, O. hispidus). The sale of cooked rodents allows traders to keep their products in good condition for a longer period, facilitating transportation from remote communities. The Mexican wood rat (N. mexicana) was the species most frequently traded raw and skinned. These large-sized rats are preferred by local consumers probably because they supply more meat per kilogram than smaller species. The rodent trade generated an estimated income of Pesos 51 841 as recorded in the 10 month study period. The total amount of raw rodents sold generated an income of Pesos 22 051, while cooked rodents produced an income of Pesos 29 790. The average cost of a raw, small-sized mouse (around 100 g) was between Pesos 2.50

42 CASE STUDY 7 Rodent trade in Oxchuc, Chipas, Mexico (Cont.)

and 5.00. Large-sized rats and pocket (>100 g) were sold at Pesos 10–30 each. The three rodent species that generated most income for Oxchuc traders were O. hispidus (Pesos 10 655), N. mexicana (Pesos 7 125), and P. zarhynchus (Pesos 1 761).

Source: Adapted from Barragán, F., Reetana, O.G. & Narnjo, E.J. 2007. The rodent trade of Tzeltal Indians of Oxchuc, Chipas, Mexico, Journal of Human Ecology, 35, pp.769-773

Capybara meat, which tastes rather cuisine and remains so in parts of the like pork and is of a similar colour, is Far East. Turtles remain a part of the traditionally cooked in many ways by traditional diet on the Grand Cayman boiling, , grilling and Island in the Caribbean, so much but most is eaten in the dried and salted so that when wild stocks became form. Traditionally this delicacy is depleted a turtle farm was established served with rice and plantains. The specifically to raise them for their meat fresh carcass dresses out at about 52 (see Case Study 8). The farm also percent but this is reduced to about 17 releases specimens to the wild as percent of the initial live weight in the part of an effort to repopulate the dried form. Caribbean sea. Fat from turtles is also The flesh of turtles has long used in the Caribbean and in Mexico been considered a delicacy in many as a main ingredient in cosmetics cultures. Turtle soup has been a marketed under its Spanish name of prized dish in Anglo-American ‘Crema de Tortuga’. Small animals for small farms

CASE STUDY 8 Grand Cayman Turtle Farm

The Cayman Islands government has set about conserving the green sea turtle in a big way. The Grand Cayman Turtle Farm at Boatswain’s Bay is one of the ways they do it. Conservation plays a big part in the effort to save the turtles and this facility sets out to redress the supply part of the problem. Feeding is easy as visitors (adults pay a US$60 entrance fee and it costs US$25 for children aged 2-12) happily buy a bag of feed at the door and sprinkle it on the water (these are the world’s best fed turtles!).

Turtles mate, lay their eggs and hatch their young in safety unmolested by people or predators. Unmolested in the worst sense they may be but not entirely free from

43 CASE STUDY 8 Grand Cayman Turtle Farm (Cont.)

human interaction as baby turtles are subject to daily indignity as they are picked up and fondled by adoring visitors. The turtles seem to thrive on this treatment as they grow to a good size. A proportion of the turtles is killed for sale as meat but the majority is released into the sea to live among the reefs and wrecks around Grand Cayman. The Boatswain’s Bay farm also supports two other endangered turtle species, the hawksbill and Kemp’s ridley turtle which is the world’s most endangered sea turtle.

Source: Adapted from Grand Cayman Wonderer. 2009. Cuddle baby turtles at the Grand Cayman turtle farm (Available at http://www.grand-cayman-wanderer.com/grand-cayman-turtle-farm. html)

Fur and skins the growth of micro-organisms In addition to meat many small that can damage or cause defects animals produce fur and skins as in fur and skins and will help to a primary or secondary product. ensure a quality product ( see FAO Fur can be harvested from some Diversification Booklet No.8Higher live animals several times over a value addition through hides and lifetime as well as being an end skins). product at slaughter. Prime quality Angora ‘’, pelts and skins products require prime quality are produced by rabbits in addition treatment. Correct treatment of to meat although meat production is live harvested fur and correct after by far the largest output from rabbits slaughter treatment of fur and in general. Angora wool occupies a skins should adhere to standard special position in the world textile practices. Flaying of skins should trade (see Figure 12). The People’s be carried out carefully to avoid Republic of China is by far the largest cuts and other defects. Cleanliness producer of Angora wool at about – avoiding contact with blood and 2 000 tonnes per year. Argentina, faeces for example – is an important the Republic of Korea and India also consideration for ensuring that produce small amounts of Angora the end product is of the finest wool. There is a very small Angora quality. Correct initial storage is rabbit wool industry in Bolivia also important and products should where yields of 100-150 g fibre are be kept free of insects and other produced every 70 days with the vermin. Cool storage will slow down product being sold for export. Rabbit

44 FIGURE 12 Angora rabbits at the Technical University, Oruro, Bolivia (Photo by R. T. Wilson) pelts – the skin with the hair attached several colour varieties of chinchilla – are used for clothing but mainly have been developed including for accessory items such as scarves white, beige, violet, black velvet or hats. Rabbit skins are normally and sapphire. These colours are used for small items of clothing but it controlled by recessive . The should be noted that the best quality colour is usually very even which Small animals for small farms skins derive from the middle level of makes it ideal for small garments or husbandry as the skins of the fastest the lining of large garments though growing rabbits are thin and do not some large garments are made work well (see Box 3). entirely of chinchilla. A single full International trade in chinchilla length coat made from chinchilla fur goes back to the sixteenth century. fur may require as many as 150 The fur is popular in the speciality pelts and at current prices might cost trade as a result of the extreme US$100 000. softness of its feel which arises from Capybara skin is tough and the 60 or so hairs that sprout from hard wearing and produces a very each hair follicle. Since the 1950s high quality and much esteemed

45 leather. At least one outlet in the glove making. Known as carpincho United Kingdom produces trouser leather (‘carpincho’ is the vernacular belts from capybara leather which name of the capybara in Argentina, it describes as “Gaucho belts of Uruguay, Paraguay and southern the ultimate in luxury leather, Brazil) it commands a very high similar to velvety smooth suede price on world markets because it is with a unique tooled finish”. There heat resistant and stretches in only are also luxury leather outlets for one direction allowing gloves to capybara in Argentina. Capybaras stretch sideways but not lengthways produce some of the best leather for and thus becoming loose.

BOX 3 Rabbit pelts and skins

Production of quality fur pelts is not compatible with intensive meat rabbit production techniques. Rabbits are often slaughtered at an age or in temperate regions at a time of year when their coats have not fully developed. Slaughter at 10 to 12 weeks means rabbits still have an infant coat or are beginning the subadult moult. These thin and unstable coats are not suitable for furs. The only season when the adult (age older than 5 months) coat is stable and homogenous is winter. At other times moult areas of greater or lesser size mean the coat is uneven and the hair is not firmly attached to the skin. Some summer coats can, however, be homogenous especially those of rabbits that have completed the subadult moult but the coat is thinner than the winter coat. This rather inflexible growth cycle and seasonal changes in the coat create the problem of simultaneous fur and meat production. Fur is therefore only a by-product in intensive production.

No research has been done on patterns in hot climates but in extensive production systems rabbits are slaughtered at 4-6 months. Quality skins could thus be produced in the tropics if proper skinning and preserving techniques are used.

In an unsorted batch of rabbit skins valuable pelts can be found side together with useless waste. Sorting and grading should be done as early as possible. Sorting is the first operation and determines the future use of the skin. Skins are sorted into three grades: • pelts for dressing (the term ‘dressing’ instead of ‘tanning’ is used for fur) are the best (flawless) skins with regular shape and an intact, homogenous, dense and well formed coat; • pelts for shorn hair usually lack the proper shape or are not homogenous enough for fur products but the hair is sufficiently long and healthy – they are shorn by machine and used for textiles or felting (though the millinery trade is declining in many countries) and the skin is then cut into fine strips (vermicelli) and made into glue (another declining industry) or fertilizer.

46 BOX 3 Rabbit pelts and skins (Cont.)

• waste skins are unusable except for fertilizer with the hair being gnawed, cut, soiled, sweaty and parasite-ridden.

The price of pelts for dressing may be 20 times that of ordinary-quality skins. These last increase the costs of labour, processing and transport.

There are three types of juvenile coat: that of the newborn rabbit, infant coats and subadult coats. The first two are so small as to be unusable. The coat of the newborn rabbit stops growing when the animal reaches 0.4 kg (for an average size breed); it weighs only 8 to 10 g. The subadult coat is produced usually after 5 months of age after a long (4 to 5 weeks) moult and only begins when the rabbit reaches 1.7 to 1.9 kg. The weight of the coat, and hence the length of the hair and its density, depends on the season in which the hair develops and is about 40 g in summer and 60 g in autumn or in winter. It is very difficult to obtain pelts for fur in intensive production systems (slaughter at 11 weeks) but a breeder might attempt to produce acceptable pelts for shorn hair by using simple measures (animal housing, precautions at slaughter and skinning). It is possible to produce pelts for fur in an extensive production system in which production techniques are strictly adhered to, especially with regard to hygiene, habitat and feeding.

Source: FAO.2006.Technology for agriculture : proven technologies for smallholders. Rabbit: Skin, slaughtering and production of quality pelts (Available at http://www.fao.org/teca/content/ rabbit-skin-slaughtering-and-production-quality-pelts)

International trade in reptile handbags (see Figure 14), garments, skins derives mostly from five luggage, briefcases, wallets, belts, species. These are the American watchstraps and other small leather alligator, Nile monitor, black and goods. Small animals for small farms white tegu, reticulated python and red tegu. The presence of the two Eggs tegu species and the Nile monitor Green sea turtles, as well as other in this list is encouraging for small species, have been commercially animal production as they are harvested for eggs and food for similar to or slightly smaller in size centuries. Illegal collecting continues than the green iguana whose skin but many are now bred in captivity could almost certainly compete (see Figure 15). Reptile eggs are little in the same market. Reptile skin used in European and North American products are very varied but mostly cookery but are prized by Arabs and comprise shoes (see Figure 13), Indians. There is a potential market

47 FIGURE 13 Industrial ‘Western’ boots made of reptile skin in the United States of America (Photo by R.T. Wilson)

FIGURE 14 Cottage industry handbag made of reptile skin, Mali (Photo by R.T. Wilson)

48 FIGURE 15 Captive bred green pacific turtle, Guayaquil, Ecuador (Photo by R.T. Wilson) for reptile eggs from captive bred or particularly so for the small animal farmed animals. species which are endangered in the wild and against which there Small animals for small farms Breeding stock are international proscriptions on The production of breeding stock – capture or hunting. Thus the best animals that are not reared simply possibilities for breeding stock to produce meat, fur, skins or other include chinchilla, turtles and end products but are destined to be iguanas. used to provide a pool of animals, Smallholders who specialise often of superior genetic merit – in producing breeding stock are offers possibly the most lucrative almost certainly amongst the return to farmers engaged in small most efficient and knowledgeable animal production. Breeding stock members of the small animal of all species is valuable but is farming fraternity. They will have

49 a deep if not necessarily formal Turtle plastrons (the part of the or ‘book-learned’ understanding shell that covers a tortoise from of the genetic merit of their stock the bottom) together with other and their intrinsic worth in terms animals parts and plants are used of improving the animal stock in in traditional Chinese medicine. general and in their financial value. Taiwan still imports hundreds of tonnes every year. A popular Other uses medicinal preparation based on Rabbits are very good producers of powdered turtle plastron and a manure and as their urine is high in variety of herbs is Guilinggao jelly nitrogen it makes a good specialist although nowadays it is typically fertilizer. Rabbit milk is sometimes made with only herbal ingredients. considered to be of great medicinal Efforts are being made in the and nutritional benefit as a result of People’s Republic of China to its high protein content. satisfy the increasing demand for A dictionary definition of turtle meat as gourmet food and Guinea pig is “something used as traditional medicine to rear turtles a subject of scientific research, on farms, of which there were more experimentation or testing”. than one thousand in the People’s Many rodent species and other Republic of China in 2007. Turtle small animals are indeed used, farms in Oklahoma and Louisiana often controversially, as ‘animal in the United States of America models’ for medical and veterinary also rear turtles for export to the research and, perhaps even more People’s Republic of China. controversially, for research into the effects of cosmetics. Other ■ Adding value rodents are now being used in areas Value can be added to the primary of armed conflict as sniffer animals product – be it meat, fur, skin or to detect land mines and other other commodity – by preserving explosive devices. or transforming it or directing it at Up to four litres of oil can be a speciality market. In this context obtained from the subcutaneous many small animals already have fat of a capybara in good body added value as in many areas condition. This oil is considered and for many societies they are an excellent cure for in considered authentic delicacies and Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay. highly appreciated by gourmets

50 according to local and traditional need to be assessed. These include eating habits. Of the types of small the: animal that are the subject of this booklet, species which fall in to • quantitative demand for this category are grasscutters in processed products; Western and Central Africa, Guinea • market demand in terms of pigs in the Andean countries, price and quality; capybara in the flooded areas of • base products available for South America and green iguanas processing in terms of quality in Central America. In their own and quantity; areas of distribution but often also • tools and equipment available further a field these are excellent and required for processing; examples of highly valued and • cost of tools and equipment and choice foods. their maintenance and spare Preservation and transformation parts needs; of the base product, often referred • needs for raw materials to simply as processing, is carried (salt, other chemicals and out for a number of reasons. It can preservatives, water) for the be considered as a form of storage processing operation; that enables perishable goods to be • hygiene and food safety kept over a longer time. It can allow measures that need to be smallholders to sell their produce observed; not only at harvest (slaughter or • skills that are needed for the shearing of fur) but over a much processing operation and if longer period. Processing also training is needed; and Small animals for small farms creates differentiated products, • capital and recurrent processing moving them from being a mere costs and if finance is available commodity to the higher standard or can be obtained through of a product. It further leads to credit. less dependence on a few items for marketing, a greater product The advantages accruing to portfolio, value added products and processing include: the possibility of obtaining higher returns. • delayed or phased consumption Before considering setting up a of the primary product; processing business several issues • improved household nutrition;

51 • longer storage periods or shelf- management and effective and life; efficient marketing. • easier storage and often Some examples of processed occupying less space; or transformed products that add • reduced post-harvest and value to the basic ‘commodity’ storage losses; can illustrate the possibilities • wider range of marketing options; of small animal production. In and South America capybara meat has • possibilities of better labelling been used to make several types and ‘branding’. of . Value can be added to most meats (and their shelf- Processing may also be accompanied life extended) by drying, salting, by some disadvantages including: smoking, shredding and by the addition of some seasoning. The • competition from large-scale last is especially useful for the commercial processors who may blander meats such as rabbit. be able to sell processed goods at Value can be added to hides and a lower price; and skins by taking them beyond the • high costs associated with setting simple drying process and, for up and operating a processing example, doing some tanning. operation. As already indicated, supplying such niche markets as the Fair Processing is probably Trade movement and the organic best undertaken as a group or consumer can create considerable cooperative activity. This will additional value. A possible involve sharing of costs, a greater source of added value in the quantity of quality produce future or where there is already being manufactured, consistency a high degree of control is that of quality and the probability of Protected Geographical Status of a better bargaining position (PGS) and its derivatives including with merchants, middlemen, Protected Designation of Origin wholesalers and retailers. An (PDO), Protected Geographical associative enterprise however Indication (PGI) or Traditional does require good cooperation Speciality Guaranteed (TSG) among producers, appropriate (see Box 4).

52 ■ hog lcl rdr, middlemen, traders, local ‘indirect’ through or market a to be ‘direct’ can Sales produce. farm sell to farmer a operations enable that tasks and involves Marketing

Commission viatheirnationalauthority. form either completeanapplicationthat is onlineandsendit available to the European application to itsauthority.for registrationandrecognitionnational ProducersoutsidetheEUcan an sends then It specifications. precise to according product the define To(in theEUincaseofEU)must of producers registeraproductnamegroup • • concerning thespecificcharacterofproducts. names from misuse andimitationhelpconsumersbygivingtheminformation foodstuffs. protectproduct production, agricultural diverse encourage These schemes products and agricultural of quality (TSG)) promoteandprotectnames Guaranteed (PGI) and Indication of Origin(PDO),ProtectedGeographical TraditionalSpeciality authorities. public as (ProtectedDesignation known schemes Union Three European range from farmers and producers,throughNGOs, interest groups andretailersto and ‘Fair qualities Trade’.varied andcoverthewhole Schemeownersareequally to additional requirementsrelating to environmental protection,animalwelfare,taste with compulsoryproductionstandards in theEuropeanUnionrangefromcompliance make use of logos but especially at the B2B-level many do not. Certification schemes (B2C) level. or atbusiness-to-consumer (B2B)level at business-to-business They can rangeof a wide cover They that functionatdifferentinitiatives stagesofthefoodsupplychain. They canoperate observed. been have specification, a in down laid and as products agricultural for schemes foodstuffs provide assurance that aspects of the productoritsproductionmethod, certification regional and national Private, BOX 4 specialties (Available athttp://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/quality/schemes/index_en.htm) Source: Adapted from European Commission.2011. Geographicalindicationsandtraditional • Marketing channels take placethere. area andatleastoneofthestagesproduction,processingorpreparationmust PGI covers agriculturalproductsandfoodstuffs closelylinkedtoageographical and preparedinagivengeographicalareausingrecognisedknow-how. PDO coversagriculturalproductsandfoodstuffs whichareproduced,processed means ofproduction TSG highlights thetraditionalcharacterofaproducteitherinitscompositionor Geographical indicationsandtraditionalspecialities at business markets where products or 16) Figure local (see markets finalvillage as at such markets directly consumer aimed and be produce can animal Small wholesalers retailers. processors, 53

Small animals for small farms FIGURE 16 Dried and smoked grasscutter carcasses at local market, Lomé, (Photo by R. T. Wilson) are bought for further use or for small animal production are not selling to another intermediate or exclusive to that enterprise but help final market. to meet general livelihood needs. In extended marketing channels These may include a transport and investment will be needed in market communications infrastructure, sheds, collection points, cold storage clean water, energy and buildings facilities and, possibly, in laboratories for shelter and storage. The more for testing produce. Buildings and developed the infrastructure the good road access provide the security easier will be the establishment and and capability that allow people undertaking of the activities required to produce, transform, exchange by the enterprise. Information on and consume goods. Smallholder the physical infrastructure including producers in remote areas often lack the transport network and its related access to markets because roads costs and the availability of energy and transport facilities are poor or are needed to evaluate the potential to possibly non existent. Many of the move a product along the marketing physical assets needed to undertake chain.

54 Physical communication networks The market appraisal already are also important for transmitting described can be very helpful to small messages along the supply chain, holders in guiding decision-making either in the form of prices for quality for production and marketing. In and quantity or descriptions of how planning production, for example, a product should be presented or it can provide guidance on what to processed. It is important to consider produce, when to produce it, how a variety of factors at collection sites much to produce and how much it and the first points of trade within and will cost. In planning marketing it outside the community as these may can provide information on what be key determinants of a successful quantities are required, where marketing strategy. products can be sold, when they The supply chain for the trade can be sold, to whom they can be in reptile skins is an example of an sold and the price at which they integrated marketing channel. The can be sold. Marketing does not, chain varies from species to species therefore, and as most people think, and country to country but the general only take place at slaughter time. It flow is from hunters/farmers who starts when the farmer chooses the sell skins to tanneries either directly small animal and the products that or via middlemen who then resell will derive from it and commences to the tanneries. The tanneries are breeding and rearing operations. sometimes located in the country of This is because all production must harvest although the biggest ones are be directed at what the market needs more usually located in developed and wants. In marketing terms it is countries such as , Italy or a very good strategy to have sold Small animals for small farms Singapore. These tanneries transform the output or at least identified the the raw or cured skins into leather probable outlet before it has been that is then bought by manufacturers produced. who turn it into goods. In the final A major challenge to small step retailers sell the leather products animal production is to create a to consumers. market niche for the product. This may involve overcoming consumer ■ Marketing strategies reluctance to try a product from an In small-scale commercial production unfamiliar animal. Even in very the potential opportunities should be affluent areas, health concerns identified with probable customers. about the high fat content of highly

55 domesticated animal protein are widespread adoption by providing adding to consumer interest in information, training, arbitration alternate protein sources. services and infrastructure. Rewards that accrue from Production for an overseas export successful commercial production market has the potential for excellent and marketing depend on the skills of rewards but production, processing the farmer and the particular market and packaging standards must be or markets being targeted. In near commensurately high. subsistence production the level Farming to a contract may be a of skill is unlikely to be high and useful marketing strategy. Contract productivity is low. In this situation it farming can be defined as production is also unlikely that the consumer can carried out according to a prior afford a high price. As production agreement under which the farmer becomes more commercialized the commits to producing a given skills required and the levels of product of a given quality in a given investment increase. The potential manner and the buyer commits to rewards are greater in terms of higher purchasing it. This is now a common yields and better quality but the practice in Europe whereby the major level of risk also increases. Post- retail chains enter into contracts with slaughter and marketing methods intermediate processors and primary become relevant since markets may producers (although the system is far be a considerable distance from the from perfect and sometimes subject place of production. Producers must to abuse). In many cases the buyer therefore familiarize themselves provides the farmer with technical with improved post-slaughter and advice, breeding or growing stock, marketing skills. feed and other inputs on credit and Grades and standards become offers a guaranteed price for the increasingly important with the output. Proponents of contract development of high value markets. farming argue that it links small- Standards can be set by private scale farmers to lucrative markets companies, trader associations or and reduces the constraints they public bodies but when common face in diversifying into high value standards are absent the public sector commodities and connecting to is required to develop them. Once markets. Contract production is standards have been set the public not appropriate to all commodities sector can also encourage their but it can be useful in making the

56 production of high value product for only in mainland People’s Republic a quality sensitive market viable for of China and Taiwan but also in small-scale farmers. Mexico (nearly 32 million turtles New and unusual market areas were exported from the United States can be sought and can prove to be of America to these countries in very lucrative once they have been the 3-year period 2002 and 2005). ‘captured’. There are, for example, Worldwide there is also a large huge markets for turtle meat not demand for turtles as pets. Small animals for small farms

57 Support services to promote small animals

■ Technical support expertise required also increase. It is Training technical staff and producers therefore essential that the capacity in small animal production, available for resource management, slaughtering and appropriate practices production, processing, and product in processing is a challenge but the promotion and marketing is assessed. economic, social and environmental Where these need improving their benefits are such that it is undoubtedly development should be facilitated to worth the effort (see Case Study 9). encourage and promote the transition Many societies have considerable from subsistence into trade or to traditional knowledge and skills expand existing trade. in regard to the production, Information on human resource management, slaughtering/ capacity can be used to evaluate harvesting, processing and use of existing levels of technical skills and their farm products. They also experience in production, processing have knowledge of the location and and marketing, and can help identify identity of local or regional markets potential interventions. Other and traders. Development projects required skills include the ability to that recognize these skills and interpret market information. Some build on them in order to provide areas of expertise that could have an more income and to ensure that the influence on whether or not small enterprises are sustainable have a animal activities are successful Small animals for small farms greater probability of success. include: The set of skills required, however, greatly depends on the level and scale • knowledge of the impact of pests of the activities that are undertaken and diseases on final output at all or envisaged. As activities develop stages of the production cycle; to an extent that they require more • impact of welfare and slaughter sophisticated processing and as and processing techniques on trade moves from local to regional, product quality; national or even international the • experience of various marketing skills, resources and entrepreneurial strategies; and

59 • understanding the links between production practices and systems, find variation in quality of the product the problems involved, test possible and the final price. solutions and as a consequence adapt the most suitable farming practises. A common constraint in small The FFS approach is based on a animal production and marketing skills ‘learning-by–doing’ approach where is the lack of appropriately trained farmers learn directly in the ‘field’ extension staff. Training of trainers can working with small animals and each educate local extension staff, who then activity that they carry out involves in turn train small-scale farmers and action, observations, analysis and others in the small animal supply chain. then taking a decision. The aspects In the particular case of small–scale considered do not only focus on farmers small animal Farmer Field the ‘how’ but importantly on the Schools (FFSs) can be organized. The ‘why’. Further information on FFSs objective of FFSs is to develop local for livestock can be found in the small-scale farmer capacity with an Selected further reading section of intent off getting them to analyse their this booklet.

CASE STUDY 9 Training at Joyce-Giwu grasscutter farm, Ghana

Ghana imports 80 percent of the estimated yearly national meat requirement of 200 000 metric tonnes. This figure suggests that there is the need to develop other sources of acceptable meat in addition to conventional livestock. Grasscutter meat is a delicacy in Ghana because of its high protein contents and low cholesterol level as compared to beef and .

The Joyce-Giwu grasscutter farm obtained approval by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture as a model training centre for grasscutter production and marketing. Prospective grasscutter farmers (youth, unemployed, pensioners, single parents, students, workers, school dropouts) are trained in production matters. Training for workers lasts about three days and for non-workers last five days. Training sessions are both theoretical and importantly practical. Specialist courses, such as farm management and dealing with banks, are also organized. At the end of the course prospective farmers can be provided with genetically improved breeds of grasscutters and cages. Novice farmers are mentored for one year for monitoring purposes, so as to ensure that they practice good grasscutter husbandry and refresher courses are organized. Encouragement is also given to form grasscutter farmers’ associations.

Source: Adapted from Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Ghana, training centres website, Joyce- Giwu grasscutter farms. (Available at http://www.mofa.gov.gh/training_centres.html)

60 ■ Business, marketing and about market conditions. If farmers entrepreneurial skills training were better informed about prices As with many farm enterprises a wide and trends they would be in a range of skills are required and these much better bargaining position are not only technical. Business and and would be able to obtain higher marketing skills required may at prices from traders. If traders were first sight appear to be simple but in better informed, trading would be many cases they are only acquired by less risky and they would be able to experience and learning by doing. In reduce their ‘risk premium’. Both successful small animal production, government and farmer organizations sound technical knowledge must can play a useful role in collecting be linked to good business and and disseminating prices and other marketing skills. important marketing information. Specific needs for training Moreover training and support to in entrepreneurial, business and small-scale farmers on how to use marketing skills include: such information is also important. Producers, processors and traders • training in farm business can gain access to market information management; through good organization. This • training in marketing; will include contacts with traders, • training in entrepreneurship; knowledge of additional sales outlets • linking farmers to markets: and information on market trends. supply chain and networks; Market information should relate value adding though training in to the quantity, quality and price of

• Small animals for small farms processing; various products in various markets. • encouraging and supporting It is essential when attempting to cooperation among producers, enter new markets and in ensuring processors and purchasers. that market share is maintained. Whereas information is essential, ■ Market information information alone is not sufficient as A major reason for marketing producers need to have the capacity to margins in developing countries act upon it. Market information – or being high is that primary producers the lack of it – is less of a barrier for have little information about current short supply chains where generally prices in nearby markets. Many local ungraded and raw produce is sold at traders have incomplete information a local or regional level. Information

61 becomes more important for trade in can be formal or informal. A processed or graded products that sell regular characteristic, however, at different prices. is help and support from families Supply chains are very vulnerable and friends. Groups strengthen the where markets are concentrated individual. They allow access to the in a monopoly or near monopoly broader society and to information of information. Producers usually of various kinds. Social assets live and work in remote areas such as networks and producer and middlemen are often the only and marketing associations can be source of information between extremely important in the success producers and markets. Community of small enterprises involving organizations can allow producers small animals. Local associations to offer sufficient produce to interest should be able to provide marketing new traders or to negotiate improved support (including dissemination of relations with existing traders. marketing information) and legal Small-scale farmers as well as and policy advice. They should others involved in small animal also be able to organize collectors supply chains can be supported in and traders to increase their market establishing links and contacts not power. A further function of groups only with marketing information, is to provide or facilitate access to but with the promotion and credit. support in formal organizations Organizations of smallholder such as producer and marketing farmers bring many benefits and organizations for small-scale farmers, have many advantages. They are trader organizations, commodity set up to serve the interests of the associations, etc. members and to be directed and managed by them although in some ■ Organizational options: cases professional staff may be hired producer groups to manage an association. Service Individual producers, traders and provision is driven by members’ and retailers have small voices that are market needs. Associations provide a often not heard nor listened to. The forum where all members have equal formation of groups can contribute rights and can voice their concerns. to greater empowerment through The formation of associations among making those voices stronger as smallholder farmers enables donor well as speaking as one. Groups sponsored projects to be delivered in

62 a far more cost effective manner and and also generate employment training can be more easily provided. opportunities, strengthen the Other advantages include the sharing democratic process and encourage of knowledge, for example, the best dialogue in the local community. species and breed characteristics Creation of and participation in for a particular enterprise and the networks through government, non- type and kind of feed that is best governmental organizations (NGOs) for the enterprise and where it can and the private sector can in turn be obtained. The sharing of risk is lead to more formal and intimate another advantage as are the ability contact with regional, national and to reduce the costs of feed, and of international partners, identify and veterinary services. provide or find sources of training, Associations not only provide an identify new markets and improve effective means for self-realization understanding of the industry. and capacity building of their Cultural, social and organizational members but also have important issues are important in determining spill over effects within the wider the direct and indirect benefits of community. Associations can also small animal production for various increase rural mobility and create social groups and between men and a demand for associated services women (see Figure 17). Small animals for small farms

FIGURE 17 Woman member of producer group, Simao, the People’s Republic of China (Photo by R T. Wilson)

63 A transparent legal basis to develop credit services that can be is required for participatory used by smallholders in the context organizations in order for them to be of the local production system as well able to conduct business development as being profitable for the institutions on their behalf and for the benefit themselves. Smallholders need to of their members. Establishing an upgrade their financial management association is often complex and skills, including business planning, expensive in many countries. In understanding of cashflow and such countries there is a clear need to simple bookkeeping. review and, if necessary, revise the Credit may be necessary not only legislation related to the promotion for individuals but also for producer of market-oriented development and marketing associations. Finance by smallholder farmers. Existing is needed for collection centres, for legislation is often a hindrance rather quality control and product grading than a help to the development of and to bulk up supply to a level where farmers’ associations and to their traders will purchase it. Access business activities. to credit could enable small-scale farmers to increase their income ■ Financial services through higher volumes that can be Lack of or difficulty in obtaining sold at remunerative prices. Longer financial services is often a major term loans are needed for investments limiting factor for smallholder in animals and equipment but access farmers. This is especially a to such financial services is often problem as they begin their move problematic for those who live in from subsistence to market oriented rural and remote areas especially activities. Access to credit is one of because, in most cases, they lack many conditions for investment in adequate collateral. improved production methods and Savings programmes should be systems. Government services have developed in parallel with a credit been used in the past to provide scheme as it has been shown that it smallholders with credit but they is the savings option that is initially have rarely been effective. A used in preference to the borrowing sustainable credit scheme needs to one. Savings facilities help be linked to existing or new banking households to build up assets over systems. Financial institutions need time that can be used for investment,

64 consumption and to mitigate effects and loans at reasonable interest of unforeseen events and risk. For rates and; a credit scheme to be sustainable, • the willingness of entrepreneurs however, it is important to ensure to invest in key components of that, in addition to access to markets, the marketing chain. beneficiary households also have sufficient labour, knowledge, skills ■ Veterinary services and access to feed and are able to Both preventive and curative provide adequate care for animals. veterinary services are required Information on financial for small animal production. capacity can be used to determine Concurrently these services should the extent to which individuals and be provided by both the public and communities are integrated into private sectors in cooperation rather the cash economy, have access to than in competition. different forms of financial services The public sector has a role on and have an effective demand for regulation, preventive veterinary investment capital. On a family or services, food safety standards, individual basis there are likely to research, laboratory work and some be differences in access to credit aspects of training. The private and other financial facilities from sector should be mainly if not both socioeconomic and gender entirely responsible for clinical status points of view. Factors which veterinary services and also for may influence whether or not small some aspects of training. Clinical animal production activities are services can be supplied by fully successful include: qualified veterinarians, by veterinary Small animals for small farms assistants or by community animal • speed and rate at which money health workers or para-veterinarians and time invested in production (see Case Study 10). This three activities are returned; tier system can be very effective • compatibility between income in reducing costs of health care, generating and subsistence making them more affordable to all activities; and bringing health care closer to • the availability of investment the community, especially if private capital and access to external veterinary pharmacies are also set up financial services such as credit (see Figure 18).

65 CASE STUDY 10 Community animal health workers

MacDonald lives in Nzeluni village near Mwingi in the Eastern province of Kenya. Trained as a community animal health worker by FARM-Africa, he was given a drug kit, bicycle and mobile phone. He treats and gives advice on animal health to local farmers in his community and these days his business is thriving. He has almost 80 clients and earns around Kenyan Shillings TSh3 000 (US$231) a month. Not only is he now able to get his basic needs met but he can also afford to build himself and his new wife a larger house as well as employ someone else on his farm.

Since his training, he now helps people in his community with managing their poultry, cows and goats. Joyce Mwanziu, a member of his community, says “what I have learnt from MacDonald is a preventative approach -- as a result my animals can fetch a better price in the market if they are in better condition”. According to Dr. James Kithuka, FARM-Africa, Mwingi, “the level of awareness of animal health in farmers is rising -- they are seeking more advice -- and that must translate into more healthy animals”.

Community animal health workers are trained by FARM-Africa in basic animal healthcare to be able to deliver services and drugs to farmers and to provide farmer to farmer training. “A decentralised and animal health system is important as this enables the community to take care of their own livestock, look for drugs, have their own drug stores and treat the animals themselves” says Dr Joseph Wekundah, Livestock Specialist, BioTechnology Trust Africa.

FARM-Africa has pioneered a ‘three-tier’ animal health system in Eastern Africa and demonstrated that it is financially viable and capable of delivering quality and affordable animal health services even to poor livestock keepers in remote areas. There is a vet at the top, several veterinary paraprofessionals (animal health assistants) in the middle who have usually received two to three years formal training, and a number of Community-based Animal Health Workers (CAHWs) at the grassroots level who have a few weeks basic training. According to Dr. Christie Peacock, CEO FARM- Africa, “there is great potential to replicate this successful system of veterinary service delivery and benefit millions of livestock keepers. FARM-Africa is looking atthe potential of doing this through a franchised service model. Franchising offers many advantages including economies of scale, high quality standards and tried and tested business management.” GALVmed, a charity and not-for-profit global alliance of public, private and government partners, sees it as crucial to work with partners such as FARM-Africa whose expertise, commitment to community engagement and local distribution networks have forged trust and are improving the lives of poor people who have access to local people and local networks for distribution of and animal health care.

Source: Adapted from GALVmed.2009.MacDonald Munuve, community animal health worker (Available at http://www.galvmed.org/path-to-progress/macdonald-munuve-community-animal- health-worker)

66 FIGURE 18 Private veterinary pharmacy selling a range of drugs and small equipment, Kassala, Sudan (Photo by R. T. Wilson)

Conventionally trained veterinarians goods. Building roads and improving and animal health assistants are likely the surface of existing roads reduces themselves to require specialized both the time and cost of getting training in small animal production produce to market. Investment if they are to ensure effective animal in the development of essential Small animals for small farms health care. In order to ensure a infrastructure, such as roads and sustainable animal health system communications, can be justified a mixture of public and private partly on the economic benefit derived financing is required but all financial from small animal production and on costs related to drugs and services the expectations that more benefits should be paid for by the small animal will follow from the development of producer. other farm and non-farm businesses. A key factor in establishing ■ Transport infrastructure commercial production is access to One of the largest marketing costs market. It is not advisable to develop farmers face is that of transporting a commercial small animal production

67 enterprise unless it is physically at all, are often based on standards possible to get the product to market. from developed countries with a Whatever form of transport is used modern livestock sector where home it must be adequate to maintain the and small-scale processing have been quality of the product. For specialized forced out of operation and have transport, such as that possibly virtually disappeared. Many of these requiring a cold chain, market policies are clearly inappropriate in intermediaries have a more pertinent developing countries where very high and specialized role. Commercial standards of processing and marketing transporters are likely to have better cannot be maintained and especially access to financial and physical assets where consumers are not willing or and are probably in a better position to cannot afford a higher price for animal make up a bulk consignment with the products. required quantity and quality. Formal and informal markets are Transport costs are often one of important in responding to consumer the highest outgoings in marketing. demand. Realistic standards for both Transport therefore needs to be need to be considered. Standards carefully planned and managed. and food safety are important for Whereas small animal production development of the formal market. would have difficulty in making a The cost of processing, packing and case for new transport and transport transport through the supply chain infrastructure it could, together with require regulating to protect against other similar initiatives, apply pressure unfair competition. The public health to local authorities to ensure that hazards of transmission of zoonotic transport infrastructure is functional and other diseases are real but need to and maintained so that vehicles can be balanced against the complications move speedily and safely and not and cost of control. Producers in urban suffer heavy maintenance and fuel and peri-urban areas generally benefit costs. Roads that are badly maintained most from an unregulated market and cause problems in connecting whereas more distant producers suffer. rural to urban areas can be considered Policy should aim to strike a balance. a major marketing constraint. Public health concerns need to be considered and addressed in ways that ■ Public policy deal with the realities of local markets Livestock policies in general in without threatening smallholder developing countries, if they exist livelihoods.

68 Policy interventions should In many developing countries include: participation by rural people in • promotion of village/household the political process is virtually processing systems for local non-existent, in part because of markets; their low level of organization. To • guidelines for quality control and realize the full benefits of small food hygiene appropriate and animal production strong producer- directly applicable to producers, managed organizations need to collectors and processors in both be established and developed at the formal and informal parts of local and higher levels in order to the private sector (it is perfectly maximize the impact of the small possible to develop a guide for amount of product produced by each good hygiene practices(GHPs) farmer. History has demonstrated for all participants that strike a that strong producer organizations balance between the economics based on the production and of smallholder production and marketing of farm goods also marketing and public health empower the community in other issues); aspects of life. This can help the • promotion of systems in which community to have considerably producers benefit economically more influence on policy decisions from the added value of better associated with their daily life. quality (quality is an important Improved, more efficient and factor in setting prices); and sustainable livestock production provision of information and leading to improved livelihoods

• Small animals for small farms education for all stakeholders can pressurise public services in the chain from producer to into providing additional support. consumer as this is important to Infrastructure development in many ensure the proper quality of the rural areas has generally been very products. Licensing of traders and slow and participation in decision processors to allow monitoring of making by the rural poor has been quality and handling procedures limited. When, however, smallholders could be a means to achieve provide increased revenues to local this but licensing in itself is not authorities they have a right and can sufficient and further training is expect a response to demands for essential for improving product greater investments in infrastructure quality. and services.

69 ■ Sustainable services for all especially in terms of wireless Services provided need to be communication technology and all accessible and appropriate to all its advantages that its operation can those involved in small animal provide to rural and remote regions. production and marketing. This Media can also be very effective means, for example, that small-scale in making services sustainable and farmers can access training as well accessible, radio is a prime example as small animal traders. Very much of this. the same is valid for other services Embedded within support required by this particular sector: services there is the need to promote access is fundamental. Further humane treatment of animals as services need to be sustainable: well as sustainable production that services are provided for the long- considers environmental impact, use term and resources and planning of natural resources, and careful use are devoted to this goal. There is of hazardous inputs. Materials and little or any use in having services resources required for production up front that only operate efficiently need to be sourced locally and local and effectively for a short period of alternatives found. For example time and then cannot continue as a equipment and tools should be result of resources. Services need to obtained, maintained and repaired be seen from a long term perspective locally. This contributes to the and importantly consider the need livelihoods of others in the locality. for constant improvements and The more sustainable projects will updating of services. strive to use available assets and not Dissemination of information depend on imported resources or through training and extension is equipment. one of the fundamental aspects of Sustainable production does support services for small animals require sustainable services. In and those involved. However, and the environmental and economic as stated previously, services need contexts of the twenty first to incorporate improvements and century there is a need for a mix updates that, for example may derive of service providers, for public- from research and development private technical partnerships and in improved animal breeds. The collaboration, and for a combination use of technology should also of public-private and individual be considered as a viable option, financing (see Table 3).

70 The design of support strategies financial, technical and managerial mainly depends on the intentions abilities and the general economic of the organizing agency and and political framework in which responsible authorities, their the strategy is to be embedded.

TABLE 3 Matrix of services and providers for sustainable service provision for small animal production

Service Provider Financing Supervision Comments

Base Private Private/ Private/ Species endangered in breeding Individual Public wild should be obtained stock from captive bred/farmed animals

Preventive Public Public/ Public Some services could be veterinary Private contracted to private sector services Clinical/ Private Private/ Public/ Curative Individual Veterinary veterinary Associations services Food safety Public Public Public

Advisory/ Private/ Private Private/ Some public financing Extension Public Public possibly justified services Feed Private/ Individual Private/ Public responsibility for supplies Individual Public quality standards/feed description Small animals for small farms Processing/ Private/ Private/ Private/ Public oversight of quality/ Marketing Associations Individual Public hygiene standards

Research/ Public/ Public/ Public Some services possibly Laboratory (Private) Private contracted from public to services private

Financial Private Private Private Fully recoverable at services realistic interest rates

Training/ Private Private/ Public/ education Individual private

Infrastructure Public Public Public Roads/Markets; cost recovery should be in place

71 ■ Role of the advisor • Determine the financial Relevant, effective and demand- institutions in the area of driven agricultural advisory services interest, credit availability are essential if small holder producers and accessibility, terms and are to supply the quality products conditions, etc. that consumers are demanding. Good • Advise on profitability and costs advisory services are required to for a small animal enterprise. promote and advise on production and • Provide production and marketing matters as well as understand marketing advice. the small animal subsector and overall • Promote the formation of agricultural sector and related trade. associations.

Areas advisors need to address are:

• Understand the small animal sector at the national level and in the local area of interest. • Collect information on opportunities and challenges in the short and long term in the particular sector. • Estimate the potential of various small animal breeds in the geographical area of interest. • Feasibility of small animal enterprises in the geographical area of interest as related to small-scale farmers and other actors in the supply chain. • Ascertain the required input supply chain for the area and materials required, along with prices, suppliers, etc. • Appraise local supply chains in the livestock sector.

72 ■ r peae t py peim for premium a pay to prepared are for the flavours of their home nostalgic villages clients towns large many In meat. sheep or beef than delicacy greater much a considered is which consumers prefer so-called bush meat should takepriority. family the of head the that dictates meat at all in cultures where tradition no eat otherwise would who children especially and families poorest the malnutrition to protein provides It against poverty. and fight the weapon in valuable a as seen widely be easily more be should women by can managed that animals of small farming Small-scale activities. but as a complement to other farming rearing livestock classic to rival a as seen be not should keeping animal Small countries. most in soaring is animals large from meat and fish as such proteins animal other of price the when time a at ever than pressing more is investment modest relatively The received. a for protein animal produce far to need so has it than attention more considerably deserves advantages of small animal farming it ecological and economic the Given

n ay at o te world the of parts many In Opportunities Opportunities andchallenges species. other Research on and development developing for been opportunities already has discussed. There are almost limitless ‘species’ and types ‘livestock’ of range wide a of benefits the reaping and managing A for possibilities the of sample undertake. small they activities in the choice little with faced are others who and farmers poor and scale small- many by accepted already are booklet this in discussed husbandry of types The change unknown. the to to and attitudes conventional are animals small of use increased is cheapandeasytomake. that equipment basic only needs and space little requires it since farmers landless and people young women, small for solution of affordable an is animals keeping The tropical countries. many in communities by to recognise local species long prized and livestock experts are at last ready researchers that shows name own its has activity of type this that fact The species. small these of farming urban This trend helps to promote peri-urban and overseas. immigrated have who those among even and countries their in both animals small farmed h mjr rbes facing problems major The 73

Small animals for small farms of these opportunities will support organic and fair trade variants; an effective contribution of tropical • domesticate and regularly produce livestock to sustainable production, marketable wild species. Shifting environmental conservation and from collecting and hunting the maintenance or enhancement of to breeding not only avoids biodiversity. ecological damage but also creates The main opportunities lie in jobs, as for example with the recognising the potential of products West African grasscutter which and markets. Strategies aimed at provides an excellent case of an sustainable development need to build emerging industry with breeders on real growth potential that enables and craftsmen making cages; people to generate at least part of the • target high value market segments. funds to pay for the necessary services. Even in developing countries Among the main opportunities are: there are increasing numbers of supermarkets and hotels that offer • using the comparative advantages new outlets for high value local of smallholders; fresh products. • targeting local markets that are well known by smallholders; ■ Challenges • build on existing market links to Providing sufficient food of sufficient explore the possibilities for adding quality is one of the world’s major value through cottage industries, challenges in the twenty first century. including the development of Producing this food will lead to food non-traditional products from security, improved human health conventional raw materials and the and a higher plane of nutrition. To potential that lies in the transport, achieve the result sustained increases packaging and marketing services in animal production and productivity related to agriculture; will be required. • promote product differentiation within established markets Among the major constraints for rather than establishing new successful development of the small products in a tough food market, animal subsector are: strategies should look for product differentiation in already • inadequate attention in both established markets, for example, the public and private sectors

74 to research and training for • finding or providing financial small animal producers and support in the initial stages of the production; enterprise. • inadequate services for inputs including feed and finance and animal health; • weak producer organizations that suffer from poor management and lack of political influence; • poor or non-existent infrastructure (which is a general constraint for economic growth in rural areas); and • unreliable and costly access to profitable markets and lack of market information.

Developing a technically and economically viable small animal subsystem is a complex and long term process. Challenges litter the route to success. These include technological, economic, social and political challenges at both the micro- and macro-scale. Amongst the final Small animals for small farms major challenges are:

• identifying small producers’ objectives (subsistence, semi- commercial, commercial); • identifying market opportunities and ensuring that they are evaluated correctly before commercial production begins; and

75 Baptiste, R.&Mensah,G.A 1977. Live and carcass weights of giant rat Cricetomys Ajayi, S.S.1977.Liveandcarcassweightsofgiant CIRAD. Barragán, F.,Reetana,O.G.&Narnjo,E.J. Adu, E.K., Alhassan, W.S. & Nelson, F.S. 1999.Smallholder farming Nelson, & Adu, E.K.,Alhassan,W.S. European Commission. Díaz, D.E.P. 2007. A guide to marketing costs and how tocalculatethem,by FAO. 2007.Aguidetomarketing East AfricanWildlifeJournal and domesticrabbit Waterhouse gambianus 35, pp.769-773. future? WorldAnimalReview60,pp.2-6. Tzeltal Indians of Oxchuc,Chipas,Mexico, Animal HealthandProduction southern Ghana:Abaselinesurveyofmanagementpractices, of thegreatercanerat,Thryonomysswinderianus, Temminck, in Ángel, Oaxaca,Mexico. IV TallerNacionalsobreManejo de IguanasenCautiverio,Puerto las IguanasenMéxico, le développement,Montpellier,France,pp.1617-1646. Centre de coopération internationaleenrecherche agronomique pour A.W. Shepherd,FAOMarketingExtension Guide,Rome. schemes/index_en.htm). specialties (Availableathttp://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/quality/ 2003. 2001.ProyectodeConservación,Manejo y Aprovechamiento de Les élevagesnonconventionnels:LeMémentodel’Agronome, Selected further reading DirecciónGeneraldeVidaSilvestre,SEMARNAP, 2011. Geographicalindicationsandtraditional 15, pp.223-227. 31,pp.223-232. . 1986.Thecanerat–farmanimalofthe 2007.Therodenttradeof Journalof Human Ecology Oryctolagus cuniculus, Tropical 77

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FAO. 1997b. Agricultural and food marketing management, by I.M. Crawford, AGS Marketing and Agribusiness Text Volume 2, Rome.

FAO. 1997c. Marketing research and information systems, by I.M. Crawford, AGS Marketing and Agribusiness Text Volume 4, Rome.

FAO. 1997d. Principles for rational delivery of public and private veterinary services with reference to Africa, Rome.

FAO. 1995. The group enterprise book, Rome.

FAO. 1994a. A manual for the primary animal health care worker, Rome.

FAO. 1994b. The group promoter’s resource book, Rome.

FAO. 1994c. Management of rural income-generating activities, Rome.

78 FAO. 1994d. Simple bookkeeping and business management skills, by R. Meijernik, Rome.

FAO. 1994e. El capibara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) – Estado actual de su producción, Estudio FAO producción y sanidad animal No. 122, Rome.

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Grand Cayman Wonderer. 2009. Cuddle baby turtles at the Grand Cayman turtle farm (Available at http://www.grand-cayman-wanderer.com/ Small animals for small farms grand-cayman-turtle-farm.html).

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79 Karikari, P.K. & Asare, K. 2009. An economic analysis of a smallholder meat rabbit production system, Journal of Applied Sciences Research 5(8), pp. 969-973.

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80 Owen, E., Smith, T., Steele, M.A., Anderson, S., Duncan, A.J., Herrero, M., Leaver, J.D., Reynolds, K.C., Richards, J.I. & Ku- Vera,J.C. (Eds.). 2004. Responding to the Livestock Revolution: the role of globalisation and implications for poverty alleviation, BSAS Publication 33, Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, United Kingdom.

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81 Sources of further information and support

Bureau pour l’Echange et la Distribution de l’Information sur le Mini- Elevage (BEDIM) c/o Prof. A. Buldgen Faculté universitaire des Sciences agronomiques de Gembloux Unité de Zootechnie Passage des Déportés, 2B-5030 Gembloux Belgique Fax :+32(0)81-62 21 15 E-mail:[email protected] Web site:http://bedim.org

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Animal Production and Health Division Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00153 Rome Italy Tel:+39 06 5701 Fax:+39 06 57053152 Small animals for small farms Web site:http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/index_en.htm

Green Iguana Society c/o Desiree Wong PO Box 1733 Redondo Beach CA 90278 USA Web site:http://www.greenigsociety.org/

83 Institute of Tropical Medicine Antwerp (Prince Leopold Institute of Tropical Medicine) Nationalestraat 155 B-2000 Antwerpen Belgium Tel:+32 3 247.66.66 Fax:+32 3 216.14.31 E-mail:[email protected]

International Iguana Foundation 1989 Colonial Parkway Fort Worth Texas 76110 USA Tel:+1 817 7597177 Web site:http://www.iguanafoundation.org/contact.php

National Chinchilla Society Paul Spooner Honorary Secretary Tel: +44 1457 856945 e-mail:[email protected] Web site:http://www.natchinsoc.co.uk/contact.htm

World Chelonian Trust PO Box 1445 Vaccaville California 95696 USA Web site:www.chelonia.org

84 World Rabbit Science Association c/o Dr Thierry Gidenne INRA, Unité de recherches TANDEM Toulouse Research Centre BP 52637 31326 Castanet Tolosan Cedex France Fax:+33 561 28 53 19 E-mail:[email protected] Small animals for small farms

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ISBN 978-92-5-107067-3 ISSN 1810-0775

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