Investigating the Affective Responses to Video Game Events
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Investigating Affective Responses to Video Game Events: An exploratory study utilising psychophysiology Benjamin James Geelan, BIS (Hons) Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Tasmania November 2017 Investigating the Affective Responses to Video Game Events Declaration of Originality This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for a degree or diploma by the University or any other institution, except by way of background information and duly acknowledged in the thesis, and to the best of the candidate’s knowledge and belief no material previously published or written by another person except where due acknowledgement is made in the text of the thesis, nor does the thesis contain any material that infringes copyright ………………………………………. Benjamin James Geelan 9th November 2017 ii | P a g e School of Engineering and ICT, University of Tasmania Investigating the Affective Responses to Video Game Events Authority of Access This thesis may be made available for loan and limited copying in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. ………………………………………. Benjamin James Geelan 9th November 2017 iii | P a g e School of Engineering and ICT, University of Tasmania Investigating the Affective Responses to Video Game Events Statement of Ethical Conduct The research associated with this thesis abides by the international and Australian codes on human and animal experimentation, the guidelines by the Australian Government's Office of the Gene Technology Regulator and the rulings of the Safety, Ethics and Institutional Biosafety Committees of the University. ………………………………………. Benjamin James Geelan 9th November 2017 iv | P a g e School of Engineering and ICT, University of Tasmania Investigating the Affective Responses to Video Game Events Abstract This thesis presents the results of three exploratory studies aimed at developing a psychophysiological method capable of examining the influence that events occurring during video game play had upon the affective responses of players, including the examination of measurement effects associated with the use of psychophysiological measures. The recent explosion of video games as a form of entertainment has consequentially led to the rapid expansion of research investigating video games and phenomena associated. However, many aspects of video games remain under examined or poorly understood, not the least of which is the relationship between video games and emotions. The study of emotions and behaviours within video games has been traditionally dominated by subjective and qualitative measures, which are valuable for developing understandings about experiences and behaviours. However, the nature of these methods and their use mean that they are generally unable to provide reliable or meaningful insights into events or stimuli that occur during normal, uninterrupted, dynamic (Klasen et al., 2008; Mandryk and Atkins, 2007). The relatively recent and rapidly growing interdisciplinary science that attempts to avoid these issues is psychophysiology, which involves objectively measuring quantitative aspects of the human body to assess those that relate to the experience of emotions and behaviour (Cacioppo et al., 2007; Cacioppo and Tassinary, 1990). This allows studies to collect objective data on emotions covertly, and without the biases present in subjective measures (Ijsselsteijn, de Kort, and Poels, 2008; Drachen et al., 2010). However, despite the recent successes of psychophysiology and the promise it holds for the investigation of event-related phenomena occurring during video game play owing to its temporal precision and continuous measurements, relatively few studies attempt to examine real-time game events (Kivikangas et al., 2011; Cowley et al., 2016). Additionally, while the use of psychophysiological measures may be relatively v | P a g e School of Engineering and ICT, University of Tasmania Investigating the Affective Responses to Video Game Events covert, the placement of electrodes upon the body and face of participants may fundamentally alter the experience of video game play. However, changes in player experience stemming from the use of psychophysiology measures do not appear to have been sufficiently examined within the video game domain. The research presented within this thesis therefore aims to address these gaps in knowledge, and adapts a high-resolution objective psychophysiological method based upon previous studies conducted by Mandryk and Atkins (2007), Mandryk et al. (2008), Nacke and Lindley (2009), Nacke et al (2009), Ravaja and Kivikangas (2008), Ravaja et al (2006), and with reference to guidelines presented by Ravaja et al (2009;2011) and Cowley et al. (2016). Through this method, this research project identifies and presents three areas where novel contributions to the domain of video game research have been made: • A novel adaptation of existing psychophysiological methods to measure and analyse event-related affective responses to observed video game events. Ten events were identified during video game play and analysed against five modelled emotions, with differences from the mean affective experience examined for each. These revealed insights into the experiences and game mechanics underlying these affective responses, as well as the events that elicited them. This method therefore allows researchers and developers to measure and assess responses to events occurring within their normal environment, without requiring that they be examined in isolation from normal game experiences. This facilitates improvements to both the psychological understandings of game stimuli, as well as allowing developers to better assess the influence of design decisions. • A comparison between events that occurred for both the player and the opponent, and an examination of differences in affective responses elicited in real-time and on a per-event basis. This provided new insights into the interplay between the personal experience of events and events occurring to vi | P a g e School of Engineering and ICT, University of Tasmania Investigating the Affective Responses to Video Game Events other players. This method therefore allows researchers and developers to reliably measure and assess the influence of game mechanics or event interactions in real time, including differences produced through the presence of social interactions. • An examination of measurement effects associated with the use of psychophysiological equipment, revealing that the presence of equipment significantly reduced self-reported immersion, and significantly increased self-reported challenge, as well as perceptions of both positive and negative emotions. This provided novel insights into measurement effects elicited through use of psychophysiological equipment, with indications that participants became distracted and introspective when electrodes were placed on their bodies. This method therefore provides preliminary insights into the changes in experience that physiological measures may produce, which is valuable for researchers and developers considering the use of physiological measures for the purposes of measuring or assessing player emotions and experience. vii | P a g e School of Engineering and ICT, University of Tasmania Investigating the Affective Responses to Video Game Events Acknowledgements “I blame all of you. Writing this book has been an exercise in sustained suffering. The casual reader may, perhaps, exempt herself from excessive guilt, but for those of you who have played the larger role in prolonging my agonies with your encouragement and support, well…you know who you are, and you owe me.” -- Brendan Pietsch -- First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisors, Dr. Kristy de Salas and Dr. Ian Lewis, who provided inspiration to motivate my work, encouragement when I needed it most, guidance even when I did not believe I needed it, and support through the worst of times. I would like to thank my research colleagues whom I had the fortune of sharing my lab with: Anthony Smith, Aran Cauchi-Saunders, Adam Zulkifly, and Lindsay Wells. There is no doubt that your feedback, deplorable excessive of personality, and the hours of Duck Game (and Party Golf) were instrumental in helping me through to completion. To all my family and friends who I have unfortunately neglected in no small, you have my deepest gratitude for your interminable patience, (mostly) understanding, and support. I would like to thank you all for lighting a path through your friendship, laughter, guidance, and happiness throughout the dark years. It takes a special kind of crazy for a someone outside of supervisors to demand to see drafts, and to offer honest advice and feedback. Therefore, I would like to thank Sharon Steinemann for her tireless and selfless support, for her inspiration and encouragement, for holding me accountable, and for always understanding. viii | P a g e School of Engineering and ICT, University of Tasmania Investigating the Affective Responses to Video Game Events Table of Contents Declaration ........................................................................................................... ii Abstract ................................................................................................................ v Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ viii Table of Figures ..................................................................................................