Saint Martin

Communal Identities on a Divided

Ank Kl omp

Klom p, Ank 2000: Saint Martin. Communal Identities on a Divided Cari bbea n fs land. - Ethnologi a Europaea :10, 2:73-86.

The Cari bbea n i::dandSt Martin, wi th a land area ofabout 90 km", is divided by an inte rnational border. ' The northern part forms an integral part of the French Republ ic, the southern ar·ea belongs to the Antil les, an autonomous con stituent ofthe Dutch Kingdom . Despite the partition which exists already fin· 3fi0yea rs, St Marti ners conceive themselves as one people. A peop le wh ich shares a la nguage

Dr Ank Klomp, Department of" Cultural Anthropology, POB 80 140, NL -3508 TC Utrecht, the Ne therlands. E-mail: A.Klomp@FSS. UU.NL

'It's Dutch, it's French, it's Caribbean', a tourist longer perceived as fixedand impermeable. The slogan once proclaimed. The mess age is still border is inextricably bound up with the fate of true: the island Saint Martin is Dutch, French, the nation state and the nation state is nowa­ and Caribbean. The northern area is an inte­ days often confined to the dustbin of history gral part of the French Republic, while the (Creveld 1999, Hobsbawm 1990). Not all agree south belongs to the Netherlands , an about its demise, however. Wilson and Donnan autonomous constituent of the Dutch Kingdom. (1998 :2) stress the continuing importance of However, Saint Martin's most interesting char­ the state in shaping the lives of its subjects. acteristic is its shared 'C aribbean' identity: for According to their viewpoint, "the new politics notwithstanding a division of more than three of identity is in large part determined by the old hundred and fifty years Saint Martiners still structure of the state." They propose the devel­ see themselves as one people. They are proud of opment of an anthropology of international their unity, 'We are an example to the world' a borders, an attempt to "integrate seemingly self-conscious Saint Martiner will say referring divergent trends in the study of power and to the long-standing peaceful coexistence and culture."They argue that " [T)heir integration in not without justificationgiven the fate of other an anthropology of borders resides in the focus divided . But not all Saint Martiners are on the place and space of visible and literal content with the present situation, some are in borders between states, and the symbolic bound­ favour of a united independence. aries of identity and culture which make na­ International borders have recently received tions and states two very different entities."2 much attention. The reason is clear: they are no Saint Martin is a good case for illuminating

73 the debate on internationalbor ders. On the one Historical Background ha nd the border on Sa int Marti n is like other borders di scu ssed in the literature (Don nan The division of Saint Martin dates fr om the and Wi lson 199tl , Wi lson unci Donnan 1998, curly involvement ofthc Fren ch and the Dutch Rosuldo 1989). The border on Suint Marti n, this in the Caribbean. A treaty signed in 1648, "twin dependency of other dependencies, Ithis I giving the slightly larger portion (56 double appendage of other peri pheries" (Badejo km2) still fo rms the basi s of the relationship 1990:1 20), is on the political margins of two today. Nowadays the border is marked by little (large) states. The French and Dutch govern­ more than a hump in the road and fr ien dly ments regulate the daily lives oftheir subjects signs, written in French on the French side and on their respective parts of the island. The two in English and Dutch on the Dutch side" , wel­ Sai nt Marti ns arc constructed as separate com ­ coming the visitor. A small monument reminds mu nities by the interventions of the core state the visitor of the long fr iendship betw een the to which they belong. The tics which bind each two sides. There are no border controls. Th is is side of Saint Marti n to the metropolis create remarkable, as the border is an outer EU bor­ barri ers to the un ity of the island. This became der: French Saint Martin, as an integral part of particularly evident when each metropolitan France, fo rms part of the EU, while Dutch Saint power stepped up its concern for this distant Martin, which belongs to the autonomous Neth­ outpost ofthe realm concomitant with the proc­ erlands Antilles, is only an associated member. ess of European unification . The customs barrier was scrapped when Saint On th e other hand Sa int Martin is an island, Martin became a fr ee port in 1939. and as an island, and as a (semi)colonial island, Although Saint Martin was a plantation is­ it has some specific ch aracteri stics. An island is land in the past, the climate was too dry for a clearly demarcated space, and in the case of successful agriculture. "Salt, not sugar f-1 was Saint Martin, this is a very small demarcated king here" as Badejo (1990: 121) puts it. But salt space indeed, about 90 km2 altogether. Donnan was never economically important enough for and Wilson's (1994: 3) assertion, "that all bor­ the island to prosper. After the abolition of ders, by their very historical, political and social slavery (in 1848 on the French part and in 1863 constructions, serve as barriers of exclusion on the Dutch part), plantation agriculture prac­ and protection, marking 'home' from the 'for­ tically ceased and the land was divided up for eign'," does not apply to Saint Martin: the bor­ subsistence farming. The majority of the popu­ der between French and Dutch Saint Martin lation are descended fr om African slaves, most does not carry this exclusionary significance.As white plantation owners left the island after will be seen below, Saint Martiners do share the abolition. Often people had to go elsewhere 'com.m.u nitas' and 'societas' with those at the to earn a living. The most significant destina­ other side of the border. tion for Dutch as well as French Saint Martin­ This article begins by providing a brief his­ ers, were the oil refineries, established on torical background to Saint Martin. I then dis­ Curaao in 1918 and on in 1927. The tide cuss those elements which are shared by the turned towards the end of the 1950s, when the two Saint Martins and fo cus on the centripetal opening ofthe firstmodern hotel in 1955 marked tendencies in Saint Martin society. The second the beginnings of a tourist boom. In 1994 the part addresses the differences between the two island had more than 7,000 hotel rooms, nearly island parts and considers the centrifugal fo rc­ 733 cruise ships dropped their anchor at its es. In the third part I review the unity of Saint harbours, and 627 ,406 persons passed through Martin and speculate about the fu ture. the airport (La 1993: 120, and 1996:91-93 ). Consequently, the population grew rapidly (see Table 1).

74 Table 1.PopulaI. ion orSi II t Mrw rte /1 and Sa int -Ma rtin English islands or . Given th e (1954- 1 !J9:.l). angl ophone origin of many inhabitants, and Lhe contacts with th e su rrounding'English' islands, Sai11 I Marfi11 English of a Creole variety became the mother

1,597 19GIJ 3,364 tongue of all Saint Martiners. 7,807 1 971 6,191 The 'Engli sh' influence is also clearly di::;­ 13,15 6 1982 8,072 cernible in the religious orientation of Sai nt Marti ners, the majority of whom belong to a 32,221 1. 990 29,G05 Protestant church (Richardson 1996:62). Th ese

Source: Hartog 1.981 : 12:3 ; Census of Sin t Mam·ten churches have an all-Saint Martin organiza­ 1992: 45; Ccnsu ofSa int -Ma rt in 1990: 20. tion. The Roman Catholic Church is now th e largest on both and Saint-Mart in as most newcomers are Roman Catholics. This At the end of the 1950s many Saint Martiners" , church is not organized on a cross-border basis. who had migrated to Aruba or Curac;:ao, re­ However the split is, or never was, that seri ous. turned home, accompanied by their children French priests with sufficientcommand ofEng­ born on one of the Dutch Leewards." Other lish to preside at mass were difficult to find so migrants began to arrive as well and in large Dutch priests were often appointed on the 1 numbers as the figures in table suggest. As a French side. This co-operation on the personal 30 result in 1992 only per cent of the population level continues till the present time, irrespec­ Sinl Maarten on was born on the island and tive of the national origin of the incumbents.

only 47,9 per cent was Dutch (Census 1992:47­ The shared ethnic background, the language, 48). On Saint-Mart in 4G per cent of the total and the religion make Saint Martin in many

number of registered inhabitants were French respects a cultural unity. This cultural unity is subjects, and of these only 28 per cent are born expressed in the 'national' anthem: 'Sweet Saint Saint-Martin on (La Guadeloupe 1996:89). On Martin's Land', which is common to both sides. both Sint Maarten and Saint-Martin most of Most political rallies are opened and closed now those without either a Dutch or a French pass­ with the communal singing of this song. port come fr om , the There have always been flourishing social and the nearby 'English' islands. and economic contacts across the border. The In 1995 two hurricanes struck Saint Martin, treaty of 1648 stipulated that the natural re­ causing heavy material damage. This disaster sources of the island should be placed at the also effected the composition of the population, disposal of all inhabitants, and that people however this cannot be illustrated by figures. should be allowed to move fr eely from one side to the other. These opportunities were well used, in ways foreseen by the treaty, but also by Unity, Co-operation and Shared less conventional activities: Saint Martiners Experiences became adept at skirting the border. The French and Dutch who carved up Saint The exodus to the Dutch Martin in 1648, ruled over an empty land. The also furthered the mixing of Sint Maartenaren people who came or were brought to the island and Saint-Martinois both through their com­ over the years were a heterogeneous group, but mon experience as 'Ingles' on Cura9ao or Aruba, the mixture was almost identical on both sides. where Papiamentu is the vernacular, and be­ Hartog (198 1: 130) writes that the population cause the French Saint Martiners send their was "ethnically the same in the French and in children to Dutch schools and often obtained the Dutch part." Among the whites there were Dutch nationality. Most Saint Martiners pre­ many people of British descent, who came to fe rred to go to Aruba because English was Saint Martin by way of an English island. The spoken at the American EXXON(ESSO) refin­ slaves came from Cura9ao, St Eustatius, or ery whilst Dutch was spoken at the SHELL Guadeloupe, but quite a few also arrived via plant on Cura9ao.

75 In Lhe 1950s the oil refi neries introd uced large resi dential areas were constructed in auLom<.ttion and manyjob ::�wer e ::�cra pped. Luck­ Marigot. The binational character of' the island ily on Sa int Marti n the tourist boom was just could now be exploited to the fu l l. ln the word­

about to begin. The Dutch side took the lead and ing ofa recent slogan,'Twice the Vacatio n ,Twice tiH· twenty yea rs dom inated touristic develop­ the Fun'. The fa ct that English is spoken every­ ments. The ex plana tion filr the di fference be­ where and the dollar is the most common cur­ tween the two sides lies in the views of' Suint rency means that language and money prob­ Martin's local leader�:;.Si nt Maarten 's political lems, which a simple Dutch-French situ ation loade r, tho late Dr Claude Wathey, wa�:;a �:;Launch might present, simply do not exist. AItogether it advocate of development, of' any kind of devel­ is a ticket that makes the island very appealing opment. lle ad mired the U. S. and h oped to to the (anglophone) tourist. attract Arnerican ca pit<:�l <:�nd American visi­ The social and economic tics between the two tors. ln both respects he was successful. Wathey's sides can be illustrated in many ways, but one co unterpart on the French side, Dr Hubert example summarizes it all . Mr Fleming, the Peti t, had other ideals. He wanted to transform present mayor of Saint-Martin, was a bui lding

Saint-Martin into u luxu ry resort for the privi­ contractor before he became Saint-Mart in's lo­ leged few, a 'Petit St. 1'ropez' as it was called at cal leader in 1983 . As a contractor most of his the time. His development policy was more income came fr om the Dutch side where the restri cted and employ m ent opportuniti es were tourist industry began. The mayor stil l owns fe wer than on the Dutch side. Consequently, two building firmsboth of which are located on Saint Martiners who returnedto the island, be the Dutch side, with a subsidiary bran ch on they originally French or Dutch, tended to set­ French Saint Martin. Mrs Fleming stems fr om tle on Sint Maarten.. Therefore many Saint a French Saint Martin fa mily, but she was born Martiners who now live on the Dutch side have on Aruba, where her parents had migrated to a 'French' background. work at the EXXON refinery. She studied in The departure of many to work in the oil Aruba and in the Netherlands (and later in the refineries and th e subsequent economic boom U. S.A. ). With her teaching certificate she re­ on the Dutch side of the island had other reper­ turned to the island of her parents, and fo und a cussions for the inhabitants. Many Saint-Mar­ job at the Dutch side, becoming the headmis­ tinois crossed the border to fill the gaps in the tress of a school there. The Flemings used to live Sint Maarten labour market or to profit from on the Dutch side, but they moved across the the newly created jobs. In 1978 about 40% ofthe border before the municipal elections of 1989, French work fo rce was employed on Sint as the mayor had been criticized for his living Maarten (Bakhuis Report 1978: 102). 'abroad.' Sa int-Martin did not remain oblivious to tourist developments. The Lowlands, the scarce­ Foreign Immigrants ly inhabited Western triangle of the island, was parcelled out for luxury villas. Movie stars, As mentioned earlier, Saint Martin harbours a famous singers, and other members ofthe inter­ substantial number of fo reigners (i.e. people national jet set bought houses in this area and who have neither French nor Dutch nationali­ gave Saint Martin a welcome touch of glamour. ty). Table 2 sets out the growth of the most Restaurants offering excellent French cuisine numerous groups.6 opened up in Marigot, the capital of the French side, and especially in the village Grand' Case. In the 1980s, Saint-Martin opened up to large scale tourism and underwent a complete metamorphosis. In 1990 hotels had been built with a total capacity of 3,000 rooms (the Dutch side had a capacity of about 4,000 rooms at that time) and luxurious shopping precincts and

76 Table 2. Ori�-:inHand numb1•rH ol'tlw la rgeHL groupH of' process, al'l'ecti ng Sa int Marti ners in different forcignerH on ::Jint Maarlt•n!Sa int· Martin. ways and at dificront times. We can di stingu ish at least fo ur aspects of this process. a - a t Sint Maarten S in t M r in First, there is a history of mi gration fr om 1981 1992 198 1 1990 Saint Martin to tho U. S. In tho first halfof the 20th century a con siderable nu mber of Saint 124 4,111 144 3,046 Martiners settled permanently in the U. S. Many of thom wore sailors who fo und a job on shore. 462 a,87 1 63 1 7, 157 Migrants fr om the French side often retained '? 1,590 222 1,099 their French nationality, even though they may have lived many years in tho U.S. and have '? 1,487 168 '? acquired American citizenship. Some still vote in Saint-Martin elections either in person or by Source: Sin. l Mua.rlen., Census 1992; Sa int -Martin proxy. The main candidates for Saint -Ma rt in Monnier 1983: 56, Census Guadeloupe 1990 . always visit the U.S. andAmerican Saint Mar­ Liners help to run the campaign. There exists an As we soc, tho same immigrant groups predom­ American-Saint-Martin friendship society, i.e. inate on Sint Maw·ten and Saint -Mart in. Tim­ a club which unites the emigrants with the mer (1994: 15,17) notes that both the Haitians people on their island of origin. Such intensive and those from the Domi nican Republ ic intend organized contacts do not exist on the Dutch to stay for more than ten years on the island. side, but Dutch Saint Martiners have other This makes them look like permanent resi­ vital links with the U. S. as many do their ad­ dents, who will probably fo llow a transnational vanced studies there. lifestyle (Basch, Glick Schiller and Szanton Second, there is the fact that fo llowing the Blanc 1994). Both these groups have their own opening of the EXXON refinery on Aruba in associations on the island and membership is 1927 many Saint Martiners have been em­ organized on a cross-border basis. Dominicans ployed by an American company. On Aruba and Kittians are also organized and I presume Saint Martiners underwent an important learn­ that the pattern of interactions with regard to ing experience in what they understood the U. S. the border will not differ from those of the to stand for: modernity, efficiency, wealth. Haitians and Dominican Republicans. Third, U. S. citizens and companies played a The fo reign immigrants play a crucial part in very important role in the development of tour­ Saint Martin's economy. They supply the hotels, ism and in the 'hospitality industry' in general . restaurants and other tourist facilities with The boom in the 1960s and 1970s on Sint cheap labour and provide a welcome solution to Maarten was mostly based on American invest­ Saint Martin domestic problems, cleaning the ment. Both sides have American residents (Mon­ homes and minding the children. Altogether it nier 1983:56, Timmer 1994:23,24). According to seems not too far-fetched to conclude that the Timmer, on the Dutch side nearly 50 per cent of fo reign immigrants help to bind the two Saint the Americans are managers and business own­ Martins together. The one proviso to this relates ers, the highest proportion of any other group to the large number of Haitians on the French on the Dutch side. side. This point will be addressed later in the Fourth, there is the general phenomenon of section on differences. U. S. cultural hegemony. As the U. S. cultural influence grew across the globe, its popularity was reflected in Saint Martin. Dutch Saint Americanization Martin even applied for the Puerto Rican status Saint Martin is one of the most americanized of 'free associated state' of the U. S., a request islands in the Caribbean, being not so very which was politely ignored (Badejo 1990: 139). different from the U. S. Virgin Islands. Ameri­ Today most of the news on Saint Martin comes canization has been an uneven and protracted fr om U. S. sources. Large transistor radios can

77 pick up the U. S. stations, and satell ite telev iRion ical chance also plays a part in expla ining this enables Saint Murtiners to fi1l luw popu lar U.S. di::;similarity. The econo mic e!llore::;cence of program me::;. As the majority of' the tourists southern Saint Martin began at a ti me when stem fro m the U.S., they tend to ::;ctthe ::;ceneas the Netherlands was not much interested in the fur us style of' dre::;::; and hotel culture is con­ last remnants of the colonial domai n. By con­ cerned , especial ly on the Dutch side. The impor­ trast Saint-Ma rtin began to develop its tourist tance of' the dol lar wa::; mentioned already. industry in the beginning of the 1980s, a time The long a nd poR itively eval uated associa­ when metropolitan interest in the iRiand was tion with the U.S. help::; to bind the two Saint increasing. There is more to explain the uneven Martins culturally. To be called 'American' is impact ofthe two metropolises. Globally France generally liked on Saint Marti n, it makes one and the have more prestige feel good, it ::;Land::; fiJr money and modernity. than the Netherlands and Dutch. In the popu­

(Being identified a::;'Engl ish ' docs not have such lar imagination it is more chic to be French and a po::;itive connotation, being associated with to speak French, th an to be Dutch and speak the i mpoverished C::tribbean 'English' islands.) Dutch. Furthermore France pursues an explic­ While Americani ;r.ation ha::; gone further on itly nationalistic cultural policy, of which the the Dutch side , "l 'in sidieuse am .riricani satinn," promotion of the French language is an impor­

(M onnier 198:3:46) has not left Saint - Martin tant strand. This concern for cultural and lin­ untouched. Monnier, an - French geogra­ guistic purity is not fo und in the Netherlands.7 pher, visited Saint-Martin before it turned to The cultural differences between the two large scale tuu ri sm. He expresses concern about metropolitan powers and its implications fo r the Americanization of French territory, not local identities were already noted in the 1950s. only because of cultural fa ctors - Monnier The Keurs write : "It is notable that if one asks (] 983:114,1 20) recommends "I Lia qualite, le the native ofFrench Saint Martin what he is, he bon gout fra nr:;ais", as a remedy to "(la l banali­ will say, 'French,' but the Dutch are more likely sation de l'ile" - but also because of what he to say, 'a St. Maartener'. When any conflictaris­ perceives to be lost economic opportunities fo r es, however, he is proud to be 'Dutch' (Keur and France . He would certainly be more at ease with Keur 1960:274). changes in the 1980s when metropolitan France rediscovered Saint-Martin. In the 1990s the Saint-Martin, the Relationship with France and European Dutch also intensified their interest Guadeloupe in Sint Maarten, not so much because they Saint-Martin fo rms part of the department of worried about 'good taste,' no matter how de­ Guadeloupe, one ofthe overseas departments of fined, but because they were concerned about the French Republic. The tie with the metropo­ 'good governance,' and thought that Sint lis is reflectedin several ways. Marigot, with its Maarten could use a metropolitan push in the Hotel de Vi lle and Pa lais de Justice is "unmis­ right direction. takably Gallic" (Block 1991: 19:3).French is the sole officiallanguage on the French side and the sole language of instruction. English is only Differences and Centrifugal Forces taught as a fo reign language at high school Saint Martin has been advertised as 'Delight­ level . This means that only a tiny minority of fullyDutch' and 'Fantastically French', but now­ the Saint-Martinois learns to write English, the adays it is 'A Little European' and 'A Lot of mother tongue of the population. For higher or Caribbean': to stress Frenchness and Dutch­ specialized education Saint-Martinois go to ness is no longer fa shionable. The question Guadeloupe or to European France. arises ofju st how French and Dutch is each part France was never much interested in this of Saint Martin? In answer, one can say that the 'speck on the map', where people neither spoke French side is notably more French than the French nor 'proper' English. French interest Dutch side is Dutch. This is a reflection of the amounted to little more than sending out a few difference in administrative status, but histor­ officials to run the place, and a handful of

78 private c i ti zen :,; who opened restaurants. The many, the connection with France means being mai n chang es came in the 1980s. Al bert Flem ­ pari of a big, modern and democrati c co untry ing, who beca me mayor in 1983, ai med in devel­ and is felt as a fo rm of secu ri ty. Belonging io op Sa int -Ma rt in as a to urist resort just as Sin t France also means fi nancial help and bette r

Maa. rten had beco me. Fo rtuitous ly, in l 986 the opportunities for higher education. Moreove r metropo litan French govern ment introduced a 'France' stands for culture and glamou r: to be tax incentive progra mme to stimul ate French French, to speak French, elevates one's siaiu s. investment in ih e DO M -TOM , th e rll!parternen ts The pol icy wh ich stim ulated ihe arrival of ih e and territoires d'ontre-mer. Th is programme, metros also brought new opportunities, progress which was intended to stimul ate DOM-TOM and modernity to Sa in t-Martin . France, for its economy, fu lfil led another aim as well . Wh en part, did not questi on th e existing relati onsh ip: the borders of ih e EU member states were ihe departments of Guadeloupe, Martiniq ue opened to all EU citi zens on the lsi January and Guyana are part and parcel of the French 1993, French metropolitan s (metros ) were al­ Republic. Nevertheless, there are signs of un­ ready well -establ ished in the overseas territo­ rest on northern Saint Martin as seen in the ries. This new policy was a great success on associations which have sprung up to protect Saint -Mart in and is refl ected in ihe pervasive ihe interest of local businessmen, and local French economic and cultu ral influence. Metro people and culture in general. The main associ­ investments helped io build the new Saint­ ation is SMECO which stands for 'Saint Martin Martin . A few big business names are Saint­ Educational and Cultural Organization'. Mart inois , as are the largest landowners, but SMECO is in the firstplace a cultural organiza­ nearly all the new hotels are in the hands of tion, but a subject like 'Saint-Martin identi ty,' metro companies, as are many of the new shops. cannot be separated offfr om a discussion of the The metros are also found in the professions and position on the labour market of the 'sons and in the administration. Competition fr om metros daughters ofthe soil.' The main issue addressed is particularly keenly fe lt by the smaller local by SMECO is the tie with France and the enterprises for not all French incomers are resulting influx of metros . The right of fr ee well-to-do. Some spent their last penny to settle entry to Saint-Martin of European French citi­ on the island. One wonders whether there is a zens, and after 'Schengen' of other EU citizens group of 'petits blancs' in the making. is greatly resented. When asked to reach a final In 1990 about 8 per cent of the French sub­ assessment however, the verdict of the Saint­ jects on Saint-Martin were born in metropoli­ Martinois is clear: Mayor Fleming, who is seen tan France (La Guadeloupe 1996 :89). There are as the main instigator of developments, has however more metros on Saint-Martin than the been re-elected twice. figures show. Not all metropolitans are regis­ The metros are not the only French subjects tered on the island, some because they see their on Saint-Martin, about 9 per cent of the French stay as temporary, while others commute be­ citizens originates from one ofthe other French tween Europe and the Caribbean. Nor are the Antilles (La Guadeloupe 1996:89).Among them statistics an accurate measure of influence. the Guadeloupeans fo rm the large majority. At While there may be only a handful of metros in the beginning of the 1980s Guadeloupeans the whole administration, this handful occu­ fo rmed the target for local action groups, who pies pivotal positions. For instance, the develop­ charged them with takingjo bs and houses away ments in the 1980s were steered by SEMSA­ from Saint-Martinois. This charge was later MAR (Societe d'Economie Mixte de Saint-Mar­ dropped as the fo cus shifted to new groups of tin) the Saint-Martin development company. competitors, such as metros. Saint-Martin's SEMSAMAR was led by a metro. administrative subjugation to Guadeloupe is The Saint-Martinois are ambivalent about another matter. This relationship is disliked, the increased presence of the European French perceived more as a hindrance than as a help, on their island. Most French Saint Martiners and many people would prefer to have a direct have never been attracted to independence. For line to France.

79 Another grou p of'f'ra ncophones, the T I ai tians, Dutch nes10 of Sint Maarten is only invok ed to

have a l ready been referred to and identi fied a10 attract tourists. A shoppi ng centre, constru cted

one uf' the unifying l'u ciorl:i un Saini Martin. in the 1980s, has gables (painted in pink and Thai i10certa inly not wrong, however in l uro­ yel low), and i:iquarcl:i and streets arc givcn 10u ch

French eyes they arc perceived d iflcren ily. In names as 'Rem brandtplein', or 'Van G oghsiru at'. the govern ment report on the h urricanes (Our­ A windmill has long fo rmed one ofSint Maarten 's

agans Luis ct. M a rilyn 1995: ]11 ) th eir contribu ­ attractions. tion to Sa int -Ma rtin 's GNP and to the recove ry Both Dutch and English are official ly used,

efluri i10 10inglcd out liJr prai 10c. The report con­ as on the sign for the local government in tinuei:i:"They arc without doubt the cause ofihc Philipsburg: 'Bestuursge bouw/Adminisiration revival of the French language on the island, Building.' Dutch is used in all oflicial corre­ wh ereas only a few years ago Engl i10h wa10 spondence, especially where Wil l c m stad

mosily used" (my intni:il aiion). H i10not impl au­ (Curar;ao) or the Hague are involved . At the sible to interpret. the official acceptance on local level English is normally used. Dutch is Sain t -Ma rtin of more th a n 7,000 Haitians as the official language of instruction, at least

pari of the French pol icy in strengthen the after the two first classes of the elementary position of the French language on the island. It school . But over the last twenty years the use of means the Haitians play a double role in defin­ English has increased in schools and some ing identity. They not only make the French side school s teach only in English. English is taught more French, but by building bridges with Dutch as a (foreign) language in all schools. For fur­ Saint Martin, they contri bute towa rds the main­ ther studies people go to Curar;ao or to the tenance of an island-wide identity. Nether lands. Those who can affordit often send their children to the U.S.A.and the Sint Mam·ten Sin.t Maarten: Relations with the Ne th erlands administration also provides scholarships for and the Ne therlands An tilles the U. S. This means that there are well-educat­ Since Aruba left the fe deration ( 1986), the N eth­ ed Sint Maartenaren who have hardly any erlands Antilles consist of five so-called 'island knowledge of Dutch or the Netherlands. Re­ territories': the Windward Islands of Sint cently, however, Dutch has been regaining Maarten, and St Eustatius, and the Lee­ ground. In 1994 one elementary school reintro­ ward Islands of Curar;ao and . The au­ duced Dutch as the sole language of instruction tonomy enjoyed by the Dutch Antilles has a real in all classes. significance. For instance, the Netherlands The fluctuating fo rtunes of the Dutch lan­ Antilles and Aruba are not integrated in the EU, guage on Sin.t Maarten reflect thefluctuating but are associated members. Another impor­ relationship between the Netherlands towards tant point concern s the regul ati ons relating to its overseas territories. At the end of the 1960s settlement: Euro-Dutch persons need a resi­ Holland proposed independence to the Antilles, dence permit for the islands, this notwithstand­ in line with its view that 'colonies' were a thing ing the fact that inhabitants ofthe Antilles with of the past. However, this proposal was not well­ a Dutch passport have fr ee access to the Neth­ received in the 'colony' itself and delaying tac­ erlands. tics were successfully applied. In 1989 the Hague With respect to cultural identity, it is rather declared that independence was no longer on hard to define what is Dutch about the Dutch the agenda. This U-turn was never really ex­ side. There is not anything which could be plained but the EU may well have played a part. characterized as a Dutch atmosphere on Sint As was the case in France, the N etherlands may Maarten and the is rarely heard. have realised that within the context of the A 'dead language' in the opinion of Saint Martin common market, the Antilles could become an linguist Richardson (1983 :64). Indeed, Sint asset rather than a liability. The islands are Maarten is more American than Dutch, having often referredto as a stepping stone to the La tin "given itself wholeheartedly to American tour­ American . The sudden benevolence ist culture" (Block 199 1: 193). Normally the had a price : a larger voice for the N etherlands in

80 local al'l'uir::;. F'or in::;tance, the acces::; of' Euro­ lied with th e statu s quo. Some ti me befi>re the Dutch in the Antil le::; had to be enlarged or no l uro-Dutch interv ention in Sinl Mam·ten an longer subject to restrai nt. More influence of organ i:>:ation 'We to We' was set up to protect th e the Neth erlands i::; not what the Anti lles see as interests ofthe local people, especially business in thei r interest, they want to remain as au ton ­ people. 'We to We' condemned the imposition or

omous as possible. At th e ti me of writing, noth­ legal restraint as coloni ali sm. These are not the ing has been decided yet con cerni ng the fu ture only signs of discontent. Lasana M. Sekou (the relati ons w ithin the Ki ngdom. pseudonym of H.H. Lake ) a Si nl Ma arten o r The new invo lvement of the Netherlands better Saint Martin poet and newspaper editor had a decisive influence on Sin. t Ma.m·ten. Sint is the driving fo rce behind a group of people Ma.w·ten had a bad name, being linked to drug­ from both sides ofthe island who are struggling related cri me, and its administ rati on be ing ac­ for an independent and united Saint Martin. cused of corruption, and misgovernment. The Lasana's position is ideological : 'colonies' be­ compl aints dated fr om the 1970s, but no action long to the past and the colonial border has to was ev er taken. In 1992, however,Sinl Maw·ten disappear (Sekou 1996, Sekou, Francis and

was put under a form oflegal restraint, the most Gumbs 1990). Due to his efforts Saint Martin extreme fo rm of intervention provi ded in the now also has its own flag. regul ati ons ofthe Kingdom . After Sint Maarten Sint Maarten's connection to Cura9ao has became a ward of court, the Hague sent police only been mentioned in passing and the pres­ officers, tax officials,jud ges and other person­ ence on southern Saint Martin of many nel to improve administrative proceedings. Cura9aoans has not been referred to at all. The According to the latest census (1992), 5,6 per bond between Sint Maarten. and Cura(!ao re­ cent of the Dutch subjects on Sin.t Maa.rten. are sembles the relations between Saint-Mart in born in the Netherlands. The majority plans to and Guadeloupe. Cura9ao has always been the leave after a short stay on the island (Timmer most important island of the N etherlands Anti­ 1994: 22). The number ofmetropolitan Dutch on lles, so it played something of the role of a Sin.t Ma.a.rten has always been small . They metropolis to the other islands. Unlike the sit­ include a handful of business people, among uation on Saint-Martin, the low profile of the whom were one or two big names, and others Euro-Dutch until recently meant that the brunt like teachers, who took up jobs for which local of local resentment of external influence was people were not then available. How the latest borne by Cura9ao and the Cura'

81 Sai nt Martin. Amongst oihcr negative sicrco­ common . The Euro-Dutch are less visible ihan iy pcs, ihey arc seen a:; arrogant. The prob lem their Euro-French counterparts as they usually lies in ihe division of' ro le:;.When Saini Martin­ speak Engl ish, do not dominate business, and ers lived on Curac;;ao ihey gen eral ly be longed io are not concentrated in specific residential are­ the lowest stratum of Curac;;ao society. Ye i now as. on their own island, ihe Curac;;aoans are seen io The attitude of the metros and Guade­ have the upper hand and Sin l Ma.a.r tenaren to loupeans towards the Dutch side, depends part­ be subordinate io ihe m. ly on their level of ease with the English lan­ In recent years Sint Ma.a.rten 's relationsh ip guage. They do not cross the border very often. wiih the has been the Some only make use of the banks on the Dutch subject of debate as it has been many times in side, and then insist on having an interpreter hi sto ry. Sint Ma.a.rtenaren did not like the idea when doing business there. of being subjugated io Curac;;ao without the For those fr om Curac;;ao Saint-Martin has Dutch umbrella. The Dutch decision to retain always been experienced as 'abroad,' a fe eling ties with th e Antilleshas modified the situation which has intensified the more French it has somewhat. Nevertheless, in 1994 only 60 per become. Only the very sophisticated among cent of Sint Ma.artenaren voted in favour of a them will pluck up the courage to enter the continued relation with the Netherlands An­ metroenclaves. The Euro-Dutch perceive French ti lles, i.e. Curac;;ao. This was not a very positi ve Saint Martin in terms of a holiday resort, some­ result, especially when it is borne in mind that where where you go for a shopping spree or a part of the electorate is fr om Curac;;ao. Ai the nice dinner. They know as little or as much end ofthe 1990s the number of people in favour about the French side as people usually know of the Netherlands Antilles had dropped even about their vacation destination. fu rther to 41 per cent (Oostindie & Verton Recent developments still had an other ef­ 1998:161). fe ct. In the past it has always been the Dutch side which was economically better off, Saint Martin was the dependent partner. French in­ The Border Redefined volvement in Saint-Martin has changed that Saint Martin's economic development has an and nowadays Sint Maarten and Saint-Martin important implication for the island: it served are almost at equal footing. Only in a few to redefine and enhance the border. The accom­ respects Saint-Martin is still dependent on Sint panying influx of Dutch subjects to southern Maarten. Saint-Martin has only a very small Saint Martin, and the French subjects to north­ airstrip so nearly all tourists land at the inter­ ern Saint Martin had the effect of strengthen­ national airport on the Dutch side. The large ing the different cultural identities on each side cruise ships, whose passengers disperse over of the border. These changes are more evident the whole island, nearly all anchor in Sint on the French side where the use of French has Maarten's Great Bay.Yet Saint-Martinhas some increased considerably, and where some parts advantages over Sint Maarten. Whilst Sint are predominantly white and French speaking. Maarten's development followed the 'free play A Dutch Saint Martiner experiences these new of market forces,' careful planning in Saint­ metro precincts as a foreign country. Martin left some rural areas unspoiled, creat­ Turning to the Dutch side, the division opened ing a beautiful natural backdrop to the more up by the inflowof Dutch subjects, particularly urbanized localities. Furthermore, the new ar­ those from Curac;;ao, is also apparent. The dis­ chitecture has an attractive West-Indian ap­ like of Sint Maartenaren for the Curac;;aoans is peal. When the many development plans are shared by the Saint-Martinois. When asked fully realized, it is not inconceivable that the about the Dutch side of the island , Saint-Marti­ pecking order between the two sides of the nois will immediately tell you that they do not island will be reversed. That will put the rela­ like all those Curac;;aoans, who treat them like tionship between the two Saint Martins to the strangers and with whom they have nothing in test, in a situation where not only because of the

82 immigration of Dutch and French 'nationals' nate state fr om nation. Normally it is th e nation the two Saint Martins are grow ing somewhat not the state which is the elusive entityY What apart, but also beca use population growth as would bei ng a nation mean for Saint Martiners? such made each side more self-supporting in It is clear that this fe eling excludes France and the social and technical sense. the Netherlands, Guadeloupe and Cura<;ao: their interference is always fe lt as the interfere nce of' outsiders. The kind of emotion aroused by 'na­ Unity Reconsidered ti onhood' docs express something of the fe el­ Saint Marti n, that "curious anomaly fr om the ings Saint Martiners have for their islan d, colonial past" (Block 1.991 :193) is remarkable notwithstanding their 'moving roots' (Richard­ for its long sustained cul tural and social unity. son 1997), and their eschewal of independence. What makes this island diffe rent from other In fa ct the loyalty is more established now that divided islands? Saint Martin is able to fe ed the 'sons and daugh ­ Common sense would lead one to think of its ters of the soil.' Of course for Dutch Saint small size as an explanation. Certainly small­ Martiners Sint Maarten is more 'home' than ness removes practical barriers to unity. Saint French Saint Martin and the other way round, Martin's relative global marginality - a factor but this does not harm the idea of a community not unrelated to size - has also played a role. A which includes the whole island. more active colonial interest in the past might Saint Martin is one of the many cases which have resulted in widen ing the gap or abolishing challenges the territoriality of the state (sec the the border altogether. Ye t smallness in itself is other articles in this collection and i.a. Donnan not sufficient,for after all people also quarrel in and Wilson 1994 , Wilson and Donnan 1998). We mini arenas. have to learn to understand the territoriality of We have to look to history to understand how the state as a relative notion. Saint Martin also Saint Martin has evaded the fate of some other shows that this state of affairs has already a divided islands: its shared 'ethnic' background, long history, which cannot be simply attributed the benevolent partition treaty, and the acci­ to such modern phenomena as globalization. dent of English becoming the vernacular. Being It is interesting to speculate about how many the tongue of neither of the two colonial powers, 'imagined communities,' to use Anderson's (1991) it served as a neutral vehicle for communica­ term in a somewhat liberal way, will co-exist in tion. Its position on the island is strengthened the fu ture, three as in the past? Two, given the both by the global status of English and of the renewed interest in the island by France and U.S.,a country which is most admired on both the Netherlands? Or one, born from a unified sides of the border. As the U.S.never exercised Saint Martin? Certainly the political unity of formal political control over Saint Martin, no Saint Martin is not on the cards for the time (past) colonial connections complicate or cloud being. As neither Sint Maartenaren nor Saint­ the relationship. Martinois want to become independent the bor­ The relationship between Saint Martin and der between French and Dutch Saint Martin is its respective metropolitan and regional pow­ likely to remain. There will continue to be two ers has been described as the main centrifugal Saint Martins, but what about the third dimen­ force on the island. There can be little doubt sion, the shared cross-border identity? Para­ about this effect. Yet one might wonder what doxically, we saw that the unification of Europe the situation would be without the 'external' had the effect of emphasizing cultural differ­ powers. May be their influence is more contra­ ences between the two sides of the island. dictory: two independent Saint Martins might Will the emancipation of the French side, have more difficulty stickingtogether. Now they which came about by the injection of metro are never (completely) responsible for the deci­ investment, destroy the harmony between them? sions made, there are always others to blame. It seems unlikely. In the first place because Wilson and Donnan (1998) analyze interna­ there are no old scores to settle, French Saint tional borders as a tool with which to discrimi­ Martiners like to be equal to the Dutch side, but

83 there arc no ill fe el i ng-s about the past. Second ly, Ma rlin ) with Ph ilipsbu rg (Sint Ma. a.rlen ). To the bu::;iness advantages to be ga ined from the the l:louthof t he mon u mcni a new tourist attrac­ present situation do include Euro-French en ­ tion wal:lplan ned . The project included the con­ terprises.The fi.1rcign migrunil:lwer e mentioned. l:ltruction of an eighteen hole gol1courl:lc, with Many of the newcomer�; al ready have a ret;i ­ t;ixt cen holes on the Dutch side and two holes on dence and a work perm it. Over time many will the French side. Presumably it was thought acquire fu ll civil rightl:l, and then continue to that the idea of hitting a golf ball fr om the link the two pa ris of the island. Netherlands An tilles into France would inspire With rel:lp cct to the impact of Americaniza­ many a golfer. However, putting this plan into tion , this global cultural influence is likely to practice meant replacing the border mon ument . grow and affe ct both sides ofthe island. Of!i cial ­ This propot;al caul:ledsuc h indignation through­ ly and unofficially Englil:lhis gai ning in impor­ out Saint Martin thai a protest march was tance, despite the presence of Euro-Frcnch on organized. It was a great success: the monu­

Sain t -Ma rlin and the passage orthe loi To u.hon ment remained and the golf-course had to be

(sec note 7). Paradoxically, we saw that the redesigned. It was a remarkable protest: the un ification of Eu rope had the cflcci of empha­ symbol of Saint Martin's unity should not be si zing cultural differences between the two sides touched. It shows exactly what Saint Martiners of the island . Competition within the EU re­ want: continued peaceful coexistence. gion al bloc is real, yet there is also evidence of co-operation between enterprises from differ­ ent member states. Co - operation between Notes France and the Netherlands with respect to 1. Fieldwork on Saint Martin took place in 1984, Saint Martin barely exists. Ye t agreement be­ 1998, and 1990. The author, Euro Dutch, stayed in tw een France and the Netherl ands on the sta­ the French part in 1.984 and 1989, and in the Dutch tus of Saint Martin has been made necessary by part in 1. 990. She would like to acknowledge the support of the University of Utrecht in fu nding the terms ofthe Maastricht and Schengen trea­ this research. She is also grateful to Paul van der ties. Saint-Martin is part of the single Europe­ Grijp, Wi m Hoogbergen, Diana Kay, Dirk Kruijt, an market and thereby an area where people Fram;oise Marsaudon, Bill Maurer and Bonno and goods fr om Europe can circulate freely, Thoden van Velzen for their helpful comments on an earlier draft. while Sint Maarten with its autonomous status 2. The idea of an 'anthropology of borders' was first can still restrict the entrance of migrants and proposed in an earlier publication (Donnan and goods fr om Europe. If Saint-Martin were to be Wilson 1994). included in a EU tax regime, the differences 3. Not all Saint Martiners approve of the terms with fr eeport Sint Maarten would create sub­ 'French' and 'Dutch Saint Martin' as they sound too colonialist for their liking. They prefer 'north­ stantial inequalities. Moreover the border should ern' and 'southern' to distinguish the parts. In this have to be controlled, which is inconceivable on article I will use the different terms indiscrimi­ present-day Saint Martin. nately, besides others such as the French Saint­ Formal cross-border co-operation is as yet Martin and the Dutch Sint Maarten. I will ignore the often employed description 'St.Maarten/ not much developed. As far as organizations St.Martin' for the whole island and simply use such as SMECO and 'We fo We' are concerned, 'Saint Martin.' co-operation is generally restricted to cultural 4. In this article the figures relatingto Saint Martin­ affairs, such as joint musical, theatrical, and ers refer to people born on Saint Martin and with either French or Dutch nationality (or both). Need­ literary meetings. Ye t, there are examples of less to say, these 'statistical' Saint Martiners do joint action, and one concerns the very symbol of not exactly overlap with those who fe el they are unity on Saint Martin, the border monument. It Saint Martiners and are considered to be such by happened in 1989. The border monument, a others. My discussion refers to these ethnic Saint simple pillar with an inscription, was erected in Martiners and the statistics are drawn only to give some indication of their number. Also see note 8. 1948 to commemorate three hundred years of 5. I have followed local usage here, 'Leeward' in­ friendly coexistence. lt is located at the frontier cludes Aruba, Curaao and Bonaire, and 'Wind­ on the western road connecting Marigot (Saint­ ward' Saint Martin, Saba, and Saint Eustatius.

84 6. These figu res underestimate the nu mber of" f(JJ"­ Don nan, Tl. and T. M. Wilson (cd.) 1994 Bonlt·r AtJ· ci gn rcsid()nt:�; on the island. Whi lst th() Sin t proru;/ws:A nth ropolo{.ficalPers pect ives on fi'n lll f it•rs. Mn nrft•n ctmsus aims to include all inhabitants, Lan ham: University Press of America. whet her docu mented or not , this docs not ensure Guadelou pe, La 1993, 1996: Rapport An nucl. Pa ri:;: that all the res idents arc co unted. On Sa int- Ma.r­ Institut d'Emission des Departemcnts d'O utrc-MPr. tin only lega l res ident;; arc counted. Hartog, J. 1981: History of" Sint Maw·ten and Sa int 7. One cx()mplc crvc by way of" illustrati on. In Martin . Sint Maartcn, N.A.: The Sint Maa r-ten France the 'loi To ubon ,' wh ich was passed in 1994 ,Jaycees. and na med all.cr the Minister of Cu l ture and Hobsbawm, E. 1.990: Nations and Na -tionalisms sine<' Fra ncophoni c, aims to protect the French lan ­ 1780s: Prouram.me , My th, Rtw.lity. Cambridge: Cam­ guage from corru ption by f(Jrcign, cpecially Eng­ bridge University Press. lish infl uences. Arou nd the same time in Holland Kcur, J. Y. and D.L. Keur 1960: Windward Children . A the Minister of Education proposed th at u niversi ­ St udy in Hu man Ecology of" the Three Dutch Wi nd­ ty cou rses shou ld be taught in English. Al thou gh ward h/a nds i n the Caribbean. Acn: Royal Va n the proposal was not accepted , there arc no strong Gorcum LTD. obj ections against the usc of English (or other Monnier, Y. 1983: "I.:immuable et le changean. t", Ct ude languag'cs) for teach ing purposes. de la partie fi·an.r.;aise de Sa in t-Ma rtin. Bord ea ux: 8. There arc also quite a few Arubans among the CRET et CEGET. Pa piamcntu speakers on Sint Maartcn. In 1992 Oostindie, G.& P.Verton 1998:Ki sorto di Rein.o? Wh at they numbered 1,900 (Ti mmer 1994: 13). Among kind of" Kingdom ? Vi sies en verwachtingen van these are many people who are ethnic Saint Mar­ An. tillian. en. en. Arubanen omtrent het Konin/u·U/1. tincrs, being the children of Saint Martin parents Den Haag: Sdu Uitgevers. who migrated to Aruba at the ti me the EXXON OuragansLuis and Marilyn 1995: Rapport de mission refinery created many jobs. Other Arubans ar­ 17 au 23 septembre 1995 . Ministere du Logement. rived in the 1980s after the EXXON refinery Direction de !'Habitat et de Ia Construction. Direc­ island closed down and independence loomed. The tion Departementale de l'Equipement. Guadeloupe. people who arc born on Aruba surpass the Recensement general de Ia population de 1990. 1990 Cura.;:aoans when it com es to ed ucation and pay Evolutions dcmographiques 1975 - 1982 - 1990. and are only inferior to the Euro-Dutch in this Departments - arrondisements, communes - un itcs respect. urbaines. Departments d'outre-mer. Paris: Institut 9. I am assuming here that Sint Maartcn belongs to national de Ia statistique et des etudes economiq ues. the Dutch state, an assumption which is debata­ Richardson, L. 1983: The sociolinguistic situation in ble. The Antilles are no longer recognized by the St Martin. In: Carrington, L.D. (ed.) Studies in UN as being colonial. Caribbean. Language. Society for Caribbean Lin ­ guistics: 63-70. Richardson, B. 1996: Ancestor. Une Etude d'Histoire References & d'Anthropologie Culturelle de l'ile de Saint-Mar­ tin. Unpublished Thesis. Paris/Saint-Martin. Anderson, B. 1994: Imagined Communities. Reflec­ Richardson, B. 1.997: Interview in The St Maw·ten tions on the Origins and the Sp read a/Nationalism. Guardian. July 25-26. London: Ve rso. Rosaldo, R. 1989: Culture & Truth. The Remaking of Badejo, F. 1990: Sint Maarten: the Dutch Half in Social Analysis. Boston: Beacon Press. Future Perspective. In: Sedoc-Dahlberg, B. (ed.) Sekou, L.M. (ed.) 1.996 (1990): Na tional Symbols of" The . Prospects fo r Democracy. St. Martin. A Primer. House of Nehesi Publishers. New York etc.: Gordon and Breach: 119-151. St. Martin, Caribbean. Bakhuis, D. 1978: Rapport van de commissie van Sekou, L.M., Francis, 0. and N. Gumbs 1990: The onderzoek Bovenwindse eilanden. Voorzitter: D. Independence Papers. Readings on a New Po litical Bakhuis. Status fo r St Maarten l St Martin. House ofNehesi. Basch, L., Glick Schiller, N. and C. Szanton Blanc St. Maarten, Caribbean. 1994: Nations, TransnationalPro jects, Postcolonial Timmer, M. 1994: Ethnicity on St Maarten: Key or Predicanumts and Deterritorialized Nation-State. Obstacle? Research into the Ethnic Organization of etc.: Gordon and Breach Publishers. a Timesharing Resort on St. Maarten N.A. Under­ Block, A. 199 1: Masters ofPa radise: Organised Crime gradvate Thesis. University Utrecht. and the Internal Revenue Service in . Vo lks- en Wo ningtelling. 1993:Derde A!gemene Yo lks­ New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publish­ en Woningtelling Nederlandse Antillen. Toestand ers. per 27 januari 1992. Willemstad: Centraal Bureau Census Sint Maarten see: Volks- en Woningtelling. voor de Statistiek. Census Saint-Martin see: Recensement et Resultats. Wilson, T. M.and H. Donnan (eds.) 1998: Border Iden ­ Creveld, M. van 1999: The Rise and Decline of the tities. Nation. and State at International Frontiers. State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press.

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