CZ 107911

EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

.-<:, t "* ,,-SS.fc'

HUNGARIAN COSTUME most elaborate costume in Europe EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

ITS NATIONAL AND MUSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

By JOAN LAWSON

Published under the auspices of The Teachers Imperial Society of of Dancing Incorporated

WITH ILLUSTKATIONS BY IRIS BROOKE

PITMAN PUBLISHING CORPORATION NEW YORK TORONTO LONDON First published 1953

AHSOOrATKI) SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS. I/TT>. London Mblbourne Johannesburg SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS (CANADA), LTD. Toronto

MADB IN QIUtAT DRTTACN AT TTIK riTMAN PRBSB^ BATH For DAME NZNETH DB VALOIS

With Gratitude and Admiration

Hoping it will answer in some part Iter a the request for classification of historical and musical foundation of National Dance

Preface

MrlHE famous Russian writer has said: and warlike Gogol "People living proud lives I that same in their a free life that express pride dances; people living show same unbounded will and of a diniate A poetic self-oblivion; people fiery express in their national dance that same and passion, languor jealousy," There is no such as a national folk dance that a dance thing is, performed solely within the boundaries as are known political they to-day. Folk dances, like all other

folk arts, follow it would be to define ethnological boundaries; perhaps possible

the limits of a nation from a of the dances the and the arts study people perform they

practise. The African native of the Bantu tribe who asks the do great stranger "What you dance?" does so because he that the dance will knows, perhaps instinctively, stranger's

him to understand of that man's life. help something country, customs, and ways of is more the dance he also What important, through may discover some elements that will link him to the not in the social of -movement visitor, only activity making together, also of ancient but by way some family traditions reflected in those movements. This of movements occurs the mass linking people through despite migrations, wars, other which are the balance the varied ethnic and upheavals continually changing of

It is still to find certain and movements combined with groups. possible steps specific

characteristics in the dances of areas. are also found musical many widely dispersed They the modern folk and which with the and among country dances, originated patriotic the late and nineteenth centuries. These nationalistic movements of eighteenth early to the ancestors of the modern nations who features belonged originally swept through and Africa before settled down and intermarried. Dances and round Europe, Asia, they built from such movements therefore reflect something of the many influences that to form a habits and work have helped people's customs, Among the many elements which can be said to fill in the background of folk dances are these still performed fcxlay

its climate and which to 1. The situation of the country, physical features, help work the and of movement determine the type of done, quality style performed. of the inhabitants and the influence of 2. The racial origins subsequent immigrations and of wars.

and the churches' attitude towards the dance, the 3. The forms ofreligion relationship and their between the people government. between the sister arts of music, drama, literature, and 4. The relationship painting. cover some of the of dance, and to This book is an attempt to background European viii PREFACE

a help others to understand how dances will interpret people's origins, character, lives, customs, and traditions.

The book is divided into two parts. Part I deals with the development of European folk dance in general, and describes how the various peoples are linked together by way of in the rituals and movements. Part n deals with particular characteristics found folk dances of each European country, which are associated with those specific musical features that constitute its national form of music.

These later chapters are admittedly uneven but the dances of some countries arc so much more interesting than those of others. Moreover, I have preferred to spend more time on those countries whose dances I have taken part in as a performer. It is for this reason that the dances of Portugal and the Basques are dealt with in very general terms. their I have only watched these as a spectator, and then not in the country of origin, which is essential if one is to get a real insight into their significance, meaning, and close relationship to the music. To illustrate this book fully would make its cost prohibitive. Maps would be required for at least to show the movements of people and the changing political boundaries to the every fifty-year period, and many illustrations would be needed cover variety of costumes to be found in each country. Hundreds of dances, with their music, would have to be annotated. The aids given, it is hoped, will help students to realize the enormous ground to be covered in a study of folk dance. Map i shows some of the major movements of tribes during the first thousand years of this era only. The physical contours give some idea of the types of ground danced on. the the countries divided Map 2 shows present political boundaries (1952) and according to the language groups. This is not absolutely accurate. To avoid complications of symbol, Greece, the Basque Countries and Albania arc left blank as they arc not directly linked with other European groups; so is die Alpine area, because so many different dialects arc spoken. England is also left blank, for although she belongs to the Teutonic group her dances are Celtic. The Celtic-speaking areas have been shown to cover the whole of Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and Brittany, which is no longer the case it is the dances that remain Celtic. the The costumes illustrate the general principles of the two chapters on development and influence of costume, and the drawings illustrate typical movements in the dances of the countries to which they belong. This book is published under the auspices of The Imperial Society of Teachers of authorized this Dancing, Incorporated, whose National Dance Branch Committee have work as the official text-book for the examination syllabus of their Branch. J.L. Acknowledgments

book could not have been written without the valuable help given to me the to I by following people, whom offer my most grateful thanks P. first THISJ. S. Richardson, O.B.E., who suggested this book, and who generously lent me valuable material and allowed me to quote from many important articles in The Dancing Times, which appeared as part of his campaign "to teach Mary through the Dance"; Frank Howes, for his advice on musical problems and material from his book, Man, Mind and Music; Miss Iris Brooke, for her vivid illustrations and help on the in the costume chapters; John Bancroft, A.R.LB.A., for his work connection with pin- men; G. S. Holland, of the Royal Geographical Society, for making the maps; Carol Moverley, for her advice on Celtic dance and her continual help; Hamlyn Dennis, for valuable advice and, with Phillip Bate, the S.C.R., and Poul Elthorp of Copenhagen, for the loan of books; D. G. MacLennan, for permission to quote from Highland and Traditional Scottish Dances; The Clarendon Press, publishers ofdie OxfordJunior Encyclo- article Folk pedia, for permission to quote from my on Dancing; lijerka Sondic-Boenish, the Grand Council, and Mrs. I. Grandison Clark of the Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing, for their encouragement; Messrs. Novello and Co., for permission to quote the late Edwin from the works of Cecil J. Sharp; finally Scraphina Astafieva, Evans, folk dance and and folk dancers everywhere, who taught me the secret of enjoying music and making it come alive.

ix

Contents

CHAP. PACE Preface vii

Acknowledgments be

PART I

>, THE DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

I. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DANCE 3 Gipiy folk dance tree-dwellen and their wonhip animal dancei guerrilla dance work dancei war dancei courtship dances recreational dance

n. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DANCE PATTERNS 19 ^M"* The circle the rirr processional complicated pattrmi thr direction of die rircte DL THE DEVELOPMENT OF STEP 26

IV. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 29

V. GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATIONS 31

VI. THE DEVELOPMENT OF COSTUME 35 The apron or ovenkirt die overcoat and jacket the basic anode or ihirt the phid the tnnuen the development of die basic garment! head-dress deliberate coftnine design decorative motifi VII. THE INFLUENCE OF COSTUME ON DANCE 44

Footwear skirts, kilts and trousers head-dress corsets

PART H NATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

VHI. NATIONAL DIFFERENCES 51

LX. THE MIDDLE EAST AND THE TUREI-TARTARS 54 The Caucasus Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia X. THE GREBES 66 XL THE SLAVS 72 Yufloilnii TUinii Poland CTrrhnilnTalria Bulgaria XII. THE ALPINE PEOPLE 113 XIIL THE TEUTONS "9 Germany Holland Scandinavia Denmark Sweden Norway XIV. THE CELTS *43 France The British Ikies England Wales Ireland Scotland xii CONTENTS

CHAP PAGB XV. THE FINNO-UGRIANS 191 Hungary Finland XVL THE LATINS 205 Italy Spain Portugal Romania XVII. THE BASQUES 227

Appendix I. Some places where types of dance are to be found . . 229 Appendix II. Some composers who have introduced national music into their own compositions ...... 233 Appendix III. Short Bibliography 235 Index 237

Plates PLATO FACING PACE

HUNGARIAN COSTUME Frontispiece I. BASIC PEASANT COSTUME OF MANY SLAV COUNTRIES .... 8 n. GEORGIAN COSSACK COSTUME 9

HI. BRETON COSTUME (LE PAYS DE QUIMPBR) THE GAVOTTE . . .16 IV. COSTUME FROM INNSBRUCK (ALPINE AREA) 17

V. COSTUME FROM GRAZ (ALPINE AREA) 20 VI. THE SCOTTISH KILT AND PLATO 21

VH. DALMATIAN COSTUME 36

Vm. THE GREEK AND MACEDONIAN SOLDIER AND GUERRILLA COSTUME . .37

w Maps ^ FACING PACT

I. SOME MOVEMENTS OF THE VARIOUS PEOPLES FROM i A.D. TO 1000 A.D. . 32

n. DIVISION OF EUROPE INTO LANGUAGE GROUPS 52 PART I

THE DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

CHAPTER I

The Development of Dance

AT all in man's from a stages development, being primitive savage hunting and L\ food as he wandered the vast gathering through forests to his present state of JL JL existence under mechanically-aided comparatively stable conditions, he has dance rituals. In earliest times performed before he learnt to control natural forces, the ritual was But as he learnt to simple. control these forces by performing different lands of so he work, changed the conditions under which he lived, and his dance ritual became more It was no complicated. longer performed entirely as the result of strong emotions, but as an old custom which to partly helped recall those emotions, and partly because of a belief in the superstitious magic properties of the dance, which played such a in communal life. Moreover with the large part early growth of the various religions, the new if did not priests, they try to suppress the rituals, encouraged the newly converted to continue to but perform them, changed their function by bringing them into the ceremonies of In this attached worship. doing they usually to them some allegorical in with the new were significance keeping precepts they preaching. Yet, despite many it is still to some of the beliefs changes, possible recognize strange and significant- move- ments of these ancient rituals in the folk dances performed to-day. To trace the evolution of the dance ritual accurately is impossible. The peoples of the world have not all the gone through varying stages of development, which have been roughly classified as 1. Lower Hunters. Food and gatherers hunters with spears. 2. Hunters. These used the and High bow arrow and made the first attempts to domesticate animals.

Pastoral Two in the second of is 3. stages, which cattle-raising supplemented by a little agriculture. Three in the last 4. Agricultural. stages, of which the hoe is superseded by the plough. Such classifications are, however, quite arbitrary. At any one time, one particular be at several different group may stages, for although in early days the standard of life of any group of people was dictated by the geographical and climatic conditions under which they had decided to settle, as they progressed they changed those conditions by their own labour.

The hand is the of the it still symbol labour, and part played, and plays, in many vital folk dances cannot be too strongly emphasized. As man developed the use of his hands, 4 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE he to master nature's forces flints and and then began by utilizing stone, by making spears, axes, and knives. Until this happened he was unable to gather more food than was therefore he was and to win offered by nature, constantly migrating struggling new feeding But when his to the of he grounds. development progressed making tools, was able to add meat to his vegetable diet, and to domesticate the wild animals and make them his could make and himself to live in servants. He fire, taught how varying climates and localities. Hie transition from the hot climate of what is believed to have been man's first to colder where the was divided into home regions, year distinctly summer and

the need for shelter and this winter, brought clothing. From grew new and diversified of labour. was added to then cattle or spheres Agriculture hunting, horse-raising, then spinning, weaving, metal-working, pottery, and navigation; with these came the development of trade and industry, and ultimately of art and science. and are both of some in these Dance religion products particular stage processes, and both with the of man. The first changed growing powers great social division of labour rise to the first the tribes gave consciously organized rituals, when pastoral separated themselves from the other barbarians. Then not were more only things produced, but different necessities of life arose, such as milk, more meat, skins, wool and other fabrics, and with these the of became With a in the exchange goods possible. development of came the division of exchange goods society into masters and slaves, followed by wars waged for plunder; all of this had a tremendous effect on dance.

The second division of labour occurred when handicrafts became separated from This led to the industrial which was to agriculture. eventually development ultimately kill folk dance. The ensuing paragraphs are designed to show how dances change with the changing labours ofman, and why so many people scattered all over the world show the the same kinds of movement. same types of dance, incorporating

GIPSY FOLK DANCE

first were no to establish even a The men entirely nomadic, making attempt temporary the shelter in natural and home. They wandered through vast forests, seeking caves food as went. such exist therefore it is to gathering they No people to-day, impossible- of the ritual have But it is speak with any certainty they might performed important

the nomadic still the has no folk dances to note that one truly group existing, gipsy, .of tribes assimilate and the dances of the in which its own; the gipsy perform country they travel and live.

a distinct manner of which is often There is, however, gipsy performance, mistakenly as the true folk dance of some Central countries. This mistake arises accepted European often to be the musician available for the because the gipsy happened only feasts, weddings, and other celebrations, and he imposed his rhythms on those of the native dancers. The characteristics are the and broken cadences of most important gipsy irregular rhythms THE DEVELOPMENT OF DANCE 5 the music, which the the completely disrupt tempo giusto (regular) rhythm of true folk musk, such as the Hungarian. When the themselves the gipsies dance, features that immediately stand out are: their and the reticence proud bearing beautifully easy carriage; woman's fascinating when she is off her to tie man and the showing beauty discretion with which she manipulates her or handkerchief and the shawl, skirt, ; finally curious shaking of the shoulders. This last characteristic and that of the broken irregular cadences and rhythms are the only features that the tribes have in varying gipsy common. The shaking movements are most noticeable the of Russia and among gipsies Hungary, for they are never seen when the local folk dances are performed by natives.

TREE-DWELLERS AND THEIR WORSHIP

The number of extraordinarily large European point and hilt, long and short Sword, and and other and Lent festivities Maypole Dances, May-day in which Jack-in-the-green are relics of the ancient figures, tree-worshipping rituals practised by die first settlers in the enormous forests that once covered The tree Europe. provided these primitive men with their sole means of existence. Its fruit and leaves served as food. Perched in its

were with some sort of shelter from branches, they provided the elements and protected the wild beasts from who continually prowled below.

first form of can still be seen The tree-worship among the most primitive tribes of

Australia and the Amazon. solemn of the tree is followed an ecstatic up A circling by of the hands to the raising head and branches, leaves, and fruit Hands are then gradually run the trunk and the men kneel or lie at the roots. down finally grovelling They hope the tree that by so doing the strength of will enter into them. belief in the tree not lessen Man's the power of did even when he taught himself to branches into a to his twist osiers, leaves, and more permanent home, protect private from insect and to fashion crude axes and for parts pests by wearing leaves, spears hunting as well animals, birds, and fish for food, as to protect himself from beasts of prey. He to bits of the tree to increase the area of it now began practise magic by using protection

could give him, and thus new elements were added to the ritual. he broke branches from the tree and them over the in an ever- Firstly, swept ground evil within his widening circle, believing he could sweep away any lying path. Secondly, he linked his branch with the next man in the circle, ensuring that the enclosed space would remain dear of evil until the ritual was over and he would retain that close

he had learnt was an essential of communal neighbourly collaboration which now part .life. It was within this newly cleared and enclosed circle that the most important part vital which would ensure man's of the ritual could be enacted, some fertility rite, existence.

this vital rite went Its first form was As society developed through many phases. 6 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

i

the enactment of the sexual act itself. The of probably fairly widespread appearance

Niissler and similar leaf-clad who are still made Jack-in-the-green, Green-men, figures, focal a or who wander the streets the the point of group dance, through sprinkling with that man not used of the tree to bystanders water, suggests primitive only pieces himself but also to imitate the tree itself in his efforts to sustain protect attempted life. This would when leaders to to direct the of the happen began emerge energies group. leaves and danced in the middle of the circle Dressed in branches, fruit, they and, having themselves into an showed the tribe worked ecstasy by vigorous movement, what they must do if existence were to continue. ' from came the rites be Later, and derived this, initiation to undergone by each member the tribe this been a ritual of on coming of age. At stage, what had originally practised a closed rite to selected by everyone together became be performed by members of the such as the or the maidens, there the community, young men Finally developed

and resurrection rites. In these a be sacrificed after complicated death man might having as for a as sometimes he killed in battle reigned king year. Or, happened, was mock and to in a vivid the his mother's had be re-born representation of baby coming from womb,

the tree as a direct of was other nature Although object worship superseded by gods

in its association with ritual has been in fairly early history, primitive preserved many into round European dances. Tic tree itself has been transformed the maypole which

Its branches are sometimes the ribbons held the dancers swirl. symbolized by fluttering serve as their link to the Elsewhere the in the dancers' hands, which protector. maypole

the ritual is a and festooned with is the focal point of and topped by large nosegay garlands,

it does not an active in the the dancers wooden and although play part dance, usually carry to their reliance on the staves and wear bunches of flowers symbolize protector. They touchwood!

dance-ritual the Calusari is the most of these ancient The of Romanian fully preserved

tree Their short is tree rituals. The dancers carry their with them. maypole topped by a bunch of in itself a and with ribbons. garlic, powerful protection against evil, gay other on die and soles They wear nosegays and begin their ritual by beating each body evil the circle and link the of the feet with wooden staves, which next sweep the from

the circle is closed "animal" men enact a and dancers together. Once two courtship

this of staves. It is invaded and after a the man killed is marriage with house made fight, then moves their ritual as brought to life again. The group on, repeating they go, bringing and sick children in order to cure them. The ends good luck, and dancing with over day which the whole the unmarried with general rejoicing, during community, particularly to rub the in order to some of the girls, try against "Fairies," acquire powerful magic ritual and Rusalii a similar engendered in the The Bulgarian Yugoslav perform dance is with swords and function. The latter's wonderfully exciting performed

a warlike air. therefore acquires THE DEVELOPMENT OF DANCE 7

ANIMAL DANCES

The tree was not man's of the primitive only object worship. Watching speed, strength and of the animals and birds him and their to fend for cunning surrounding ability them- selves, he began to imitate their movements and dress himself in their skins. This was the first in the phase development of the animal dance, traces of which arc still found in The most are those of the Cossack the and the Europe. interesting imitating eagle, of Finn and Yakut copying bears, seals and reindeer.

Such dances often became an as can important fertility rite, be deduced from the

and other where the struts round the present-day Schuhplattler dances, boy girl, preening his and as the mountain himself, flapping wings squatting, cock does at the mating season. Certain used in these animal dances became of the steps part technique of classical ballet, such as the it in which the dancer and Temps Poisson, leaps upwards curving both legs backwards as a fish into the air. Some of these are associated body leaps steps particularly with and entered the horse-riding peoples vocabulary of classical dance through the famous horse-ballets of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

Cabriole is still used in circuses, and denotes that movement where the horse rears

on his hind and beats his or reverses this The dancer from up legs forelegs, process. leaps the his either to ground beating legs together the front or to the back The Slavs also and beat their as the horse leap up legs together sideways, does when he swerves (Holuktz,

Ex. 25, page 101). Pas de Cheval: the dancer stands' on one leg and beats die ground with die other

as a horse the in This is in foot, paws ground impatience. very prominent certain Cossack dances.

or where the sound of hooves the horse's ClMSsi Cml (Ex. 26, page 101) galloping and rocking movements are indicated.

Pas-de-chat is a In and France the probably misnomer, Georgia peasants perform the and call it the Kerrnatt or fl which resembles the goat's leap (Ex. 6s, page 65) Chieb', the sole difference that the does not turn out his but pas-de-chat, being peasant knees, them well underneath his and kicks out backwards. This is keeps body step always

associated with mountain goat dances performed by shepherds.

is a in the dancer kicks out like Rue-de-vache strange movement which sideways

a'cow; it is found in France as well as in Ukrainian Cowmen's Dances.

en or crane is so called from the deliberate of the Diveloppi avant, step, arching

like a crane on its It is leg forwards, proceeding dignified yet jerky way. particularly and Dances. associated with Slav, Catalonian, Greek, Basque Fertility imitative Animal Dance sometimes into a The purely developed Hunting Dance, of his diet of roots and and discovered when man felt the necessity augmenting berries, or fish he was better able to catch them. that by copying the action of animals, birds, a for such an was with With only primitive spear weapon, undertaking fraught danger; 8 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

before the leader ofthe make therefore, starting out, group would some magic by working the tribe up into the right mood for the hunt He still does this in Africa, where he first imitates the characteristic movements of the animal to be then the hunted, necessary

moments of a swift and the kill, The tribe stalking movements, waiting, attack, follow of his example and, at the height their enthusiasm, set out. Few such danced exist in

Europe, although several Courtship Dances in remote areas show how the man hunts 1 his There are also the which the girl. Hungarian Shepherds Dances, vividly depict of the boar. hunting and killing

The widespread appearance of the Hobby-horse indicates the third phase of the dance. These creatures are the last the animal strange possibly remnants of horse- worshipping rites belonging to the nomadic tribes of Europe and Ask who domesticated

this animal. horse is an useful a means of as The extremely beast, providing transport

as food and and because it was a vital element in the for well drink, struggle survival,

rituals evolved which man would ensure its continued The leader would hoped fertility. dress up in the horse's skin, make a head-dress of his skull, imitate his movements and in have into antics the indulge activities which now degenerated those of Padstow Hobby- he whisks a under his or noses round the These rituals horse, where girl skirt, girls' legs.

as some tribes came to areas it was to became increasingly important where impossible horses or to travel further. Other tribes in fertile areas also continued graze settling more or the soil to worship the horse as a god fetish, because he had brought them to richer his in tribes and it was necessary to ensure survival case they were forced by other to move onwards.

this it is notable that the survives either in As evidence of Hobby-horse mostly pastoral as or in areas an from which a tribe areas, such Romania or Spain; bounded by ocean, the rear find it difficult to such as Padstow in Cornwall hard pressed from would depart, or the Basque Countries, or where horses could only have penetrated after having swum in such as Greece. The across narrow waters or been ferried over primitive boats, account for the curious association of the horse with some water-crossing expedition may in and also for the sea-monster legends of sea-horses some countries, strange appearance

of some hobby-horses.

still a nomadic existence and and Strangely enough, among people leading rearing in the Turki-Tartar there are few rituals relying on horses, particular tribes, actually his movements be associated with the horse as a god to be worshipped, although may in the dance. copied

GUERRILLA DANCE

Men's dance of the where the men Watching the strange Young Yugo-Slavia, Rusalii, their swords round in circles as and twist in an it is sweep great they leap open Kolo, to man tried to clear both earth and air before on easy imagine how primitive starting PLATE I

BASIC PEASANT COSTUME OF MANY SLAV COUNTRIES cr-WKj

PLATE n GEORGIAN COSSACK COSTUME

Thii shows the right trousers, spcdal boots, and waisted coat, The woman is wearing bag-shaped trousers THE DEVELOPMENT OF DANCE 9 his vital ritual. The eerie sound made the is called by flashing swords "whiffling," and resembles the whine of the man bull-roarer, which primitive still uses to warn the uniniti- ated from the sacred rite. Similar elements are found in many Guerrilla Dances of the Balkans and the Caucasus. have They derived from man's first attempts to clear away the evil with magic properties of the tree. The first evil man encountered spirits were undoubtedly the forest beasts, which could come him off branches and upon silently. By breaking "whiffling" he hoped to himself protect by both action and sound. At first the "whiffler" did not move far from forest the clearing where his tribe had made a home, but when he learnt to domesticate animals it became for the herdsman or necessary early shepherd to protect his flocks as well as himself as he fresh He did this sought pasture. by making the axe, which was a as well as a valuable The weapon tod movements he made are still used by Romanian and and Skv sometimes Hungarian shepherds woodsmen, who depict tree-chopping and add actions as if at strange cutting slashing wild beasts. As flocks and tribes had to multiplied, they travel further afield and in so doing others this encountered ; added new elements to the dance, because man found it valuable to reconnoitre before he or in time of famine moved, suddenly to raid the flocks of another richer than his own. In time man had to for it tribe, fight new land, and was then that (knee was used to the bade. As the leader had inspire conjured up the fighting mood for the so the warrior the a hunt, leading worked up young men into battle mood them how to all their muscles into before the vital by showing bring play practising and movements. This was followed round in a circle and thrusting spearing by stalking

a mock and its thus it was the possibly fight triumphant conclusion, ensuring, hoped, result to the desired expedition.

This latter form of dance is still in those areas common mountain whose political boundaries have been in continual or where have been driven into dispute, people hiding armies. are distinct those of a more settled by large conquering They quite from com- Once the warlike has been evoked in a common man acts munity. spirit circle, every independently as he moves further from the centre to combat the unexpected elements he may encounter. Nevertheless, the dancers all work to a common rhythmic base dictated their leader to a drummer. their individualistic move- usually by Also, despite these are all directed towards a the and each man ments, single point, imaginary enemy, is at to to the aid of another or into the leader's should ready any moment go step place, he fall in battle.

WORK DANCES

as himselfto control At first man imitated nature in his efforts to sustain life, but he taught nature to do what he wanted nature, so he began to think he could persuade by enacting in his rituals the events he wanted to come about This is noticeable in the traces of io EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

in where climatic conditions are unstable and the sun-rituals existing European areas, summer is short

as as realized The sun became a vital object of worship soon man that, without its of associated heat, existence was well nigh impossible. One form sun-worship was with the rites of die Celtic Druids and, if we arc to believe the Roman author Tacitus, some of dance used to take in which the relative of the celebrants to that type place position observed. It was within a circle of at that of the sun was carefully performed stones, of the midsummer sun struck the central altar. It moment when the rays rising seems that ancient Celtic dances as At the of die World more than likely some Beginning Ex. with their constant round a central (Scllcngcr's Round, 56, page 170) weaving point, arc reflections of these rites.

is that of round The most common type of European sun-worship dancing die the in and bonfires. It occurs at various periods of year: springtime (Sweden Greenland) earth after when the sun has to be encouraged to increase its heat to warm the a long and areas at when it must the in the weary winter; in many midsummer, ripen crops; to a little for the and round about autumn when it must be begged stay longer harvest;

is at its ebb. Such a ritual the shortest day when man's energy lowest probably developed the first to make man realize he was not widi the discovery of fire, which was thing entirely This form of was connected widi the at die mercy of the elements. worship intimately the of the chosen trees for the the tree, and it can be imagined how felling bonfire, to the sacred site and die ceremonial dance as the bonfire was triumphant procession came to be associated widi man's to die sun to follow the fire's and lighted, pica example

burn brightly. In Teutonic countries another dance ritual is sometimes associated with the bonfires.

This is a dosed circle in which each alternate man thrusts his heels forwards into the

those of whilst the entire revolves centre, bracing them against anodier, group rapidly with man's invention of die which was like a mill-wheel. It probably developed wheel, value in and heat the of great grinding corn, making pottery generating by imitating to die sun. wheel, man hoped his dance would prove a further encouragement the man. Dances in honour of Such dances as these arc die exclusive prerogative of the woman. With the more die moon are almost always performed by permanent to be done and were divided between settlement of tribes, the types of work increased, attached her to the men and women. Because the women's physical capacities naturally because man had a home to rear children, sow seed, and fetch water, and primitive like to like when women's rituals were habit of linking making magic, particularly he believed would ensure the continued of his tribe associated with diose things fertility to and land She was linked widi die moon because her menstrual periods appeared die as this was connected with her coincide widi the phases of moon and, intimately he believed diat the seeds woman must be with the new fertility, planted by planted burst when it was full. Several Skv women's dances 16 moon, so that they would (Ex. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DANCE n

the and of the in their floor as well as the page 91) copy waxing waning moon pattern,

of work to be done its various types during phases. Because was also water-fetching part of women's work, rain-making magic was into her dance. The Armenian simulate the woven Willow Dance, in which her fingers

action of from the leaves as the is a raindrops falling arms toss and sway, living example. Other movements are found in the Ukraine and such as a , interesting elsewhere, strange

in which the heel of the is thrust pivot step (Ex. 4, page 62), following foot vigorously

of and then behind the as is forwards. in front working leg the hair tossed backwards and

danced in it as fruitful This used to be the fields of hemp and maize to encourage to be as the woman.

The richer the soil, the more the work to be done, and with the invention of the

and use of the also in the and plough draught animals, man took part sowing harvesting rituals. of the most of these demonstrate the actual work and Some interesting process

are found at their best in the rich earth belt of the U.S.S.R. As the dancers circle they

sow, mow, tie, stack, and thresh the corn, as children do in the Provencal Danse Ronde the and of as in de k Civaia; or they vividly depict gathering of grapes mating wine, Italian Dances. Dances of a few Portuguese, Greek, and Vintage The Woodcutters' of Karelia, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary have the same movements chopping, sawing, as in the neat from and turning of logs Soyotte (Ex. 52, page 158) Champagne. other more erotic elements often enter But where men and women join together, dance. are the of the in the for the Such vigorous throwing girl fertility leap, they say that as as her skirts so will the corn and if the man has high fly, high grow; already the the seed with his bent and then crouched down making shape of legs leapt up his as wide as in imitation of the seed then flinging legs open possible bursting, surely and the leaves sent out will be many strong. but the In less fertile areas the work dances may not be so vigorously exciting, type rise of such as the of of country may give to certain types industry, breeding sheep, and and thus to the which leads to the weaving of doth carpets, lovely Carpet Weaving Dance of Armenia, the Hebridean Weaving Lilt, and Swedish Renningen. areas. Some of In the same way Fishermen's Dances have developed in coastal these, Animal hire the Hunters' Dances of Russia, contain dements of the purdy imitative to be successful fed it Dance, for if the men wish their fishing expedition they necessary as in one dance of the Barents to enact their wish before setting off, strange fish-spearing the most Fishermen's Dances the various tasks to Sea area. For part, however, depict in be done and they are seen at their best PortugaL Dances are at in Skv and Some of the most important Work performed weddings is shown what her future work will be. The Hnno-Ugrian countries, where the bride of of of linen, rocking of the cradle, baking bread, feeding guests, weaving sowing, her what to all have a Sometimes she sits whilst the mothers show do; harvesting, place. or she herself must her at others, the bridesmaids perform; perform, encouraged by 12 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

maids and instructed by mothcr-in-kw and aunts. Hie bridegroom often pkys some if to tie his wife's handkerchief over her head when the bridal wreath has part, only been removed.

The list of Work Dances is endless and, oddly enough, the reason why so many have

survived is surely that the magic they work is often successful, The practice of the varied in stimulates man's but movements dance form not only interest, actually helps him to his work. in unison with perfect The gesture, by being performed rhythmic others, who arc in the in and therefore equally concerned ritual, becomes heightened activity more

significant,

WAR DANCES

It is a that the Dances mistake to suppose many European Sword were originally associated

is a the Guerrilla with war. To decipher their development always problem. Only type

dance is a because in of capable of comparatively easy explanation, largely Skv and

countries and in it is to see it in its various of Turti Hungary possible stages development the of evil the branches ofthe the linked branches firstly sweeping by magic tree; secondly the ofthe air and keeping evil away from the vital ritual; and thirdly clearing development seen and unseen enemies. of tool or weapon for protection against

It is that the linked Dance was of a sun ritual the Celtic possible Sword part amongst the swords into tribes, who carried it through Europe. The custom of weaving patterns linked in a to the secret developed as the initiates stalked along, together chain, meeting- then wove their branches into a dose formation until the leader place. They gradually could hold the Lock or Rose aloft as a symbol of the sun. This type ofdance demanded the and was the exclusive of the closest collaboration between participants property a with the of with which certain members of tribe, particularly growth work processes

such dances ultimately became associated. note that the Middle certain Trade Guilds It is important therefore to during Ages are to have such dances and were entrusted with the of the known practised production of these to such an extent that it became Morality Pkys. The popularity pkys grew in the Such dances were of considerable value necessary to stage them town squares. to the because the Hero of the in driving home moral points uneducated, Saintly pky could be raised aloft on the Lock, as he is in Provence, or kid on a bier, before being resurrected as he is in Basque and Slovak dances; or the devil or some evil character In addition to their the Guilds could be decapitated or hung. play-making activities, bastions in a in times of were often entrusted with the defence of particular town war, and as weapons were scarce, such implements as furriers' knives or skutching knives known as axes and so had to serve (to-day sometimes "rappers"), coopers' staves, on, and instead. In this way Guild Dances became associated with warlike activities, swords were more were substituted for the tool possibly when easily obtainable, they THE DEVELOPMENT OF DANCE 13

The distribution of such dances in that were geographical England suggests they taken over the Northern nomadic tribes and the soldiers by probably practised by to coming England, using either the short swords of the Danes or the long swords of the Vikings. There is another of Sword Dance in which the type men actually practise fighting.

the Guerrilla this is of Unlike Dances, "set," and probably developed with the growth the Greek under more settled one in City States, when, conditions, particular group

had to concentrate it the the community on soldiering. Known as the Pyhrric, taught art attack and boys the of defence, a method of instruction that was taken over by the elaborated and Romans, spread over the Empire, where it still exists in the cut-and-thrast of and Pont-Aven in of sticks dances Montpellier France and elsewhere, and the hitting as a or in certain English Longways Morris Dances, such Lads Buncham Bean-setting. latter the are those of into the The In the gestures made mostly sticking poles ground.

the sticks is an incentive to the that all must hitting of together only added rhythm keep

if the work is to succeed, but its likeness to that of soldiers parrying swords is

inescapable. cannot The role of the soldier in disseminating and changing the meaning of dance of the band at the time of the be too strongly emphasized. The development military a in the and context Crusades, for example, played tremendous part changing rhythm and to with mouth music and and tabor for of earlier folk tunes, helped dispense pipes even better of influence is the of so Sword dancing. An example military lining many which the and Morris Dances to the events of the Crusades. In every area through armies are found dances Christians Moors as Crusading passed depicting fighting (such maidens from the Turks the dance of the Seises in Seville Cathedral), or rescuing and These are often folk of unknown (Dalmatia), iMqr subjects. accompanied by plays hie the "Seven of and still in France, origin, Champions Christendom," surviving and the it has been altered to fit the Italy, Spain, Bohemia, Balkans; suitably subject an earlier association with vital rites of death and because its context implies fertility resurrection. the has a much The so-called Morris Dance which sometimes accompanies play

still to be elucidated. It is a men's dance in which deeper meaning young they constantly and tremendous and thus vital which jig up down, generating energy magic thereby and ensures the continued existence of man. Such a dance is quickens all living things, of one and therefore when armies not the exclusive properly any nation, Crusading and their attach the name of "Morris" met it among their aflies, enemies, they might to dramatize current events, or "Morisco" to it. Probably, too, when attempting they to be Moors. This the curious Morris would black their faces and pretend may explain where the dancers wear half coconuts on Dances of Bacup in Lancashire and Provence, out intricate as dance their knees, waists, and ^mA*, and dap rhythms they energetically, Turki tribal rituals themselves in much the same way that young men in certain slap 14 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

the reinforces the with their bare hands. The use of coconut suggestion that this dance was a of Moorish for the coconut is of African as die copy antics, origin, just floating Morris dancers also in Africa. ostrich plumes of the Basque originated the Sword Dance takes on another Occasionally fighting yet aspect, deriving perhaps the victor from that triumphant moment when seizes the sword of the vanquished in

and dances with or over it. In times of a hand-to-hand fight exuberantly peace this may change into a dance of pure skill, in which weapons are laid on the ground and weaves his and over the as he does in the the dancer lightly way in, out, swords, most famous of Scottish dances, Gillie Callum, or over ice-axes as in the Carpathian and over crossed ribbons as in the Tatra Mountains, or Pyrenees.

is in the Celtic The influence of military activities also seen Three-handed Reels and other social dances in which two women are accompanied by only one man, who is

to a with its supposed make choice. The Hungarian Vcrbunkos, peculiar characteristic of each the one with he is most in led to man dancing opposite whom harmony, the Dances in Skv which first development of Recruiting many countries, practised certain drill and then into a dance in which the said to his changed boy good-bye girl (Ex. 31, 1 after the soldiers or wars when a of page no). Possibly return, during shortage young men made itself felt, the dance changed again into one in which the boy took on two of like the Polish and North are girls. Many these, Troyak Yugoslav Kolos, simple such as the Swedish Dance show the influence of peasant dances, but others Vingaker activities and masters. military foreign dancing

COURTSHIP DANCES

dements of were inherent in numerous as Although courtship already fertility rites, in in or his or her or charm seen those dances which man woman displays physical ability the the Dance did not to until the before opposite sex, pure Couple begin develop founding of the Provencal courts at the time of the Crusades. At this time a definite form of

different that the is to have been courtly dance from performed by peasants known

It coincided with the establishment of a code of social behaviour with practised. when, the of the of the would be substituted development language, significant gesture peasant a one. For the man's forward thrust of the and his by politer example, body embracing the the before the of his and carrying off woman became dignified kneeling lady choice, and the delicate ofhands as he led her down the or the violent giving room; girl's gesture of and to became the shake of a and a repulse attempt escape admonishing finger shy turn the and the of the in the became the of head; triumphant flinging girl fertility leap arm. of fashions to the dainty twist under the man's The development helped change into It must also be remembered that it was vigorous peasant steps something gentler. the At times she was to submit not always the man who knelt before woman. expected thus the into the to him, as she still does in Eastern dances, and low curtsey was brought THE DEVELOPMENT OF DANCE 15

court dance, and is found in the Swedish Daldans (Ex, 42, page 138) when the woman kneels as the man throws his leg over her head.

dances these elements to Ultimately containing politer were transmitted the peasants whenever lived in dose to they proximity their kings or overlords. Evidence of this is the numerous and provided by Cushion, Shoemaker, Finger Dances of Western Europe, in which man or chooses a It girl partner. is difficult to helieve that they are not all derived from the same source. For Sweet Kate example; (Ex. 54, page 167) of Playford's Master is known in no less than nine Dandng (1670 Edition) countries Finger Polka Went to the Garden and La Vinca penmark), Mary (Poland Czechoslovakia), (N. Italy) Driekusman La Badoise (Holland), (Savoy), Clap Dance (Sweden and Germany) and

Come to Me Whether it is in would difficult to (Westphalia). English origin be prove. Most of the tunes resemble the model and the differ in so far Playford gestures only as

the various nationalities have their own character to it. For imposed on example, the N. German version is and whilst that of is neat and It heavy hearty, Savoy gracious. may have been taken abroad seventeenth by century soldiers. On the other hand, its presence ' in it have Savoy suggests may originated there. In other court dances the couple may flirt as they twist and turn under handkerchieves with Valse or Polka as do in Czechoslovakia and the steps, they Alpine Areas. They

hats, as in the Lithuanian or the steal a may exchange Kepurine, perhaps boy may girl, as he does in many Austrian and Scandinavian dances. The most fruitful source for the of customs the exchange social influencing Couple were the for alliance or Dance complicated arrangements conquest by marriage between the and ducal houses ruling royal of Europe, when bride or bridegroom would travel of retainers. each court took a turn in the abroad, taking large bodies As outshining

so its fashions the others, particular dominated the world. That of North Italian courts followed on the of the to be followed that of closely inauguration Provencal modes, by de the Italian France, when Catherine Medici, with help of and French dancing masters, and her court ballets into which musicians, philosophers, staged great many peasant

her influence felt in those areas where the alliance dances were incorporated. Spain made France and herself were the boundaries. and treaties between continually altering political too some in this of but her influence England played, part jnfl\ipnrmg type dance, as a first-class she to the Victorian weakened when, having emerged power, began practise code of respectability. Valses Polkas of the took the continent The fascinating and Austro-Hungarian Empire Vienna. From then most Western by storm after the Congress of onwards, European countries seem to have lost their hearts to the gay whirl of mese dances played by military the various wars. often became of older rituals and at bands returning from They part

them. still hold of because tinies completely superseded To-day they pride place, they remembered the older are often the only dances to be by people. 16 EUROPEAN POLK DANCE

RECREATIONAL DANCE

These later Couple Dances, like the seventeenth and eighteenth century Country their are often for Dances and offspring, purely recreational, specially arranged social true folk dances have for occasions. Other become recreational, although they have been for hundreds of have lost their continually performed years they gradually significance are danced as a mere as are those have been and now pastime, which revived during the folk dances have retained their form and past fifty years. No original meaning. The have tried to show how from one preceding chapters they keep spilling category into another. As man learnt to control and improve the conditions under which he lived, as a his ideas and beliefs changed, and result the dance altered. The development of the in these shows that religion plays strongest part changes. Study each branch of the

its effect the dance. Christian church has own particular on

In countries where the Greek Orthodox Church predominates, folk dance lemains an of rituals retain the unset in early stage development Many primitive Kolo and forms which arise whenever the are Chain spontaneously people inspired by exciting events, as well as on all vital occasions such as weddings, births, and even deaths. There

exists a sense the and with this the is connected deep of community, priest intimately often in the ritual with the other the indeed he takes an equal part members of group. in Some rituals are retained an almost pre-Christian state, possibly because the tenets

church over the areas where it is of this spread very slowly large now paramount, and

its and it gradually took into orbit many national local heroes, both real and mythological, before them into saints. In this the were in touch with their turning way peasants kept pagan past In addition most of the Greek Orthodox countries have had little contact the In the the feudal lords these areas lived in dose contact with their with West past of

serfs and shared their entertainments, sometimes building theatres in which folk pkys, dances, and even ballets were performed by serf acton. Few of these actors had any until the late training jn the court dance or theatrical technique eighteenth century, were sent to St to this time theatrical when they occasionally Petersburg study. By and was different from that of the dance was purely professional technically peasants, but as folk dance was also studied a clear demarcation was always maintained. Moreover the able to to his it was considered an essential part of serfdancer's sM tote return master's theatre and not entertain his and serfs with the but only him, guests, new-fangled ideas, also lead the true dances. . peasant As the Catholic church in and became the official of developed power religion barbarian the elements were and the rituals kings, pagan rigorously suppressed brought within the of the church. in Prance and the Dance jurisdiction Except Ireland, Couple takes Catholic countries. This has because the church pride of place in happened and state in alliance and dominated the this were close completely peasant mind, process furthered the and secular lords of being by staging by spiritual magnificently spectacular PLATE in BRJTON COSTUME (LE PAYS DE QUIMPER.)-THE GAVOTTE Hiis shows die influence of court costume PLATE IV

COSTUME FROM INNSBRUCK (ALPINE AREA)

An of a example specially designed peasant costume THE DEVELOPMENT OF DANCE 17

and which entire towns and into immediate processions entertainments, brought villages contact with court fashions.

first this led to a mutual folk At exchange of ideas, court dancing masters borrowing and and and dances refining them, peasants borrowing ideas of court behaviour clothes, Trade Guilds borrowed church in the But as as the vestments to wear Morality Plays.

and ducal in the ecclesiastical authorities the papal palaces grew splendour and organized labour force of serfs and the the entire peasants on lands they were rapidly annexing, economic was to the could not dance so increasing pressure applied peasants. They the court masters ceased to bother with the folk dances and so freely and dancing sought to the of the or to entertain them with new dances. only perfect technique courtiers, courtiers were interested almost in the so these As the by now solely Couple Dances, anxious to imitate became more popular among the vast number of serfs in court service their lords and masters.

In France, however, the Couple Dance kd not the same hold. Until the establishment for art the and and the of of official formulas by philosophers cardinals, building Versailles, the French court dance exercised as much influence on the folk dance as that of the earKer from and the absence Provencal and Italian courts. With the withdrawal ofthe court Paris, and dukes from their own to dance attendance on Louis XIV of many princes palaces King and the exclusive of the and his heirs, it ceased to influence the people, became property

it was when the French court isolated itself that the aristocracy. Strangely enough and Scottish Dances to find their on to the Continent. English Country began way some in Western During the Tudor period, England played part influencing European ambassadors with the liveliness of its music, art, if only by astounding foreign plays, and court and the of Elizabeth, whose masques, dances, amazing prowess Queen per- a the Cromwdlian Revolution formance of La Volta shocked many diplomat. During was introduced the court in exile and the English Country Dance by English gradually the of its which was in to became popular because comparatively easy style, opposition drman'M the masters. As ideas on the complicated technique by dancing England's came to be studied Reform ofGovernment and more naturalistic style mart by prominent such as Voltaire and Rousseau, these dances became even more popular. philosophers French Rousseau's "Back to Nature" movement made it fashionable for the isolated and to in and the court to seek the so-called "rusticity" indulge simple pastoral pastimes, The abortive of Bonnie Prince Charlie Country Dance answered this W^- attempt increase the throne sent Scots abroad, which to to capture Jfoglish many again helped the of these Dances. This was followed the outbreak of 1789 the popularity Country by and Scottish the Revolution and the coming of English Regiments during Napoleonic these dances to the Wars, which spread peasants. there never the lack of Dances in Ireland can be because Similarly Couple explained which masters could dictate a that would penetrate were any courts from dancing style to the peasants. i8 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

The greatest enemy of the folk dance was the Protestant church (see England and the Protestants Germany, Chapters XHI and XIV). But although wealthy did successfully stifle folk dance (since they were the leaders of industrialization and nothing kills folk dance so quickly as the building of factories and mechanization), they did encourage their own form of dance. The new dance spread wherever the example of the Protestants was followed. It is not surprising therefore that England's Country Dances were copied by other Protestant countries as they gradually emerged victorious from the battles against the Catholic kings and church. England had led North-western Europe in rejecting papal power. She was also the first to grow wealthy through industrialization. It is perhaps significant that it is only in Protestant countries that folk dance has had to be revived. England, having been the first to kill its dance, was also the first to revive it, and Cecil Sharp was fortunate enough to find people alive who still were able to recall some of the old rituals. His example was followed by other researchers in the Teutonic countries, particularly among the physical training experts of Sweden, who began to find the practise of simple folk dance a valuable part of physical education. revival as England's was not, however, a consciously political event the revival of folk dance was in Germany for the Hitler Youth, in Italy during Mussolini's dream of empire, and in Austria after the 1914-18 war. The movement to revive folk flan^ng in these countries was a deliberate attempt to arouse the strongest possible feelings of nationalism. In the same way, during the long periods when Poland, Hungary, Czecho- slovakia, Yugoslavia, and Scotland were suppressed by foreign rulers, there was a deliberate fostering of the dances by the native aristocracy and the military in an attempt to express their national patriotism. It was perhaps this desire to express themselves as actively as possible that led so many people in the various Resistance groups to revive and practise their old rituals and folk dances during the German occupation of the last war.

Throughout the centuries it has proved impossible to stop people dancing for one reason or another, and even if to-day a dance is purely recreational it is still a means of expression that all can enjoy. It can also tell an onlooker something about the people who dance it. CHAPTER II

The Development of Dance Patterns

I the f 1HE patterns made by dancers' feet help to describe something of the develop- I ment of the in a society which dance is performed. Although some patterns are to JL common many European countries, it appears mat those who have been a series of historical events dances with most affected by complex possess complicated whilst those in a of retain the patterns, comparatively early stage development simple forms.

THE CIRCLE

the closed is found It exists The earliest and simplest form of dance, circle, everywhere. state in the innumerable and Middle- in its primitive Yugoslav, Romanian, Bulgarian, Eastern Kolos and Horas, Russian and Czech Khorovods and Kalamajkas, Breton Bondes,

is is immaterial because all must enter and the like. In these dances everyone equal and sex the of if the within into the ritual of circling round object worship, magic engendered

is Often there is no while at the most there is a die ring to be successful progression, to left or The dancers hold each other's hands, wrists, very gradual movement right shoulders, elbows or waist-belts, and face the centre. and the ritual becomes more so the becomes As society develops involved, circling Celtic Round and more complex. This is found in the Seflenger's (Ex. 56, page 170), such as Moonshine Circassian Circle, and in certain Russian and Yugoslav dances, and Neda The dancers now to move (Ex, 16, page 91) Grivny (Ex. nc, page 83). begin with in and out of the circle as well as moving round. Although maintaining contact the also out to individual each other during most passages of dance, they open perform or the dance become the movements. Men and women begin to stand alternately, may ofone sex. This that at one to differentiate exclusive property signifies stage people began to be between the work to be done, because such dances deal with work processes per-

sex. these are the Provencal Danse Ronde de k formed exclusively by one Amongst the and of oats, once danced the but Qvaia, depicting sowing reaping by shepherds a dance for now a children's game, and the Russian Moonshine, harvesting girls. dances as the Armenian Occasionally such develop complicated patterns, Carpet- because weavingDance, andtheHebrideanWeavingLilt, tkwcdcpnx^depicteddeniands of these arc tihe and hilt Sword an intricate shape. Themost complicated English point but can be as Dances, which contain no actual work movements, interpreted belonging

19 20 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

The of such dances as the Sword Dance is to that category. implication Hamborough obvious, for the men's flat wooden swords derive from a tool used in making mats and can baskets. The movements are called "threedling," and the patterns made be related the short swords or to either trade. Similarly Northumberland and Durham "rappers" in the are derived from the scutching knife used dealing with flax, and foot movements the of the flax before it into a represent work process retting spinning linen, process also in the Other dances where such elements which is shown patterning. appear can the the and the be related to threshing of corn, treading of grapes, weaving of cloth. Such dances were the of one section of the the particular property community; firstly

males who had to the vital essence of the rite before it conjure up fertility passing on; later the had to teach their the secrets of their and Trade Guilds, who apprentices craft, carried on. All a so that their work could be these processes demanded constant rehearsal of the to make them There are of complicated figures perfect many ways twisting in and and over and under the linked and each has its out, swords, particular group own methods.

circular are also found in Morris Comparatively simple patterns many Dances, in or which the dancers twirl "slings" handkerchieves. These dances have derived from the earlier a similar simple Eolos, in which bull-roarer or instrument was used to keep the uninitiated from the the vital rite was enacted. The away place where being patterns with the district in which are and as do vary they performed require special study, those

of the point and hilt Sword Dances.

Another form of Eolo is that derived from certain rites. important directly fertility An outer circle or chain of women move round an inner circle of men, or vice versa.

After they have increased the speed of their dance, the men seize the women and swing them round in the as in the Dalmatian Eolo. other fertility leap, Eagle At times, the sexes move from a common circle to face each as in La lourrfe other, Toumidjmre (a from before In other circle the Auvergne) dancing together. double dances couples enact some work as in Carillon a children's the process, (tie-de-France), now game, where are to be and their and the couples supposed swinging bells, stamps daps represent peal of sound.

TEE CHAIN

The Chain Dance in its form derived from the dosed circle at a simplest very early stage in the of the It development ritual happened, so some authorities believe, when a gap was left in the circle either for evil to or for enter. escape good to In the double circle

dances, however, particularly those in which a women's chain encircles the men's dosed it seems that the within the dosed on to ring, likely magic engendered tirclc^was passed the women, as the men them round in the The swung fertility leap. powerful magic made at that moment then the to the passed through open gap surrounding countryside. PLATE V COSTUME FROM GRAZ (ALPINE AREA) Tikis costi111 ^ ibows FLATBYI

THE SCOTTISH KILT AND PLAID THE DEVELOPMENT OF DANCE PATTERNS 21

The for such an act arose from the feet that it was not to find necessity always possible all the essential elements within the life-giving narrow confines of the early settlements where the ritual took This is true of the place. certainly pastoral areas of Greece, Yugo- slavia and elsewhere, where the Chain Dance is found. After round a widely circling in the the leader central point village, guides the group over the rough ground and round the scattered houses and of cultivated to widely patches land, bring good luck to the entire community.

An of of these such as the interesting part many dances, Greek Kalamatianos (Ex, 8, is that the same man does not remain as leader. ensure the page 70) To mat life-giving force at the is originally conjured up starting-point carried everywhere, the leader performs and other exciting leaps, turns, spectacular steps as tlie group travtk 'When he tires he hands a bffiidltErrliiVf to the next man who continues to the t energetically weave spell,

the handkerchief on as he tires. again passing This continues until the group returns to their It is from these rites meeting-place. that the handing-on of a torch or other symbol events as a Marathon race has It in such been derived. is also a prominent feature of Guerrilla Dances, in which the next man immdntdy seizes the sword of his newly-dead to on the leader carry struggle. Chain are often as in the These Dances performed by everyone, oldest Greek, Yugo- Faroe and Chains. Sometimes are danced slav, Islands, Norwegian they exclusively by the leader some and his or her one sex, carrying symbol making path extremely tortuous. because in earlier times the their to This happens particular group were on way some vital initiation rite, which was kept secret from the rest of the community. dances are and Occasionally, such performed by men women standing alternately, as in the many Coraules, Cramignons, and Chains, which are now walked or run to or In older dances of this such as the Provencal religious semi-religious songs. kind, and in the and versions ofthis Parandole (Ex. 51, page 156) French, Italian, Spanish dance, is made. This dance is an extremely complicated serpentine pattern particular supposed to the of Theseus and the a which has been represent story Labyrinth, myth interpreted a rite. The dancers are linked handkcr- as evolving from complicated fertility together by the silken thread Theseus from the The chieves, which represent leading Labyrinth. their the tortuous the and the pattern of steps represents winding path through maze, in which his with the Minotaur took His final exit tight ring fight place. triumphant untwist the arch made the hands of the is shown as the dancers gaily through by leading in other ancient also has its It is couple. The arch, which appears many rituals, significance. the which the initiated enter their new life. believed to symbolize gateway through

THE PROCESSIONAL

and Teutonic The Processional march or Promenade which opens so many Scandinavian and had its in two tribal dances was once a dance in its own right; origin important

8-(G4) 22 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

after winter the customs: the need of cleansing the community the rigours of and need

its continued has two of the more ancient of ensuring fertility. England preserved the Abbots Processionals in the Helston Furry Dance and Bromley Horned Dance. In the the whole There are other European examples. English Processionals, community to take in and out of the houses and the used part, dancing through town, sweeping met with branches of or broom. In some these everything they may green places pro- cessions were led by a Hobby-horse or other animal, which not only nosed the on- the to them but sometimes died and had to lookers, particularly girls, bring good luck, be resurrected by the man who led him. Horned Dance is one The Abbots Bromley unique, having only counterpart in a the of North Russia. It seems to ritual performed by Yakuts epitomize primitive man's in ritual as a means to ensure a successful and to win the belief fertility, hunt, struggle

life. a set of reindeer three black and three for Six men carrying antlers, painted white, followed by a Fool, Maid Marian, a Hobby-horse, and a boy with a cross-bow and arrow, the and fields. leader oftkbladandcrsoftoi makes dance through village Tk sei^entine

round those who hold the draws the dancers into a double file. The figures white, or, each their antlers downwards and two sets challenge other, swinging great upwards advance to meet and cross and return to In the Yakut dance again as they back, places. the are more as the leader wears the most and implications obvious, powerful antlers, after a takes first choice of the women onlookers. fight dancers in file but more often are in Sometimes the processional go single they couples one or dances have of these and from this second form two interesting developed. One

Ex. in which a file of men and one is the Breton Piler-Lan (Gone-beating, 46, page 152), at ninth beat to strike the of women pause on their way every gone, supposedly lying the halts and the hands between them. Sometimes, however, procession couples join before their It was from this later form of ritual to dance together continuing on way.

first the Processional Coiirt tkn the that there developed early Dance, EngKsh Longways Continental the which became most Sets and their versions, and finally Couple Dances, and have remained the feature of so later popular of all, principal many Scandinavian, It of these dances that so Teutonic and Alpine dance forms. was the close-turning form doubt because the tremendous was too angered the church, no energy expended apt main* the dancers lose their heads and in rites like their to indulge fertility primitive ancestors. This fact was noted by stern Mamas when the Viennese Valse came to English ballrooms.

COMPLICATED PATTERNS

with most have from the Circle and Longways Dances complicated patterns developed court and social dances. The Closed Circle still formed a of early part seventeenth, nineteenth Scottish Polish Mazurkas and Erakoviaks eighteenth and century Reels, (Ex. 27, THE DEVELOPMENT OF DANCE PATTERNS 23

and of the page 102) English Country Dances, with their many Scandinavian and French descendants. It often serves as an or opening dosing phrase, but the dancers soon break it to courtesies with each other and to introduce up exchange complicated figures. The of these are found in the old Celtic but siinplest Reels, the more complicated were derived from the dances introduced into sixteenth and seventeenth century English and French Ballets. These entertainments were devised Masques by philosophers and li men, whose aim was to in terary display learning presentations cloaked in mythological and allusions. Even tta allegorical patterns rnadc by the danra'f^ out a by spelling magic hieroglyphic, or the name of some lord to be honoured. The actual of these dances are but steps figured usually very simple, different ways of one s or other members of the and holding partner group interesting ways ofchanging are often introduced. These are some of the holds round in these places pattern dances. Inside Hands when the same or the same hands Joined racing way, when racing opposite The hands be raised from these ways. may positions to form an Arch through which others dance.

Cross Hands Hold. Man holds woman's R. hand in his R, and her L in his L (R. hands on top.) Two Hands Hold. Man takes the woman's R. hand inhisLandherLinhisR.

Ballroom Hold. Man holds woman's hand in his R. L, both arms are raised sideways. His R. hand is below her L shoulder-blade and her L hM is on or near his R. shoulder.

Arming. Partners turn with linked L. or R. elbows.

Ring Grasp. As many dancers as will, join hands and hold them high in a circle.

Thumb Grasp. Usually performed by two men standing with either R. or L shoulders towards each other, each grasping the other's thumb firmly round its base. Double and each his Ring Grasp. Men women standing alternately, man places R. hand

in front of the waist of the woman on his right and grasps the next man's L hand; and his L. in front of the on his and the next man's R. ^on^. places hand woman left, grasps Women do likewise, but join hands above the men's. face each other hands Reel Grasp. When dancing clockwise, partners holding L hands on each other's shoulders. Counter-clockwise the hands across, whilst placing R. are reversed

dancers. men stand each other their Basket Grasp, For four Two opposite holding the own L wrists with their R. hands. With their L hands they grasp R. wrists of the men. women thread their arms under and over those of the men. opposite The two in directions and their Back Hold. Partners stand side by side facing opposite place are to L hands behind their own backs to take their partners' R. hands, which opened

the side. the in Onc-tmdtd Mill Four or more dancers grasp R. hand or wrist of one front, with arms outstretched and thumbs upwards to dance clockwise, using L. hands when

dancing counter-dockwise. 24 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

Two-handed Mill. For two couples. The first couple take hands facing each other and the other couple join hands, but place R. arm over and L. arm under die ring formed by the first couple. Swing. Partners skip round using Two-hands Hold (English Country Dance), or pivot turn with partner either Unking elbows or with R. hands on partner's L. hip and L. arms raised, or using ballroom hold. Some of the ways of changing places are The Grand Chain or Hey. An equal number of dancers stand facing their partners or chain. in a circle, ellipse They move round or up and down the set, passing those they meet first by the R. and then by the L. shoulders, until all have returned to their original places. are also s Three a is is There Hey for f where figure of eight described, which danced in two ways: in the English Morris the two outside men turn away from each other, the centre dancer following the leader and the third man first meeting the leader; in the Scottish version the two outside men face each other and the leader first meets the -man. centre There are also Heysfor Four and Double Heys. The HalfPoussette. Two couples with hands joined stand opposite to each other, and dance simultaneously outwards and inwards in a semi-circular or shuttle-like figure to change places. The Full Poussette or Swing. This is the same as above but the couples complete a circle and return to their own places. Both these figures are performed by moving either minimi. in and out of a circle, in the centre of a circle, or in a Sometimes the couples themselves turn as they move (see Swing above). Casting-off. One couple usually turns outwards and divides, to dance outside the general set. They are often followed by other members of the group. Setting. The dancer faces his partner or another member of the group and takes a the left. movement to right and back to the This is often accompanied by a slight bow as the dancer moves sideways. Siding. Two dancers, either partners or members of the group, change places by passing left shoulders, turn, and then return to their places along the same track. There are many other figures to be found in the later Circle and Longways Dances, but these are mainly in the Lancers or jtiT"^ar dancing master's dances, such as the Quadrilles anA Cotillions.

THE DIRECTION OF THE CIRCLE

The significance of the clockwise or counter-clockwise movement of a dance is difficult to determine. Among the Celts, who have sun-worshipping ancestors, it is usual for the dancers to move clockwise on all happy occasions, and counter-clockwise or "widder- shins" in dances. mourning The Slavs, however, also possess sun-worshipping ancestors, THE DEVELOPMENT OF DANCE PATTERNS 25

and the vast majority of their dances move counter-clockwise, and clockwise in some mourning dances. It is possible to ofier two solutions to this problem. Firstly, the Celts, who were among the earliest known inhabitants ofEurope, travelled from the east and moved south through the Mediterranean areas before turning north- westwards to fan out through France and into the British Isles. They followed, as it were, the path of the sun from its rising to its setting, and continued to do so in their dpnrf* Chi the other hand the Turki and Finno-Ugrian ancestors of the Skv tribes commenced their travels in the east or north-east ofAsia and journeyed north-westwards, before moving south and turning east again to fan out into the European Plains and Russian Steppes. Their travels thus influenced their dances to move counter-clockwise. Alternatively, it is possible that some dances moving counter-clockwise may have originated south of the Equator, -where the sun appears to travel east, north and west. Early tribes coming from South Africa or Southern India may have brought and retained certain sun-rituals as they journeyed to the Middle East. CHAPTER III

The Development of Step

t I 1HE steps of all the dances mentioned range from the simple step-to-the-side and I dose of the Slavs to the complicated leaps, twists, and beats of the Georgians, 1 Hungarians, and Scots. The principal variation in steps results from the climatic, geographical and economic conditions. Exceptions occur in countries where the original folk dances have been suppressed and then revived; where more modern musical instru- ments have been introduced and supplanted the original accompaniment of mouth music; or where civil or military dancing-masters have played some part in forming the dance. It is not true to suggest that intricate steps, like patterns, are an indication of complex historical influences. in the oldest Circle are Steps known Dances extremely simple. Many are based solely on a step-to-the-side and close, and it is from this simple beginning that the most com- plicated enchainements have been developed. The Yugoslavs have fifteen ways of per- forming this movement in the Kolos, without ranging alignment. Some of these steps exist in several different countries. is understood that the foot (It R. always moves first.) 1. Close L. ft, tightly to R. with relaxed knees. 2. ft. to Bring L. up inside of R. ankle (Ex. nc, page 83). 3. Swing L. ft, inwards and slightly upwards with toe pointed in front or at the back.

(These three movements are almost universal) 4. Bring L. leg up with knee bent and leg turned inwards. 5. Bring L. leg up with knee bent and leg turned outwards. 6. Bring L. leg up with knee bent and pointed forwards, foot resting behind R.cal three are to (These examples common Greece, Romania, the Caucasus, and parts of Russia.) 7. Roll L. ft. round in a semi-circle to outer side of R. ft, and transfer weight of body immediately the foot is placed on the floor (Ex. 10, page 80). 8. L. ft. behind or in Cross front of R., transferring the weight. This can develop into the found pivot step everywhere (Bxs. 4, 8, 10, 47, 51 etc.) 9. Bring L. ft. up smartly to the R. and dip both heels together (Poland, Czecho- slovakia, Hungary, and Russia; Ex. 20, page 99). 10. Bring L. ft. to centre of R. ft, both slightly turned outwards as in third 36 THE DEVELOPMENT OF STEP vj

of classical ballet and position technique (Scotland, Spain, Portugal). 11. Slide R. ft. and to on the toes. sideways bring L it, rising (This develops into the jo/20p known everywhere.)

12. feet and ft. or Jump apart dose L to R., either with or without a jump hop and (France, Poland, Hungary, Alpine areas; Ex. 51, page 156).

toe behind ft. as in 13. Bring L slightly R. at the same time bending R. knee, French or and curtsey English honour. (Known also in Teutonic, Scandinavian,

Italian countries.)

14. Bring L. ft. up behind R. ankle and immediately bend R. knee as fir as

possible.

ft. bent and sink to kned on knee. 15. Bring L up immediately on R. leg L and (Greece, Romania, Georgia). the direction the circle introduces Altering of the leading foot to move in and out of of thus the first series of variations, moving forwards and backwards instead sideways, more forming complicated patterns (Ex. nc, page 83). there When the dancers turn their bodies to face the way they are going, develops rise the in chains or a second series of variations, which give to group moving serpentine These can be as the dancers twist and turn towards and figures. extremely interesting, the line of dance. Exs. away from (See 8, 11, 47, 51.) of the movements can be varied a deal For die basic The quality great example, be or and followed a or one. The step may hard, slow, abrupt, by soft, quick, lethargic can be followed a smooth or and the feet dosed initial step jumped by closing, glided alter the of the basic and with a jump. The ways of performance rhythm original step,

' -^ m isf theHH>*^f * I WBM^BM which" I W W a dance its ^ and it rhythm finally gives unique quality style.y another is added to this basic and attention to the different When stepi movement, paid the the of the and the creation of new ways of placing feet, transferring weight body such well-known as the Czech without a 30, rhythms, steps polka hop (Exs. 53), pas-dt- 49, 50, and valses are basques (Exs. 5, 22, 37, 63), pas-fa-bounies (Exs. 13, 57). developed. a on to the the with a circular For example: give slight jump R ft, raising body tiny and then 611 back on the movement, transfer the weight momentarily to the L toe, the first and turn out the before R. This is the English "setting." Exaggerate jump legs the on to the L and then rock back on to the R. ft. and the transferring weight toe, are Scottish is seen. The offered are endless and by pas-cte-basque possibilities exploited folk dancers everywhere. basic there are different of Besides the simple step, many ways walking, running, like and all of which can and skipping, hopping, develop exciting important rhydims, the walk of the Hebridean Lilt, with its accented on the simple running Weaving step of the dancers so true to the work first beat of each bar, which makes the rhythm they depict. of man's the nature of the and its In the earliest stage development step performed 28 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

purpose determined the sequence of notes to be sung. It has been noted that in the most dances and have a small primitive parts of the world, where steps variety of movement, the tunes have a small compass of sound, but as soon as the dancers grow more excited or perform some ignifirant gesture the tunes are punctuated with wider intervals. This is also true to some extent of the relationship between tunes and steps in Europe, most areas instruments still particularly in those where mouth music or primitive accompany

The mood of the dancers originally determined the steps and the tune, which were intimately related. At first the steps were simple, and so were the melodies. As soon as the steps became broader and more varied, larger intervals began to appear and with the increasing range, variety, and mixture of step, the melody increased in scope and variety. Curiously enough certain musical intervals seem to be associated with certain countries and even with certain steps or ways of performing them. The following table will serve as a guide to these national characteristics which later chapters attempt to describe in fuller detail

The Augmented Second is particularly noticeable in Yugoslavia and is associated with all the fifteen ways of performing the Skv Basic step. Chains of Thirds are found in all Teutonic countries, but these are not associated with

particular steps or methods of performances, as most of the dances originated in the seventeenth, eighteenth, or nineteenth centuries and are not danced to mouth music or M'* early instruments, although the preponderance of steps and dances in triple suggests that the Chains of Thirds lend themselves to this type of measure. The Falling Fourth of Skv countries, particularly in Russia, is associated with methods of performing certain steps. and The Rising Fifth among the QViafnp of Thirds in Scandinavia in some Celtic areas, as well as the Rising Sixth, another Celtic characteristic, is sometimes associated with leaps and jumps. The Octave is often associated in Alpine areas with the Fertility Leap and methods of performance. (See Ex. i, page 52, for Musical Intervals.) CHAPTER IV

Climatic Conditions

climatic conditions in area the of the MrlHE prevailing any one dictate quality I movement to be performed and, to some extent, the accompanying rhythm. In the hottest such as India the Torrid JL countries, and others lying within Zone, movements are from one the to the other. Little fluid, flowing easily part of body

muscular strain is or no ever visible, and an accented step has not the same abrupt quality the in a as is as same type of step performed cold country, such Poland. The foot, which broad and meets the in a relaxed but the moment usually very flexible, ground state, the has the foot the muscles and the weight of body been transferred to stepping lighten that are seldom held contract, relaxing again almost immediately. This means poses contrast to the held more than momentarily in their most perfect state, in direct firmly areas. a continual from foot to or from to pose of the colder Instead, rocking foot, hip often a held of the half of the Or hip, accompanies position upper body. alternatively the half of the the flow in movements upper body, particularly arms, may undulating little and whilst the lower half is held immobile. Rhythms, once "set," vary very usually are one realizes that their seem intricate to Westerners, but once they understood patterns

are evenly constructed. and as in Where there is a swift change of temperature between day night, Spain

it is usual to find a clear distinction made between and along the Mediterranean coast, coincides with the in the dancers' hard and soft movements, which usually rapid changes are alternated with clear and moods. Flowing languorous steps abruptly vigorous The held terminate in a sudden turn or in stamping or foot-work. softly pose may rushing end in a soft turn and feet; or the brilliant succession of swift, accentuated steps may and their the dance, are pose, tttylitm change equally rapidly patterns, following usually

irregular. the central of the where In those countries, such as the Ukraine and parts U.S.S.R., contrast between the heat of summer and the bitter cold of winter, the there is a strong of contrasted and One dancers mark this distinct change by long phrases step rhythm. in such countries is the stressed of the most important elements strongly contrary body in the slower and more sections of a dance where movement. liis is apparent flowing movements The from side to side at broad sweeping predominate. body sways easily die waist-line. Feet and head inark the d^ecrion of tk

in to the or else head and arms act as a counter-balance in more difficult opposition feet, are These features are evident in the marked sections, but steps. vigorously quicker 30 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

more and articulated. A and the precise clearly vigorous pulling up opening of leg is an and accompanied by equally vigorous bending opening, or swinging across ofthe arm. head marks the The precisely swiftly changing direction of the feet or downwards and

movement of die dancer. This is stressed in all upwards strongly turning movements, the where eyes always keep turning to one fecal point In those such as countries, Germany, France, and England, where there is a more between and and between the movements are gradual change day night, seasons, equalized, as are their It is to see of the muscular strain rhythms. possible something required to make the contrast between an upward and downward, or a forward and backward movement. This is not broad or the dancer usually very flowing, tending to keep well within his own axis and which result in a rejecting anything might straining for effect This of movement is most noticeable in where lie equalization England, constantly moist has to atmosphere undoubtedly helped prune any spectacular effects from the folk dances. In such an it is to atmosphere, impossible keep up any prolonged, vigorous unless is physical effort, strength carefully preserved in order to endure the strain. It is impossible to indulge in an excess ofexuberance. Among the best folk dancers is found

an evenness of movement and absence of muscular strain, and this enables them to slrim

and over the floor. But this lightly easily dancing very evenness, the well-balanced body and ordered lends an air of to all the dances equally rhythmic base, similarity and tends to make them to an onlooker, unless attention is drawn to the floor boring fascinating patterns. It is to note that a lack of important specific arm movement in most dances of these temperate countries is not due to climatic conditions. The arm movements would seem to have been lost other such as the through causes, suppression of ancient ritual dance the the industrialization and mechanization by church, early of processes hitherto under- taken and the by hand, development of language as a means of communication. The colder the country, the more vigorous are the movements madff. The distinction between the various muscular and ends of and the strains, beginnings steps, various of are most noticeable. The are types steps, steps usually strongly accented and accom- stressed which are panied by similarly rhythms regular in form, although the accent does not fall always on the same beat of a bar. climatic conditions influence the of Although quality movements made they do not dictate the of the dance, which varies at all times and in all at tempo places. The speed which a folk dance should be is dictated the performed originally by purpose lying behind it. For an dance is never taken at a than example: occupational speed greater the tempo ofthe work it Ifman is to continue until a task is process represents. working completed, it is essential to to an as can be seen keep absolutely regular rhythm, by studying a man On the other as the dancers' in scything. hand, ecstasy grows their concentration on

the ritual, so the increases until reach that of excitement speed they pitch when they feel, as Sir Gilbert has said about the that the or "Mana" of their has Murray Greeks, spirit god entered into them and can feats which at other times would be they perform impossible. CHAPTER V

Geographical Situation

r iHE climatic that the world has changes undergone have created its geological I structure of fertile river and deserts, rolling steppes, plains, valleys mountains,

in all of which man finds a home. is JL The style of movement he performs iHnrl greatly determined by the of ground on which he dances, and it must be remem- bered that among some people the dances still retain an occasional characteristic movement ofthe land from which they originated, generations earlier. It is this mixture ofmovement that makes the dances of some as people, such the Russians, Hungarians, Czechs, and Spaniards, seem so varied. In rich or river as the Plains agricultural plains valleys, Danubian and parts of France, and Denmark, Yugoslavia, movements are accented downwards as if the whole body were drawn towards the soil rich being and the earth were preventing the feet from be or but the feet are rising. Steps may large small, not very accurately placed owing to the uneven state of the ground. Large numbers of dancers perform at the same time, close the identical and the dance is "set" keeping together, using step, usually Among the as in more primitive Europeans, parts of Yugoslavia and the Balkans, or where the rich-soiled area does not extend very far, the dosed circle form of dance, the Kolo, is most

in evidence. The dancers are linked little lightly together by fingers, hands, elbows, or shoulders. Sometimes the dancers continue to do the same series of simple step for into a hours at a time, working themselves frenzy. Their entire bodies shake from head to toe as the their arms to their Elsewhere the circle movement ripples through partners. or the dancers sometimes themsdves may not be so tightly dosed, may place some distance and the of their dance within the circle becomes as apart, patterning involved, In areas with rich soil the it does in the English Sellenger's Round (Ex. 56, page 170). travel- far with one if it is a return dancers seldom very any step and, figure dance, usually to their in the circle or set. original place In areas and such as the lower of the mountains pastoral rolling countryside, slopes the dancers travel much in Greece, Romania, the Alps and the Pyrenees, more, directing the Their bodies move both their movements along the surface of ground. upwards the dance and and downwards, but never in excess, and whole appears buoyant easy. but are not so As in the richer areas, comparatively large groups perform together tightly linked, and it is more usual to find the circle opening out into a chain. The dance is usually the chain a series of which are "set" That is, performs simple steps continually repeated. dances. But in order to the series of the leader will There arc very few pattern vary steps

31 32 . EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

the chain into at times to often direct serpentine figures, breaking away perform individual this in the Greek Ealamatianos the Farandole steps, happens (Ex. 8, page 70), Provencal and the Kolo Another (Ex. 51, page 156), Yugoslav Devojacko (Ex. IIB, page 82). strongly

marked characteristic ofthese pastoral people is that although the dancers move forwards, almost from side to they do so reluctantly, turning side, stepping diagonally across or even backwards to or from the line of dance.

These movements are in contrast to the pastoral great travelling movements of the of the enormous and the nomadic people grasslands steppes, stretching from Ukraine to These latter dancers to skim the Mongolia. appear over surface of the ground, and travel with the widest of in which possible variety movement, easy leaps and swift, executed These are directed almost neatly running steps predominate. entirely forwards, and the dances are seldom "set" Although quite large groups may dance together, and

each dance have a form of basic this is may generally accepted step, step elaborated at will each individual. It often in the by happens particularly men's dances, that each of the in turn will break into a member group spectacular solo, whilst the others con- tinue to circle round him or mark his rhythms by stamping and (dapping. The Ukrainian and the Cherouli are excellent of this Gopak Georgian examples type of dance.

are breeders and riders of and this is Steppe-dwellers usually great horses, activity reflected in their The noticeable everywhere movement most points are their erect head and and shoulder and the arms as if back, easy carriage movement, held riding are seldom raised over the head. A number of their are they directly steps directly derived the horses' "reined from galloping,jumping, trotting, rearing, and in" movements. Movements of all mountain are people easily recognized. Being confined to smaller areas and hard the dancers utilize bit of ground, every space by performing exciting which are and neat high leaps accurately placed accompanied by stepping. The accent

of such is These intricate dances are steps nearly always upwards. usually "set," but only small dance at a time. There is a deal of individual very groups together great display,

the carried is balanced a is and easily body usually by upheld arms and head that con- alert to the difficulties of in such areas. entire tinually keeping eyes moving The dance

the effect of as and as the mountain air. gives being light invigorating Good examples of this are the Scottish Seann Triubhas and the mountaineer dances from the Tatra and

Carpathian mountains. countries where the be said to scratch a bare m peasants may existence from very

the movements are in and The dance is poor soil, similarly poor step pattern. usually and a few Nevertheless the difficulties a "set," comprises simple steps. stranger can to in are In encounter when trying join great parts of Yugoslavia and elsewhere in the 1 these movements are j* because ofthe Balkans, simple interesting performers complete relaxation in the dance. As it so their bodies to bounce gets quicker appear softly on the shake so that the whole ground and throughout, group seems to tremble like leaves in MAT I

MOVEMENTS OF THE US PEOPLES FROM

.D.TO 7 000 AD.

GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATIONS 33 the wind, and the becomes most intricate and as in the rhythm syncopated, Yugoslav Zhikino's Kolo (Ex. 10, page 80).

The movements of desert-dwellers, whether in the heat of Asia or Africa or in the cold areas such as the vast tundras ofnorthern Russia, are what might be termed spasmodic. The dancers make sudden convulsive movements with their as bodies they constantly their from change weight foot to foot, as ifthe ground were either too hot or too cold to

allow a In cold countries the movement is and there is deal pause. more jerky a great of arm movement from side to side and up and down. Tie hands are often allowed to touch the as body they move to and fro, as in the Eskimo dances. In hot areas the hands and arms have not the same and are from the at vigour kept away body, except those moments where or are introduced slaps daps to accent the rhythm. They are also often used to shade the head and as in Bedouin dances. Dances both eyes, on these types of are seldom "set." The have a basic and ground group usually step occasionally some member fed to break out into a solo. There like may inspired is, however, nothing the same or individuality spectacular variety of movement found in the dances of the

steppe nomads. Most as defined the European countries, by present-day political boundaries, show some of therefore one finds in their dances a variety physical feature, usually variety of movement. In and Romania there are three distinct Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, quite types, to the three of features: the in corresponding types physical shaking and dosed Kotos

the Northern Plains and other river where the soil is the chains valleys rich, hopping and Kolos on the mountain and the dances in the open slopes, trembling poorer areas, such as the Black Mountains of Serbia.

features to the national this is But physical seldom help mark boundaries, and one circle dance, with its downwards accent, is the chains and the gradually replaced by more open buoyant ease of rolling pasture into the neat dances in the and shepherd peoples, changing again upwards leaping high Then as the dancer crosses the vast mountain and mountain villages. Alpine system descends into France or so these lose and until are lost in Italy, leaps vigour height, they the and of south and central France and low-stepping circles, rhaitM, processionals Italy, or are carried the various and across river to in some through passes valleys appear again the dances of the of fascinating Basque Pyrenees. i shows how and warlike excursions Map (facing page 32) migrating people by of the natural features as on their conquering armies always took advantage they passed this to account for some of the movements still found in way, and helps Europe to-day. can be seen are Dances in which dements of the horse-riding, steppe-dwelling people areas as to the found throughout such widdy separated Mongolia norm-east, Turkkan, the to the west and Poland to the north-west Georgia and the Crimea to south, Hungary 34 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

This is proof of the enormous influence exerted first by the Hum and other near Eastern tribes during the first to the fifth centuries A.D., and then by the Mongols under Genghis Khan in the thirteenth century AJX Sweeping across the vast Russian steppes, the hordes at varying times found means of fording the Volga, Don, Dnieper, and Dniester rivers, as well as following up these river banks to spread out into Central Russia and as far as Poland. They also swept round the snores of the Black Sea, followed up the banks of the Danube and spread throughout the Danubian Plains, and finally penetrated into what is now known as Germany. As they travelled so their vigorous horse-riding dances gradually weakened in movement and rhythm as they met and intermarried with people of more sedentary cultures. It is sometimes difficult to recognize such movements in the the simple stepping dances of Pripet Marshes of Poland, or in the complicated leaps and turns of the Far Eastern mountain peoples. But in Hungary and the Ukraine and Armenia, such elements are still easily recognized among the more solid agricultural dance movements.

Other migrating and raiding people, like the Greeks and Vikings, travelled by sea routes, establishing themselves in coastal areas and only penetrating into other countries as tar as they could by river. They too spread their own peculiar dance characteristics among those of the more stable peoples. Sometimes the physical features ofa land help the people to preserve ancient traditions, as well as to disseminate their culture. The very difficulty ofgetting into the mountainous or desert areas of some countries has prevented a conquering people from occupying all areas but the sea-ports and easily accessible in river valleys, or lower mountain slopes. The Basques, Greeks, and Georgians all possess what are possibly the oldest rituals and ceremonials in the whole of Europe. A glance at the map showing the physical features of those countries will help to explain why this has happened. The extremely high mountains, dangerously narrow mountain passes, and almost impassable river gorges prevent all but the most courageous of travellers and warriors from penetrating within, and such solitary travellers would have little influence on the prevailing customs and habits of the inhabitants. CHAPTER VI

Development of Costume

"X costume can be TATIONAL ddined as beii^ of certain and who also have common \^ political ethnological groups dances, and habits. costumes 1. l music, art, customs, A study of the basic prindples of such reveals, however, that the distinctive dress of any one group has similar characteristics to those of other similar and any group living lives, performing similar work, having the same ancestors. This likeness occurs even within one diough tiny regions any country may have their own distinctive ornamental elements. In order to understand how these regional differences have developed, it is first essential to define the common characteristics.

National costume serves three : it is to purposes first, purely utilitarian, serving protect the body from the elements and suitable for the life and work ofeach group; secondly, for to either the charms of the human or the wearer's status adornment, serving display body influences. and wealth; thirdly and most important, to protect die body from evil and The first factors to determine the form a costume will take are the geographical climatic conditions. Wherever man lives he has evolved methods of making the raw out materials he finds into garments suitable for his environment By roughly sketching to the man's evolution from his most primitive and nomadic state present-day groups mountain and town-dwellers of nomads, hunters, fishermen, pastoralists, agriculturists, to discover certain characteristics are held in and others, it is possible why common, with differences only in detail to a of the one true nomadic race still It is curious that in trying make study existing, the one finds that there is no such as a common costume. As with gipsy, thing gipsy it finds in which it travels and lives. their dances, each group utilizes what in the country wear in and so on. These In Spain, gipsies Spanish costume, Hungary, Hungarian may one features are evident. There are nevertheless in be ragged, but particular country's all some characteristics common to both men and women. These countries specific gipsy and their are their love of bright touches of colour, particularly red, orange, cerise, coin and the beautiful in which their shawls and glittering ornaments, way they drape

THE APRON 02 OVBRSKIRT

himself more in forest near water. Man first attempted to establish permanently clearings to and with the of enormous Here he learned plait osiers, creepers, grasses and, help S; 36 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

a At the same time he to use leaves, to build himself primitive hut began large leaves and to those of his most sensitive to insect This grasses protect parts body pests. gave the earliest which into or him one of known garments, developed the apron, short over-

skirt this is common in where it is than Today apron everywhere Europe, more just a of the dress. One look at the embroidered of means protecting exquisitely aprons the Balkans, France, Scandinavia, Hungary, or Slovakia, where they are worn by both men and or those of the which an in the women, Ukraine, play important part wedding

a clue to their older use. Their is to the ceremonies, gives purpose ostensibly display as a needlewoman in some eastern her of girl's capabilities and, countries, dowry gold coins and with which it is decorated also ornaments, lavishly (Plate Vn, page 36). {fcu an added the in the protection, covering placket smock, skirt, or trousers, which is often left open.

THE OVERCOAT AND JACKET

man to settle he started to in his When began practise hunting and filing search for food. This and he used as gave him pelts fish-skins, which an added protection from the dements, to which he became more sensitive as he learned the value of comfort But

of and fish-skins served other believed that garments leaves, pelts, purposes. As man the ofthe tree enter strength would in to him ifhe worshipped it in his rituals, so he hoped that if he wore its leaves he would be better able to withstand the elements. Similarly, he noted the and the animals fish speed, strength, cunning of and he hunted and hoped in sVin that by dressing up their and imitating their movements he would not only the he but also be better able acquire qualities most admired, would ft/catch them.

It is because of this belief in the gaining of understanding of and command over animals in their skins that finds by dressing up one shepherds, guardians of flocks, and hunters wear an outer coat or cloak made of the or hair everywhere who pelts woven from the of their or of the animals hunt. enormous pelts flocks, they The sheepskin cloaks or "suba" of the are hie the the French Hungarian shepherds, which "pelerine" of

their overcoat felt called a is the shepherds, of doth "szur," which hie Ukrainian "schuba," the waistcoats worn the reindeer sheepskin by shepherds everywhere, all-enveloping coats of certain the seal-skin of Russian the Finno-Ugrian tribes, jackets fur-trappers, fox-cloaks of the Yakut hunters, the curious "burka" of the Georgian Cossacks made of felted until it stands alpaca wool, thickly up by itself, the fish-skin robes of the Karelian and Barents Sea are a few of the fishermen, just examples sympathetic magic practised in his dress. It must also be that as by man noted some such garments not only act a cloak but can serve as a shdter if the wearer cannot temporary get back to his home at This accounts for the curious tent-hie the night shape of Georgian "burka." At a much later of after man had learnt to stage development, breed animals and spin outer of hide or woven wool wool, garments became necessary articles of attire. PLATE yn DALMATIAN COSTUME

The woman is wearing her dowry FLATS VIZZ THE GREEK AND MACEDONIAN SOLDIER. AND GUERRILLA COSTUME

difl&colt to trace The origin of this coitmne is THE DEVELOPMENT OF COSTUME 37

in all This was particularly so the colder countries, such as Scandinavia, and in mountain where knitted shawls or knitted became of districts, large thickly felted or jackets part the national costume. In Skv countries, however, this outer garment is still made of

animal skins. It is often sleeveless, and the fur is worn on the inside.

Other articles of attire from desire to interesting arising man's emulate, capture, or control some animal are the shoes made ofthe animal he hunted, as the deer or elk-skin shoes of the Scots. To this also the head-dresses of the category belong eagle-feather Red Indians, and the mountain cock's feathers stuck in the Tyrolean hats as the dancers round in the old dance. fly mating situation a in the form costume The geographical played large part determining

should take when man began to breed domestic animals and cultivate crops. The larger

the richer the is man's and the more the area occupied and soil, the more varied work the materials for In and in hot such as varied clothing. swampy ground countries, Egypt, the main garments will be of cotton. In Europe, flax grows particularly well, the countries is made of which therefore principal garment of most European linen, the coarsest to the finest the soil is not so is can be from of qualities. Where rich, hemp the where made into coarse doth. This is used a great deal in fertile areas hie Ukraine, are so that the strain clothes is Wool the work processes many on particularly heavy. and in colder areas there is is widely used among pastoral peoples everywhere. Finally this art under- the natural silk, found wherever silk-worms are cultivated. In Asia was

but in it is a modern in those countries stood many years ago, Europe development, except and silk-worm. where the Mongol invaders settled and brought both mulberry-tree finds in Eastern Romania, That is why one some European countries, particularly fine silk and which are a of exquisitely veils, scarves, aprons, embroidery, genuine part the folk costume, and not a later addition, as are the silk aprons of Western European countries.

THE BASIC SMOCK OB SHIRT

Tie most ancient At first the woven material was very short and narrow. Egyptian show that of it were wound round those ofthe most reliefs and pictures strips parts body Peasants still use these of cloth to themselves from in need of protection. strips protect evolved a method of broader and strain, cold, and insect bites. When man weaving he created the basic smodinade ofa ofmateriaL longer strips garment-^the single piece male and female attire in all of where This is still the basic garment of parts Europe they In its the smock is made of a still use their own elementary looms. simplest form, long

of material folded in half; strip ash'tisinadehorizontaHymthefoH extra are attached to tb folded end to serve as sleeves. the front, and two strips vertically Poland, and It is still found in this form in Yugoslavia, Russia, Bulgaria, G^oval^ it is with women it is oftentheir Sometimes worn and among the poorest only garment. a of cloth for head-dress, and a slcev^ for winter (Plate I, page 8). an apron, strip jacket 38 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

of mankind into classes led to the desire of the strata of to The division upper society themselves from the workers This led to an elaboration distinguish they employed. of the ornamental side of the basic and the utilization of rare materials garment, exclusively the overlords. In it became however to weave and wider by time, possible longer strips materials and the basic form of the smock to alter. In some of began places, notably the

hot it became fashionable to this extra material round countries, drape oneselfj altering the with the the thickness of draping varying temperature. The method of draping -and the colour to denote the of to began particular category society which one belonged, as

it did in the "chitons" and "togas" of ancient Greece. Elsewhere, extra sections of cloth

were added to the smock. The two most this existing interesting examples of are the and tie Arab Scottish "plaid" "burnous."

THE PLAID

The Scottish costume was a smock of coarse linen with with original dyed saffron, strips of the same material or untanned leather wound round the and a legs plaid wrapped the shoulders. Later a of was laid on the floor and round length plaid carefullyvpleated

The man on it so that its bottom came below his lengthways. ky edge just knees, wrapped the over the front of his and then a belt his two unpleated edges body, strapped rounfi waist to keep it on, The long upper end was slung over one shoulder and held with his clan or else round the entire to him from cold and wet pin, draped body protect

It is this that the kilt have evolved from simple beginning present-day and separate plaid

(Plate VI, page 21).

THE TROUSERS

all in rich soil content a as Not men settled Some were with semi-permanent site, and the and the soil became moved on to group grew larger impoverished they fresh pasture.

are races still this nomadic herdsmen's and it was such There living type of life, people created the last basic the trousers. Most nomadic are lovers who garment peoples great and breeders of and it can be understood that neither the nor the horses, easily apron the the the the overskirt, overcoat nor cloak, smock nor draperies were comfortable

attire for first to evolve a more suitable horse-riding. The men garment were possibly the horse-breeders in the Asiatic created a form of short nomadic steppes. They tight trousers of to which later added a of or boot made hide, they primitive type gaiter These trousers were brought to Eastern and Northern Europe by the barbarian tribes as

they conquered the Roman Empire, and the leather breeches soon became a common

article of attire for all horsemen and fighters (Plate H, page 9). has the leather breeches at the Fashion changed considerably, particularly time when the overlords, no longer needing to lead their own troops into battle, found means of them of materiaL This new idea was the and one making gradually copied by peasants, THE DEVELOPMENT OF COSTUME 39

can still see how the breeches of the petticoat court of Louis XIV were adapted and became the knickerbockers of France, as they did in other areas where a court lived in dose to its The leather breeches retained their proximity people (Plate HI, page i

to folds of material into steppe nomads, they preferred drape large long baggy trousers, which not to the the desert only helped protect them from blistering sun of highways, but also served as a padding against the rough hide of the horse or camel mount. Both and affected this the men women type of garment, as entire families were continually on move. Wherever Arab or Turk or a the trousers penetrated conquered country, baggy have a of national costume. This the become part happened because conquered races, in order to themselves and their used the costume as a form protect particularly women, of These trousers are more than a of doth folded in half with disguise. Me long strip either cut at each end of the or with the side seams left two slits, horizontally fold, open near the fold for the to legs slip through (Plate H, page 9).

still trouser to be worn At a later stage in man's development, a new type of began

all the of certain fertile areas. These were among seafaring folk, and among peasants

were as still are in of three-quarter length and very wide. Occasionally they worn, they of as an extra over the trousers. parts Denmark, protection long, tight Among seafaring which could be rolled and races they gradually became foil-length trousers, easily up kept in the water and then let down to the from the wind. dry when working protect legs full trousers remained at In the The agricultural peasants' always three-quarter length. formed a of the costume of Ukraine and parts of Russia, they early part regular peasant "and Cossack, and are due to the mixture of nomad and settler.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEE BASIC GARMENTS

all of or over- By the fourteenth century these basic garments attire, apron overskirt, smock and trousers were known all over The women's smock was worn jacket, Europe. the whilst the men's smock was worn short. long and was sometimes only garment, In this male smock wider, and it is still worn tanners in some places grew by peasant 40 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

France and Russia. The smock was the nearest approach to a national costume England

has ever known. The wide material was drawn together with intricate embroidery; the farmer the more elaborate did his wife make the the more prosperous embroidery. class the wonderful materials The rise of a leisured of people, importation of from the of doth in and above all East, the inny^ng manufacture (particularly England), the

circles to be dressed in the latest first from and need in court styles imported Italy then

from France, changed the simple smock into an almost unrecognizable article.

It is not here to embark a offashion but it is to under- possible upon history important stand how aristocratic costume has influenced national costume. The local conditions

under which each costume is worn create its details and make it characteristic of one

of national costume with the Italian particular group. The forming began Renaissance, as as the fourteenth and certain well-known features were established early and fifteenth centuries. French costume reached its highest standard during the reign of Louis XV,

reached its finest in the sixteenth and seventeenth whilst Dutch costume peak early centuries, Dutch head-dresses deriving from fifteenth century modes. In most Eastern European countries, the middle areas of the U.S.S.R., and the Eastern

of Czechoslovakia and the linen smock is still worn as the basic parts Poland, garment.

Over it comes the sleeveless waistcoat The wealthier men wear tight trousers of hide, to his but the poorer peasant has the looser trousers made of coarse doth bound legs with of leather or material The women add an overskirt of felted doth or strips may an to cover the on their overskirt. If both pleated linen, with apron opening wealthy, or coat fur or felted man and woman will wear a long, sometimes sleeveless overdress, of doth in winter. The womenusually affect a kerchieffor the head which is worn in various

ways (Plate I, page 8).

the loses its The further west one goes, more the woman's basic smock original form. In the rich in northern and western Czecho- areas, particularly Hungary, Yugoslavia, the costumes become elaborate The slovakia, extremely (see frontispiece). upper part or blouse becomes with sleeves and or The lower fuller, large many gathers pleats. part becomes one or several to the wealth of the and over them petticoats according wearer,

is the retains its worn overskirt and apron. The sleeveless jacket sometimes original form, as it a and in Russia, but in the Ukraine becomes complicated waked padded jacket.

In the it is a knitted and Tyrol tight-fitting garment (Plates IV and V, pages 17 20),

in elsewhere it the corset-hie often made but France, Poland, Italy and becomes bodice,

of black vdvet and laced the front. The silhouette of sudi a costume its up displays in the fashion one as so in the seventeenth origin ofmaking garment appear two, prevalent court dress. The of this court dress were from the century panniers copied peasant women's habit of tucking up their overskirtshtodiekwak-bandsrn of to some from the mud. The peasant imitation court fashions has led queer as the curious version the aristocratic extravagances, such of eighteenth-century overcoat cut in seen in of Poland and and the Eton-hie away front, parts France, "jackanapes" THE DEVELOPMENT OF COSTUME 41

to Western the coats of the coats, common many European countries, derived from time of Louis XIV and Charles H

HEAD-DRESS

the lace of Head-dress shows influence of court iashion most of all The exquisite caps medieval France, Holland and elsewhere are often deliberate copies of the elaborate head-dresses worn court ladies The by (Plate IE, page 16). heavy gold-embroidered black velvet of and northern were caps Denmark, Savoy (Plate V, page 20) Yugoslavia fashion from the Italian merchant led the world in fijifan. a brought Italy when princes Danish the influence of from the time when the Other styles show Dutch ^sHop? dating of Netherlands extended further than it doesttxky. The curious black lace top-knots in Bresse are French versions of the beautifidblad lace the women the peasant mantillas, court ladies this area was under rule. which were worn by Spanish when Spanish the In some countries the type of cap worn denotes the woman's status. Usually wears her hair in or braided over the of her head, some- unmarried girl loose, plaits top

a married woman's hair is hidden a kerchief or often times with tiny cap. The by cap, attached of decoration. The widow often wears of black, to which may be many types This custom of a to hide the hair a black cap or kerchief with white wings. wearing cap of North where beads are so has given rise to the rearming Danish beaded cap Zealand, hair. Another favourite form of head-dress in Skv sewn that they look hire the braided for festive occasions arc wreaths of real flowers, a relic of an old countries, particularly which the and of bunches offlowers to ensure a fertility rite, tonamM picking wearing good harvest head-dress is the the little round worn Another interesting "Troubeyedb," cap by a1i1* This to the eastern men and women in many Skv countries. originally belonged like their leather it nomads, who brought it with them on their travels, and, breeches, as far west as the Scandinavian In the same the gradually penetrated peninsula. way high Tfln and was then other countries. boot was introduced to Russia by Genghis copied by hat of and as well as the "beret," has evolved from the The tiny round Italy Switzerland, to cover the tonsure. the ecclesiastical skull-cap worn

DELIBERATE COSTUME DESIGN

at a time when nationalistic Some national costumes were deliberately designed feeling these are the Greek costume known as the "Anialia/' copied was running high. Among bolero bodice and from Queen Amaha's own dress with its full flared skirt, tight fitting when Greece her freedom from Turkish fez-like head-dress. This appeared regained costume which rule. Another creation is the Austrian "Drindl" (Hate IV, page 17),

its form after the war, when upper-class Austrians, acquired present 1914-18 patriotic 42 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

with die division of the to revive the disgusted Austro-Hungarian Empire, began long- dead folk dances, customs, and wearing of national costumes. The movement started

as it with the revival of the in the towns and its centre was Salzburg. Coinciding did the idea soon This accounts for the Salzburg Music Festival, spread. widespread wearing the Nazi of the black-knitted with its and by young girls jacket red, white, green pattern, the which are reminders of the colours and emblem of the and the buttons wit eagles, old Imperial flag.

DECORATIVE MOTIFS

are not the features which to Historical and aristocratic influences only help distinguish

between the varied national costumes. Their decorative motifs denote more accurately the area to which These are first and foremost dictated specific they belong. designs by beliefs and Costume was worn not as a from the man's superstitions. only protection evil influences. The most elements its function was also to protect man from primitive

still their naked bodies with and cMc to races paint red^)chre,woad,safeon, keep away

evil These four colours are still used for races and, spirits. magic purposes by peasant

is to with these colours are it can although it impossible say any certainty why chosen, to be the colour of the earth be said that red is always considered by primitive people

it the earth and life. and life; therefore if one wears one has command over Similarly, or and white of water. blue is the colour of the sky or air, yellow of the sun fire, invention of did not do with man's belief in evil Like his The dotting away spirits. an an evil ancestors, he took care that wherever there was opening through which being charm to this awful This could enter his body, he placed a magic prevent happening. can be found in the form ofthe borders ofthe Indian sari and other magic charm exquisite the anklets of the Eastern and other the knitted draped garments, embroidered races, socks of the Scandinavians and Yugoslavs, and the embroidered edges of countless shirts, Their elaborate neck and arm bands serve a smocks, dresses, and blouses of Europe. similar As time went on seem to have and it was purpose. superstitions grown, thought to take with to the seams of the This accounts necessary precautions regard clothing. the sides of some the that for the elaborate embroideries up garments. Finally gaps are neck- occur between garments and bodies protected by elaborately designed belts, 611 to or the women's and anklets or footless cloths which from head blouse, protect &ces, to the between shoe and trousers. hose protect space of the which remain uncovered are often Those parts body given protection by magic charms. Blue beads are tied to the hair and round the neck of many Balkan children, those in Italian babies wear red coral necklaces. can be seen particularly Serbia; They old Italian of the Christ-chili These red bead necklaces are in some famous paintings

articles of in of the world. common protection many parts

all measures con- The motifs used in these elaborately designed precautionary vary mere are no hard and rules about their In countries of the siderably, and &t appearance, THE DEVELOPMENT OF COSTUME 43

East where the Moslem or Greek Orthodox faiths it is usual to find more predominate,

conventional In such cross-stitch is geometrical patterns. countries embroidery common,

and this lends itself to a more of Cross-stitch itself is to be a rigid type design. thought of evil in lace powerful preventive many countries, as are the beautiful designs decorating blouse peasant petticoats, aprons, head-dresses, and blouses everywhere. A Ukrainian

or smock has cross-stitch all as a frill of embroidery round the neck opening, as wed

and down the round the and all round the bottom as well lace, front, sleeves, usually

The introduction of red under the arms is to one's entrails from patches intended prevent torn out evil These red are in other being by brings. patches occasionally found garments besides the such as the smock, Arab "Ojibbah."

floral are in all fertile such as the Ukraine Flowing designs usually predominant lands,

and the fertile of and In such countries there is a wealth of parts Yugoslavia Hungary.

because the districts with colour vegetable dyes used can be so various. In poorer soils,

such as the Black Mountains the is conventional in black of Serbia, embroidery purely from black or on coarse natural-coloured with an occasional wool, spun goats sheep, linen, red hue and or or a of such metals. In some other silver, gold, copper thread, particle

the soil is not as and mineral used can areas where rich, such Scotland, die vegetable dyes

still be rich to the of and mineral and one extremely owing presence peat springs, single tartan can show as as of colour. many eighty-one gradations thread into the is evidence of The introduction of metal evil-dispelling embroidery

the belief that all metals and stones one from the and primitive bright protect evil-eye,

of is therefore not an indication of the wealth of the the amount jewellery worn just a does sometimes wear her entire of and wearer, although girl dowry coins, gold charms, her and head-dress. so on, on apron The bracelets, necklaces, ear-rings, finger-rings,

and anklets made of metal and stones show the still belief waist-belts, solely powerful in the such materials are to The circle is the of the peasants protection supposed give. of all to ancient Greek the circle or, most important motif According philosophers, the circle within a truth and was the most revered of better still, circle, represented signs. additional In Christian countries crosses are added to these circles, as an protection. use which to scare snakes as well as Elsewhere they bells, certainly help away spirits. worked in scarlet or made of scarlet In many Catholic countries heart-ahapcd lozenges but also as of the Geometrical felt are found not only as ornaments part embroidery.

all with used ancient and Greek patterns significant meanings, by Egyptian, Assyrian, as weU as have also found their into philosophers, magical symbols, way peasant design. die create for themselves out of die They are scattered among glorious designs peasants them. These natural birds, natural dements surrounding dements, leaves, flowers, the most fertile source of offiJk artists and so on, have proved inspiration every- the exact and of die wearers. where, and their use defines locality regions CHAPTER VII

The Costume on Dance Influence of

is but as IOSTUME determined by the climatic and geographical conditions, some I articles kilts and and do of attire, principally footwear, skirts, trousers, head-gear

\^ ^ olav some Dart in forming a dancer's movements,* the slieht differences thev can ^^ Lit. O / to the taken into make style of dance must be account.

FOOTWEAR

Boots and shoes affect the entire movement of the body, as they determine its stance and restrict lend carnage. Some tend to the dancer's movements, whilst others themselves to verv lisht and auick footwork, or sussest clicking heels and stamt)inff feet. / o~~ i ^30 o r o

Bare Feet

It is not that the the surprising barefooted dancer possesses greatest freedom of move- ment and of This is noticeable the whose perfection carriage. particularly among gipsies, is that the rich superb carriage equalled only by of poorer peasants in the agricultural areas of Eastern and Southern Europe who, during their youth, often work and dance

bare feet. relaxed is the with The partly foot placed firmly on ground and immediately con- tracted in order to maintain balance. is held erect The body easily and responds sensitively to movement of the from the or every feet, swaying gently hips, shoulders, waist

The Scottish Gillie Shoe, the Georgian Heel-less Boot, and Others

The wonderfully soft elk or doe-skin Gillie shoe, the chamois heel-less boot of the

Cossack and similar found fit the Georgian footwear, among mountain people, foot like a

Plates Hand and it the glove. (See VI, pages 9 21.) They protect from hard surface, but to some extent control its because not it to its movement, they do allow spread to fullest extent For this reason there is a air certain ofconstraint to be noted throughout the entire The do not the head and shoulders are held alert body. hips sway easily, ready and to ofdirection. The every change spine, particularly among the women, is often straightened to its fullest and is extent, breathing very full, so that the weight of the body does not the and impede leaps springs over mountain obstacles. Yet such footwear also allows tremendous of ankle flexibility and instep; footwork is therefore most intricate, for there are no heels to restrict the full play of the working foot round the ankle or knee of the supporting leg. THE INFLUENCE OF COSTUME ON DANCE 45

The Leather Sandal and Thonged of Greece, Yugo-Slavia parts of Czechoslovakia This form of footwear Plates VE and a (see n, TOE, pages 9, 36 and 37) gives slight forwards and backwards movement to the rolling foot, which helps the dancer to move over the or easily rough heavy ground. The body responds to the fell of the toe and heel, as can be seen the rise and fall by noting gentle ofthe head. There is no sideways swaying from the and, because the feet are the hips always placed directly towards constantly line of dance, the movement follows that the changing body of feet, gradually losing impetus as it reaches the shoulders.

The Hide Shoe, Straw or Reed Sandal Polish and Russian Peasants and the Heavy of String Shoe of Spam and Elsewhere

In such shoes Plate there is a (see I, page 8) tendency to place the foot flat on the as the dancer which means there is no to the the ground travels, rising highest part of ball of the foot or of the pointing toes. At the same time, this type of shoe moulds itself to the of the wearer's foot and therefore the dancers move and if shape freely easily, somewhat The is held maintain untidily. body loosely, the arms and head are alert to and there is a deal balance, great of contrary body movement. The feet, although are protected, not restricted.

The Wooden Sabot ofFrance, Holland and Elsewhere

Sabots Plate lend a certain but a dancer's (see HI, page 16) stiflhess, do not impede toes cannot be the feet raised movements. The pointed, nor very high from the ground. Because sabots do not fit there is an their therefore tightly, appreciable danger of flying off, dancer thrusts his well the weight forwards and down into the ground at each step and the is held somewhat The soles of the sabots have to be to the body stiffly. kept parallel ground, and wherever this is smooth, a tremendous speed can be gained as the wooden the shoes glide over surface.

The Clog ofLancashire, Switzerland and Elsewhere

The dog with the shaped wooden sole and stiffleather upper lends itself to extremely because it is secured to the foot and thus the ankle has freedom to light footwork firmly the shoe the dancer to in extra and move, but the weight of inspires indulge beats, taps, this stress footwork the whilst as a counter- stamps. With on however, arms, acting and balance to the weight of the body, are thrown forwards hang loosely, becoming quite expressionless.

The Heeled Cossack or Russian Boot

This form offootwear is most comfortable for dancing on any type of ground. The but because the sole and are flexible the dancer's foot is supported and protected, upper can Such footwear allows the widest of ankles and insteps move freely. possible variety 46 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

for the low heels offer a broad base for the erect back and well controlled head and steps, of the as well as the of shoulders horseman, allowing stamping of feet, clicking heels, wide and acrobatic feats of the rider or the worker with nomadic leaps agricultural ancestors,

The Czech and Boot and the Boot High-cut Hungarian Ming Polish High-heed

These boots all the foot in the as the Russian (see frontispiece) support same way

but because come the there is a to dance with boot, they higher up leg tendency straighter knees, and although the body is held erect, there is litde freedom from the waist. For this the arms and are reason, shoulders kept firmly under control in order to balance the for the loss of some of the knee. body, compensating elasticity

The Shoe or Boot Heavy, Nailed, Alpine Agricultural Such footwear was more recently introduced into the folk dancers' wardrobe. These boots and shoes restrict foot movements inasmuch as lack of sole and they flexibility upper, and fail to mould themselves to the wearers' feet. This tends to make movements stiff and restrained.

The Heeled Buckled or Tied Ordinary Slipper, Shoe

These are but again comparatively recent, providing the sole and upper are flexible,

have not influence on the dancer's movements. fit and they any special They firmly, thus the dancer can move as as the rest freely of the costume allows.

The Portuguese Mule

These are on the feet light slippers kept only by the constant contraction of the foot and of the and the dancer's deliberate of the first pointing toes, placing toe on the ground.

This lends a forward thrust and a air of all slight general elegance to movements, because of the of balance to maintain an erect nicety required carriage.

The Spanish High-heeled Slipper

These fit more than the but the heels tightly Portuguese slipper, higher thrust the

further forwards on to the this is a body toes; compensated by slight backwards bend from the waist, and by well-controlled shoulders. Ik forward thrust ofthe lower half of the is also an leg compensated by incompletely tightened knee, which allows the dancer to use her heels to stress the beat; her which are rhythmic partner's heels, slightly higher and smaller than those of the male are used for the average shoe, same purpose.

SKIRTS, KILTS, AND TROUSERS

The cut and of or trousers affects the style skirt, kilt, firstly position of the hand when on or waist. placed hip Wherever the skirt or trouser is full, it is more usual for the THE INFLUENCE OF COSTUME ON DANCE 47 dancer to the hand with thumb and the the outstretched place forefinger firmly on waist, and ofthe hand on the the to some fingers palm lying comfortably top of hip. This, extent, to the numerous folds and of the skirt or trousers in Pkte helps keep gathers place. (See

Vm, page 37).

With the skirt or trouser it is more usual to the the hand on the tighter place back of waist in order to avoid the material thus displacing scanty and impeding movement.

This of the hand is position usually used with the kilt, as it is essential that the front

be flat. Pkte panels kept (See VI, page 21.) the man his hand somewhat lower on die and behind the usually places hip, embroidery.

often lie with the the rests the the The fingers parallel seam, and thumb on back of hip.

(See frontispiece.) width of the skirts never affects the a at their The movement great deal When fullest are worn with which the from too in they petticoats, prevent legs rising high, that the narrow the thrust the same way smocks of Balkans prevent any great upwards the in some Eastern because of the of the of leg. Moreover, European countries, weight dowry sewn on to the apron which is worn over the. slit skirt, as well as the fact that are into the dancers tend to their dose knickers only now coming use, keep legs together at knee. Pkte the (See VIJ, page 36.)

as tar as otherwise the material will itself between the to be turned out possible, wrap The also acts as a deterrent to a ofthe Pkte dancer's legs. sporran turning-in legs. (See VI, page 21.) the trouser of of and Czecho- It is only very tight military parts Hungary, Poland, constraint on the dancer's movements Elsewhere slovakia that put any (see frontispiece). as in Greece and has extra material into the the tight trouser, Georgia, grafted body part to for all of movement Pkte in order give room types (Sec n, page 9). curious trousers Pkte derived from On the other hand, the bag-shaped (also D) and ofthe Caucasus Turkish fashions and worn by the women in Bosnia, Macedonia, parts a In such it is difficult make the dancers move with shuffling gait. garments extremely

the material is into to raise the feet tar from the floor as the centre part of caught girdle of foot or knee this. or belt, and any violent movement dislodges

HEAD-DRESS

head-dress of or of the Skv and Hnno- The heavy, festive flowers, ribbons, coins, jewels which arc worn at affects the entire of Ugrian countries, especially weddings, carriage movements must be restricted to the absolute minimum if the the body, because head in The dancers surmount this their head-dress is to be kept place. difficulty by using where such head-dresses are hands. This accounts for the afl-prevailing fashion, worn, 48 -- EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE of placing the hands at the back of the head, or one hand on top of the head, whenever the dance reaches a pitch of excitement. (See frontispiece and Plate YE, page 36.) The arm movement is also greatly influenced by the use of the veil, which is found principally in the Caucasus. The centre of this is secured to the head and the ends are held between the thumb and finger of each Ib^n^d-i The back of one hand is always placed against the face, thus it is possible to swing the arms to and fro without disclosing the woman's beauty, until that dramatic moment where she stands revealed. (See Plate IT, page 9.)

CORSETS

The restrictive influence of the boned corset or tight military coat is noted only in those countries where French court fashions have been widely adapted by the peasants, or where the national costume has been revived after a long period of suppression by church or state, the corset having meanwhile become a common article of attire. This is particu- noticeable in larly Holland and Sweden. (See Plates IH, IV, and V, pages 16, 17 and 20.) This following of court and military styles accounts for some Hungarian, Polish, and Czech men's customs of wearing tVi^r coats slung over one shoulder when

CHAPTER VIII

National Differences

TT WOULD be a mistake to conclude that the dances grave of people living under I similar climatic conditions look alike in performance. The increasing interest taken both amateur and A by professional dancers in the folk dance of the various nations is

to make all the dances look alike. The amateur tending acquainted with the English Dance evens out all the whilst Country movements, the professional choreographer and dancer identifies his steps with the technical formulas of classical dance, with the result that k de and so are pas-de-bonrrles, pas basques, chassis, pas valse, on, not distinguished from each other.

This is not so. There are often marked differences the very between steps of the various nations. These differences can be care very subtle, and must be taken to emphasize them if the dance is to retain its original features and be used for educational or theatrical

This is purposes. particularly important with Western European dan aristocratic influences and continued wars have tended to spread the English Country Dance and the and eighteenth nineteenth century Polkas, Valses, and Quadrilles at the of the ancient and expense Circle, Serpentine, Processional Dances. These had already suffered and distortion the since suppression by church, they were too closely associated with the dancers' beliefs and Yet it is to see subtle pagan practices. possible differences in the the Valses and way now common Polkas are performed. Like the more genuine folk too the characteristics each nation's dance, they display something of of particular cultural background.

The difficulties facing anyone attempting to explain the reasons for these differences are enormous. Scientists have tried to show that people may be classified as belonging to the same geographical areas, as the Nordic, Mediterranean, and Alpine races; or they may the have the same physical characteristics, as Negro, Mongol, and Caucasian types; to the same have the same head facial and so belong blood group; shapes, features, hair, on. The mass migrations of ethnic groups and their continual intermarriage further all these factors in the formation complicate the problem, and undoubtedly pky some part of a dance. Yet it has been discovered by musicologists that music is the most stable art, what or other of any nation. No matter what wars have occurred, migrations disasters, in their music certain features which composers of certain groups have always displayed their This fact makes a dancer's task are apparent in the folk music of country. easier, for a a folk dance and its music will to reveal the study of the relationship between help all the world's have either correct manner of performance. Nearly leading composers $2 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

been their folk the consciously or unconsciously inspired by own music, principally by mouth musk which accompanies the people's festivals, rituals, and dances, They study

its characteristic a learn and consciously make use of features, and from them dancer can and borrow much.

is the The grouping of the European peoples according to the languages they speak first definition of their dances this Folk dances (see Map 2, racing page). begin when movements performed together are co-ordinated by common rhythms and sounds.

From these rhythms and sounds develop a people's music and language. Therefore wherever the intimate relationship of movement, music and language has been retained, the dance a national represents style,

The European peoples are divided into the following language groups: Greek, Slav, Teuton, Celt, and Latin, which have stemmed from the ancient Aryan tongue; the Finno-Ugrian group, to which Magyars, Finns, and Estonians belong; and the have a Each nation these has Basques, who unique language. within language groups certain features in common with, the other members. At the same time, nearly every

nation has characteristics its modem developed some entirely of own. These would seem to have been more stressed the last three hundred the during years, when constantly

boundaries have each nation conscious of its changing political made more own culture and traditions. It is for this reason that in the Mowing chapters the European countries are grouped according to their languages, before they are dealt with as individual nations.

EXAMPLE I

TABLE OF MUSICAL INTERVALS

Second Chains of Thirds or Fourth Augmented Falling Rising

(Yugoslavia) (Teutonic Countries)

Fifth Rising Rising Sixth Octave The "Snap" and Scandinavian (Celtic Countries) (Alpine Regions) (Scotland and Hungary)'

NATIONAL DIFFERENCES 53

KEY TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS

is is drawn side is drawn Direction of movement R. side of body thickly. L finely. indicated by arrows.

to R. to L. Back to audience Facing audience Moving Moving iriAR.fi. withLft. f t 1 and notes must be observed. The illustration shows N.B. The rektionship between step in on which note the foot is placed position. CHAPTER IX

The Middle East and the Turki-Tartars

it as the A LTHOUGH the Middle East is not part of Europe, is usually accepted

It is here that one must to LA birthplace of modem civilization. begin study are features all Ji \^ certain musical and dance characteristics which strong of Spanish music to a lesser of and other (see page 211) and, degree, Greek, Yugoslav, Russian, at various times have been influenced Eastern invaders. In Western groups, who by are short and often consist of two and Eastern Turkey, Arabia, Egypt, and Persia, tunes three in can called free this is meant mat there is no or phrases what be rhythm. By bars as understood in the for the are often regular sequence of West, rhythms complex beats to each bar. This and there is not always a regular number of explains why musicians in them to the Western of notation European transcribing according system time one with such mixtures of bars in and signature, present curiously irregular 7/8,

a oftime and bar is In the few dances where more regular sequence signature followed, such as the favourite the never takes seven to the bar. He 7/8, performer steps normally out each bar beats for a followed two 2 spaces by using 3 long step, by steps lasting beats each. Another favourite device is to dance to complete melodic phrases com- of an number of often which can be made of three bars prised irregular beats, 17, up of This serves as the base for a of4/4 and one 5/4. rhythmic simple yet dignified stepping each bar and a of the seventh as the dancer a of two paces to lengthening step, gives first one knee and then with the circular swing of his body and touches the floor with other.

is the of the cadences This irregularity largely explained by over-riding importance the and and rhythms of the words which, in many dance-songs, are phrased by purpose stress of the movement. Where the words do not dictate the melody and rhythm, the the hand an drum beaten by plays important part.

are different from the East, It is a The uses of the Western drum vastly those of the and dance the curious but important fact, infliipnnng music of Western European nations, that the drum pkyed with the hand was unknown. The Western drum, which is a recent innovation compared with the Eastern gourd and drum, has always been

sticks. to the lack of intricate in pkyed with This undoubtedly helps explain rhythms the most Western European dances, because before development ofthe pkyer's technique and the invention of the modern drum a Western drummer had to lift his sticks very before his and he had to have time each accented deliberately hitting drum, between

54 THE MIDDLE EAST AND THE TURK-TARTARS 55

this. it often the hit beat to do Thus happens that both the strong beat of drum being beat of the stick the folk dancers as of and the weak being raised are counted by part but the dancer their rhythm. For example, in a 2/4 Polka the drum is only hit twice, third while makes four movements with his feet and therefore accents the first and steps,

his whole movement to fit the of the tirning regular up-and-down rhythmic gestures drummer*

In the East, however, the drummer is subordinate to the dancer. His hands usually

he with all his as well as the and dosed rest on the drum and plays fingers palm, back, a different the one the fist of his hand. Very often each hand has rhythm, marking dictated the dancer at the climax of his beat and the other comparatively regular pulse by a of intricate the dancer to his improvising fascinating pattern sound, helping express The made are thus and some- meaning and mood. rhythms extremely varied, irregular, alone the times broken, because the dancer does not always mark with his feet complicated he Sometimes are marked the arms and head, while the feet rhythms requires. they by but soundless Or a movement can start marked with the keep to a regular pulse. by being concluded arm or hand while the feet rest. Moreover feet, the rhythmic phrase being by accented downwards movements of the feet, then some rhythms are first strongly by the hands while the feet to a smooth unaccented upwards fay keep pulse. the dances ofmost Slav countries It is essential for the Westerner, before he performs to understand how can be distributed to the various of the and of Spain, rhythms parts from influenced the East hear and body. People coming any country by undoubtedly a different from ttat of the Westerner, as most races with feel rhythms in way just blood their dances and no matter where these negroid instinctively syncopate songs,

THE CAUCASUS

Soviet of Armenia, and (The Republics Azerbaijan Georgia)

of the Soviet is seen at its best in some of the dances Republics The dividing of rhythms and and the area north of those Republics, of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, lying just the Crimea. The these to some extent amongst the Tartars in languages spoken by in Ask and all to the Turki-Tartar as do those spoken Minor, people belong group, have been connected wars, and immigrations. (See Map 2, these people by emigrations

facing page 52.) inhabitants of the Caucasus were of a distinct There is some evidence that the original wliich bean some and there are still traces of a defimte language rektionship racial type, It is the most ancient European people. interesting, to that of the Basques, supposedly 56 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE therefore, that both the Caucasians and the Basques have retained some very ancient rituals and ceremonies, despite the opposition of foreign rulers and the influence of die churches.

are the Although Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia within same geographical area, have not all had the same has least influenced they history. Georgia been by outside to the of most of the which lies events, owing inaccessibility country, among extremely

and mountains. Here the Caucasians first with Turki high precipitous original merged tribes coming from the south-east. Later the Greeks, who sailed through the Black Sea to this Land of the Golden Fleece, so-called because of its immense mineral wealth,

the river areas. This colonized some of sea-coast and early meeting of eastern and western culture resulted in a fine of the arts the medieval Shot'ha flowering during period. Rust'hveli's famous The in the Skin between poem Knight Tigers (written 1184-1207) is a of the fine skill and There arc magnificent example Georgian's literary imagery. tales such also many legends and folk of the famous Queen Thamar, which inspired

poets as Lermontov and musicians as Balakirev. This halted the invasion from the north-east in flourishing period was by Mongol the thirteenth and the various Tartar held until the area was century, princes sway finally

annexed by the Russian Tsars from the north during the nineteenth century.

Armenia and Azerbaijan have suffered most from outside influences, Lying at the east to were the Turki cross-roads of the great trade routes from west, they swept by

tribes in 1000 B.C., the Persians under Darius in 520 B.C., and the Romans in the first Later the century A.D. they became part of Byzantine Empire (fourth century A.D.) and the This was followed invasions of Arabs of Moslem Empire (seventh century A.D.). by Turks and (eleventh century), Mongols (thirteenth century), (sixteenth century), finally

the Russians (nineteenth century). In addition to the many changes of rulers, all of whom governed either according the feudal Man to an ancient patriarchal code or by system (each princeling or owing his to the head of some the three have also sufiered allegiance far-away state), Republics to the will their masters. These have changes of religion according of changes not been the in each converted to same Republic. Georgia was largely Christianity very early and remained faithful to the Greek Orthodox Church in the sea-coast areas even after

the invasion of the Mongols. Armenia also became Christian, but the church broke

to form its own creed and even it the away particular ritual; when became part of Moslem Empire many of its inhabitants remained faithful to this Armenian Orthodox Church and sufiered cruel until Armenia persecution became one ofthe Soviet Republics. became after the Azerbaijan principally Mohammedan Moslem invasion. The various fictions have been able to the old folk dances religious not, however, suppress entirely, in some instances have altered their although they successfully original significance. It is to note also in what to interesting way and what extent the various invasions have affected, them. THE MIDDLE EAST AND THE TURKI-TARTARS 57

ARMENIA

Armenia has over three hundred dances which depict every change of mood, from the exaltation of the ancient circular rituals to the wild hilarity'of the comic dances based on clownish antics and of jokes old men, travellers, and well-known characters like the whose and marriage-broker, jerking fingers, meaning nods, sideways glances are accurate of such There are sad love and dances which are portrayals types. mourning particularly beautiful, or dances based on or precise, purposeful military work processes. The most of these is the famous outstanding Carpet-weaving Dance derived from one ofArmenia's most industries. Here the not the actual important girls only depict work process under- taken the hands, but also mark the by carpet's pattern with their feet. Like the Finns, the Armenians a number of dances perform based on natural phenomena. One is the Willow in which rows of Dance, women sway and bend as the willow-trees wave over a brook, and another is a Wind in Dance, which long scarves and arms billow and blow like clouds across the sky.

No invader or ever into a without conqueror goes country leaving some traces behind him. In Armenia can be found dances many belonging to other people, such as the Persian War Dance in which one man is hurled the air like a cannon-ball this through ; dance dates from the Persian invention of this weapon. There is the Turkish Butcher's Dance as well as a Spring Ritual brought by the Turks, and numerous wild Tartar dances. Moreover elements have many foreign crept into the Armenians' own dance, such as Turkish tunes in or Tartar steps a solemn ritual.

AZERBAIJAN

dance is and beautiful. dances Azerbaijan picturesque strikingly Many women's are to be found which are intended to off only show feminine beauty. Both Azerbaijan and Georgian women are still considered the most beautiful in Russia; their hall-mark is the black in the centre over blue rich hair straight eyebrows meeting deep eyes, black worn in and a wonderful In their dances is with pig-tails, carriage. great play made

veils. are so- to handkerchieves, scarves, and These manipulated as gradually disclose the breasts. dances are relics of the time the to eyes, nose, face, and Such when girls had to her in or the dance either before the man who was arranging buy marriage before

is the overlord. It from such a dance that the story of Salome's Dance of Seven Veils must have come.

It that these dances the themselves aloof must be noted throughout girls keep sedately veils and discretion. and move the with great delicacy 58 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

GEORGIA

Caucasian swift and warlike athletic With many tribes, agility, daring horsemanship, virtues. The Cossack contests, and courage are still considered the supreme saying, a a blade of and a stout heart are friends," sums "The dark night, trusty steed, steel, my

the that lies behind most where the male is Their up feeling Georgian dancing, supreme. the dances on the of his toes in an ever- dances are exceptional because man very tips like the trained ballerina in ballet. But whereas increasing tempo, classically present-day the she moves her body in long flowing lines or short staccato movements, Georgian's

at all and his arms from side to side as if body scarcely moves only sway balancing his body. dances are the life and customs ofthe These extraordinary men's explained by Georgian For centuries these hillmen have lived the narrow mountain trades. people. among flocks on the and in have had to learn Hunting or pasturing hilly slopes steep gorges, they as a foot-hold on the maintain balance over a how to use the smallest ledge heights, or and kind of mountain obstacle. From this stream precipice, negotiate every way their habit of on their of life has come their smooth-soled, heel-less tight boots, balancing toes, and their tighdy girdled coats. the Cossack the whose method of In the old days Georgian worshipped eagle, attacking with on his a victim he imitates in the Lezghinka. He circles swiftly round tiny steps his often a toes, hovers for a moment above prey, represented by dagger flung then his seizes the in his as the into the ground, and drops on knees, dagger teeth, eagle seizes his and soars prey, up again. Cherouli The Georgian has three other types of dance. The friendly competition is and the but contains similar to the Ukrainian Gopak Norwegian Hailing, many steps a horse's and movements. The more directly derived from galloping, leaping, rearing a battle the mountains and reflects the of an area which Ehorumi depicts among history but has had to to retain its has never been conquered which always fight independence. if hide and bend for the The men enter as reconnoitring, behind rocks, low listening enemy. They build a pyramid to scan the horizon, and advance and form a circle to the barrier the enemies' The arrives and a depict hilly barring path. enemy, however, takes fight place.

of the Lekouri is different and is the dance The theme lyrical quite only performed by

is over and the are men and women together. The day's work youths gathered together. to the oftheir choice and invite her to the circle. The maiden They go up girl join agrees, the dance her are lowered and she but during eyes kept carefully only rarely does turn touches his her glance to his. The man never partner but always follows close behind her. Her arms are the barrier which he must not The smooth beyond pass. grace, quality, of the dance on the and quickly changing pattern depend entirely unexpected turning Her turns as so that never meet face oftihegirl. partner swiftly, they toface. Thedance THE MIDDLE EAST AND THE TURKI-TARTARS 59

the continual and the the represents travelling up down zig-zag mountain paths, and shows how each single step section of die path must be tried before any weight is put on to the lest the boulder should fall or foot, the ledge crumble. This dance usually follows a Lezghinka. The musical characteristics of these similar Caucasian republics are to those of the Middle East, with the addition of extreme contrasts of emotional expression, which in the mountainous areas are achieved by larger intervals between the notes. Certain dance characteristics are also held in common.

The Basic Step

All Caucasians the erect of the possess carriage horseman, which gives great smoothness of movement and is in their of the basic a exemplified performance step of Georgian and Lezghinka Lekouri, Azerbaijan Dyasmaly, Armenian Circle, and other dances. One arm is usually held out to the side, while the other is bent across at chest level for the men and for the It is eye-level women. usually danced to a 2/4 rhythm, but is sometimes found in a But no matter in which it is essential 6/8. rhythm, that the dancer keeps even and smooth the three of which it is absolutely steps comprised (Ex. 3, page 62). At first the must the step give impression that the ground is being tested. Then the and are speed space gradually increased until it looks as if the dancer were sln'mming over the surface of the ground like a galloping horse.

The Balance

In most Caucasian dances the must held body be delicately balanced on both feet, so that either is ready to commence at any point in the dance. An example is found in the In the this balance is Azerbaijan Dyasmaly (Ex. 2, page 61). Lekouri, very important as the dancers must be prepared to start again with whichever foot happens to be the easier after a sudden turn or twist in the direction of the dance.

Interpretation ofRhythms

A favourite device in a number of Caucasian dances is the doubling of the speed of a the musician continues to to the same in the step while keep tempo. For example Armenian Cradle Dance and the Carpet-weaving Dances and the Georgian Lezghinka, dancers often basic in the first the performs two steps (Ex. 3, page 62) two bars of music, four of them in the next two bars. This in other followed by happens interesting steps

(Ex. 4, page 62). It is important to note that in some Caucasian dances, usually those performed to accent the first beat across mouth-music only, the dancers do not of each bar but work their with the word. this the bar line in order to accent step appropriate Occasionally across the of the but it will be found that the appears to cut right regular pulse rhythm, the first beat of a bar and if watched it will be dancer ultimately accents again, carefully 6o EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

k*t ^ Keen marked elsewhere than the feet This seen that *br regvV pd by happens most in the work dances and in one or two ancient Armenian rituals. It is particularly certain that resemble the classical to also usual when performing steps pas-de-basQue

the it first with tie feet and then with the hands alternate accent, rnarlring (Ex. 5, page 64).

Position of the Hands are In most women's dances, whether with or without a veil, the hands very carefully

The thumb and the first and second are in a circle, whilst the others poised. fingers joined The wrist is so turned that when the arm is curved at are held lightly apart eye-level,

is the face. The man's hands are often clenched at shoulder- the back of the Wd opposite stretched and the The arms level, or held with fingers palms feeing ground. rarely go the head. directly above

Male Dance

are often There is the in the air as The male dance steps very spectacular. great leap

is found in both and the body is twisted from side to side, llis military competitive

is bent to the and the with the dances; so the leap with one leg up other, jump-turn change the the there is of feet in the air (somewhat like grand jeti entrekce). Among Georgians knees and the immediate the swift fill to the ground from the toes on to the rising again, swift turns on two feet There are curious the running on the toes and the very jumps as the men crouch dose to the and turn in the same performed ground swiftly place. in which the dancer to be his There is also the marvellous goat-like leap, appears reining obstacle or down a mountain horse up for a jump over an (Ex. 6, page 65).

A Unique Feature a swift and back Armenian dances have one unique feature in very deep bend, per-

bend the hands in front The performers usually slightly forwards, bringing together the of the knees, then rise on to the toes at the same time as they throw body and head

is seen at its best in some backwards and open the arms to the side. This movement Dance ancient Armenian rituals and the Carpet-weaving (Ex. 6, page 65).

General Characteristics

remarkable neatness of with a freedom and There is throughout a step coupled speed ofthese There ofmovement that come from the nomadic and mountain origins peoples. since these are in number are very few couple dances, although 1936 gradually increasing to be undertaken instead of as the various work processes come by everyone being circular which start on exclusive to one sex. There are many communal dances, usually counterclockwise. These resemble the hundreds ofKolos found the right foot and move and have some ritual The are similar to those everywhere, always significance. steps found in the Middle East and Skv countries. THE MIDDLE EAST AND THE TURKI-TARTARS 6r

EXAMPLE 2

THE GIRL'S STEP FROM DYASMALY

i. Fall on to head front. L ft, turned to side, body facing

2. R. ft to both toes. Bring L,' resting weight on

3. FaDontoL.fi.

R. ft. to on both toes. 4. Bring L, resting weight

i. FallontoLft.

2. to on R. toe Bring R.ft L resting weight only.

3. Raise L ft, in front of R. knee.

ft in both ieet on toes. 4. Drop L place, resting

Dyasmaly

efe 62 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 3 THE LEZGfflNKA BASIC STEP

1. Slide ft. R. forwards and then slightly backwards.

ml Bring L ft. to R.

2. Slide R. ft. forwards

Repeat movement with L ft.

Lezghinka

EXAMPLE 4

DOUBLING OF RHYTHMS: PIVOT STEP

The first two bars constitute the usual method of performance in other countries.

i i. Fall on to L ft.

2. R. ft. behind L transfer on to R. toe. f Bring weight THE MIDDLE EAST AND THE TURKI-TARTARS 63

these movements in next bar. Repeat Then repeat 4 rimes in the

. lie L ft must be (NJB. pressed well into the floor with each

movement the first 2 during bars. During the next 2 bars the

can also be as it is in (The step performed taming, other parts of Russia.)

etc 64 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 5 ALTERNATING ACCENTS

A from the de step Dyasmaly, resembling pas lasque

L Jump on to R. ft, marking beat Begin to circle R. arm.

and Slide ft. L diagonally forwards, raising R- arm.

2. Bring R. ft up behind L. ft, marking beat

i. Repeat this movement to L.

L. ft. in L. and Step on to just front of R., pressing arm upwards on beat

2. Close R. ft lightly behind L, remaining on toes.

From Dyasmsly

etc. THE MIDDLE EAST AND THE TURKI-TARTAILS 65

EXAMPLE 6A

ARMENIAN BACK BEND (WOMEN'S)

forwards in front of which are Bend bringing hands together knees,

arms and Rise on toes, throw body backwards and open sideways backwards.

Armenian Carpet-weaving Dance

etc - i M

EXAMPLE 6B

GOAFS EBAP (MEN'S)

on to R. L. behind. y 1. Step heavily ft., raising leg

and forwards and off R. ft, Throw L leg upwards spring throwing body and arms backwards.

arms and round over head. and Land on L ft., bringing upwards

and R. ft. to L t 2. Immediately straighten body bring

etc. CHAPTER X

The Greeks

influence REEK writers from the earliest times have always admitted the Eastern

still show similar characteristics I in their music. To-day both music and dance of mixed and their Vj to those of Ask Minor. The Greeks are very origins history seders sailed in from the and it is known that is difficult to trace. Early primitive East, otters came over the mountains from the north and before Homer (tenth century B.C.) founded other states. were were of the same nomadic peoples who European They at the art of and later followed by the Northern Dorians, adepts mime, by groups sailing in from further east.

the Greek with its Because of the extremely difficult nature of countryside high and numerous the various setded mountains, narrow passes, rocky islands, groups only in the fertile and the sea where natural harbours afforded gradually valleys along coasts, These with them dances and some means of security. primitive peoples brought many character as some settlements into rituals, which gradually changed early developed states and trade and the of small city grew wealthy by by annexing outlying villages There seems to have been considerable tolerance whose wares they required. religious for the states were often at war with one another, the shrines, in those days, although city were held no doubt because the varied cults had elements temples, and groves sacred, many as each house- in common and there was yet no single all-powerful religion. Moreover, at communal festivals to ensure hold had its own household gods, whose presence helped

the well-being of all had become the state to which the others owed By the time that Athens leading city the of classical art had Not do the Greek authors allegiance, great age begun. only danced in honour of kind of on all festive describe how the people everywhere every god to but and and sorrowful occasions, and in order acquire physical fitness, painters sculptors and also a have left records of these dancing activities on friezes vases. Dancing pkyed in the enacted in the built theatres. large part great tragedies newly of tie which had a remarkable influence wherever This magnificent flourishing arts, did not cease when Greece became of the Roman the Greek Empire spread, part Empire. The Romans assimikted the culture of the conquered and when, in the third and fourth itself was the incursions of the centuries A.D., the Roman Empire split up by Goths, to lead the field in Alexandria and But Greece Greek learning continued Constantinople. existence and became of the Eastern itself ceased to have an independent firstly part and ofthe Ottoman AJ>. to Roman Empire (orcflAJD. 500) secondly part Empire (ami 1500), 66 THE GREEKS 67 which it belonged until 1829, when it regained comparative independence the by' Treaty' f A 3 1 orAdrianople.

This classical art and culture affected only the cities, however, for, owing to the difficulties of communications the mountains and narrow maintaining among passes, the remote areas were untouched relatively by this cultural wealth and by changes of government or incursions of raiders. It is well known that in some of the furthest mountain the never regions people acknowledged their allegiance to their Turkish overlords. It is for this reason that so many ancient rituals and dances have come down the centuries through almost unchanged. The Greek Orthodox church, which became the Greek faith the first of the Eastern has during period Roman Empire, certainly attached these peoples festivals to the Christian calendar, but it has never banned the dance. In fact, there are daUee-like movements themselves many performed by me priests in present-day services. Time has dimmed their meaning and an occasional outside influence have altered their or may form, reinforced early Eastern characteristics shown in the music. Yet because these to their people continued, unhindered, practise ancient dances in the remoter it is still areas, possible to compare the dances to-day with those described the old Greek authors by and depicted on the ancient vases and friezes.

The most characteristic of the Greek dance is its intimate important relationship to the of the words which it These are phrasings accompany usually sung by the dancers themselves. This intimate was one of the relationship great features governing the activities of the chorus of the the expressive dancing famous Greek tragedies, secret of which like philosophers Plato, poets Eke De Bai and dancing masters like Guido Arena tried to discover. But few have taken the trouble to this investigate peculiar relationship as it has existed the dances. always amongst Greek people's Greek dances have time of or Many signatures 7/8 5/4; others of 3/8 and 2/4 are more rare. But the dancer never takes or 2 to the bar. Instead tie series 7, 5, 3, steps of steps (or is with of slow and which match the enchainement) phrased varying patterns quick steps exact of the words. For if the or rhythm example, syllable word occupies 3, ij, or even a the will take that amount of time to "Whereas in J beat, step perform, many Western countries it is performed on the first beat, the dancer then pausing until the next word

is This is the fact that all or syllable commenced. phenomenon explained by whereas

Teutonic languages are languages of hard and soft accents, Greek relies on the varying of the in order to the correct inflection and of the sentences. length syllables get rhythm

is then the is If the syllable or word stressed, step correspondingly emphasized.

The second unusual feature is the rapidly Changing position of the dancers in relation

Iwift starts the to tie ofdance (e'paulement). Tie dance usually with right foot and moves 68 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

In the slower dances this occurs with counter-dockwise. change usually every step, jas in the Kalatnatianos, in which the dancer begins facing tie centre, turns his back to tap line of dance and then faces his first three In it, when performing steps. quicker dances are not so these changes quite frequent To achieve these quick changes of direction, the dancers' bodies are held extremely

the the is with the foot upright and weight of body moved directly forwards movement.

a and frieze-like to the line of dancers. The slow is This gives very smooth quality step the dancers to whilst the ones are done in usually large, allowing progress, quick mostly

The foot is held almost flat to the and in the women place. ground; hopping steps, tend to slide the feet the whilst the men's feet move along ground upwards (Ex. 8, page 70).

Steps

the the are to the followed For most part steps performed simple: stepping side, by a the feet or a ofthe foot in front or behind the dosing of together passing other, hopping, a the the various in pointing of toes, and occasionally swing of legs through positions air a and stretch of the the accompanied by hop or bend supporting leg (Ex. 7, page 69). leader embroiders these and works excitement either The simple steps up by increasing the turns and the speed of the dance or number of jumps. the of on the location of The ground pattern, like type movement, depends entirely the Most dances are in structure. of them are circles dancing space. Greek simple Many circle are led one developing into a chafa and resolving into a again. These by T^an, cnchateement of the file and to who improvises to relieve the monotonously repeated incite to further As this man tires he often hands his task to another. them enterprise.

lasts four bars is and In those The enchainement usually some and repeated again again. associated with one in the such as the dances usually particular group community, butcher's dance from and found also in Hassapikos (a originally Constantinople Armenia), it can last as long as twenty-four bars. The very fact that so many dances are Circle Dances rules out much individual move- breaks to ment of hand or arm except from the leader, who often away express himself an witn wavmcs or a jn n ipprchiCfi in some dances derived irom very ancient initiation rites, the dancers are linked by handkerchieves, although usually they hold hands or wrists and very occasionally shoulders*

Mak Dance

The Greeks were originally a nation of shepherds, sailors, and fishermen, with grape- in the and the so that certain and olive-growers valleys on lower mountam slopes, dances are connected with these activities. In addition historical events turned many of the men into and those dances which were to young fighters, originally performed encourage fitness into the or dances found in physical developed, firstly, Pyrrhic fighting many and which are the of the or areas, particular property Evzones Royalist soldiers, and THE GREEKS 09 tfien into the more warriors' dances of stealthy the Klephts or Guerrillas in the mountains, lie movements of these dances closely resemble the movements performed by the in their Georgians Khorumi, for although the Greeks lack the horse-like movements of the their dance a similar kind Georgian, represents ofhistory.

General Characteristics

women danced at the same the rhain time, women's often being led and terminated by aman. The few women's dances are and very simple most dignified. The men's dances are often feats of punctuated by strength. The few as distinct from the ancient rhaim couple dances, processionals and of men and women are of similar standing alternately, more recent origin and are to those found all over the Balkans. were They probably introduced by the Venetians and other die Crusading Knights during Holy Wars, and particularly at the time of the Fourth Crusade.

EXAMPLE 7 FROM A MACEDONIAN GUERRILLA DANCE

Men are linked in a Chain

1-2. on to L. bent behind. Step R ft, raising leg

3-4- toe

1-4. Sink on R. leg turning to face centre and locking L. leg round behind R.

behind 1-2. Rise on R. toe, leaving L. leg locked R.

out turn on to back line of dance. 3-4. Stretch L leg and R. ft,

Teshkoto or Dance of Affliction 70 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 8 KALAMAHANOS

(Greek National Dance)

Dancers stand in a r\\^m feet toes to centre. } holding hands, together,

first beat to to side on R. to 1-3. On begin step ft., turning left, third beat completing step on

on L. back to line of dance. 4-5. Step back ft, turning

6. Step to side on R, ft, turning to face centre.

ling 7. Hop on R. ft, turning to face of dance.

ft. in front of R. 1-3. Step on L

to side towards left. 4-5. Step on R. ft, turning

back to line of dance. 6-7. Step back on L ft, turning

to side on R. to face centre. 1-3. Step ft, turning

ft in front of to face line of dance. 4-5. Step on L R.,

6^7. Transfer weight of body back to L ft. THE GREEKS 71

EXAMPLE 8 (cont.)

1-3. Step to side on L. fL, turning to face centre. -4~ J 4-5. Step on R. ft. in front of L., turning back to line of dance.

6-7. Transfer weight of back to R. ft. J| body

(N.B. Each first step of each bar takes 3 beats, the others take 2 beats.)

J J J JJ J| J J'J- J J J|J JJ tjlll! jlJ Tjl CHAPTER XI

The Slavs

source and folk TPVEOPLES speaking a language derived from a common having dances l-^and arts in common are to be found throughout the Balkans, in the Danubian Plains, that stretch the JL and in the vast European-Asiatic Plains and Steppes from Pripet mountain Marshes in the west and onwards south of the Urals to the far eastern ranges, and from the Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south White (Map 2, facing page 52). of the nomads had The ancestors of these Skv peoples were descendants who spread after the the that covered throughout Europe and Asia receding of ice-cap once the are as the entire area. Some came from the northern plains and usually known proto- nordics; others came from the south-east and others again from the eastern TurH and north-eastern tribes Ugrian (Map i, facing page 32). idea the that to these Some of mixture of tribes went make Skv peoples can be under- stood to the Chronicles the Ancient a book written the by referring of Years, by priest

Nestor. (1056-1114), in which he describes how the Grand Prince of Kiev, Vladimir to to the Svyatoskvich (A.D. 978-1015), when wishing employ religion strengthen unity his set a his hill of state of Riis, up temple for the many gods of people on the outside these the ancient animal water the town. Amongst were gods, nymphs, Rod and ancestors the a and Volos a Rozhanitsy (the supposed of Slavs), Dazborg sun-god cade-

all the god, of whom belonged to original inhabitants of these north-western Russian In he erected the statues of the Central Asian regions. addition Khors, sun-god of people, a the Finnish tribes in the far and of Mokosh, goddess of originating north-east. Over all ruled the of thunder and creator of and to this them Peroun, god lightning^ day

is still called in some Holy Week "Thunder Week" parts of European Russia,

During the first seven hundred years of the Christian era, there was a tremendous summer movement of nomadic tribes, which was very much more than the usual southern to domestication migration from northern pastures. The and breeding ofhorses miirh nj^c travel easier and the multiplication of tribes demanded a greater pasturage for the flocks. With the fall of the Roman Empire, these Skv countries underwent many changes and it was not until about 800 AJD. that a stabilization of tribal conditions

It is in was started. interesting to find the above-mentioned Chronicles a call for Skvic other and as as unity, when raiding emigrating peoples, well warlike expeditions, had divided the Skvs into three distinct groups; the Southern Skvs in approximately that area now known as Yugoskvia; the Western Skvs of Poland and Czechoslovaks; and the Eastern Slavs or Russians (Map i, facing page 32).

7* THE SLAVS 73

Yet the that took despite many changes place before the year 800 A.D., and were to take after all these place it, peoples have retained one form of dance in common, the dosed Kolo. The feature of this is the basic little outstanding simple step consisting of more than a followed a of the then a step-to-the-iight by dosing feet, stejHto^the-left followed a similar of the feet There is by dosing no progression either dockwise or antirdockwise. There is sometimes a movement in and out of the centre, or a different of the or movement of way dosing feet, the body. In addition, although each Slav country has its own musical characteristics with which some dance is movement particularly associated, all their music shows extreme contrasts of emotional expression. The best known form is the a Dumka, lament, which is interspersed with passages of wild exhilaration. It is the almost violent changes from sorrow to joy, and from slow to fast, that these Kolos their gives simple tremendous expressiveness. To this is added the introduction of the musical frequent larger intervals, which gives the melodies such variety of mood.

It should be noted that the Skv word for these cirde dances differs and can also be rKgm attached to dances which move from a cirde to a and vice versa: Kolo in Yugo- Czechoslovakia and also slavia, Poland, Russia; Kolomiykas (Ukraine), Kalamajkas Khorovod Krizachok (Czechoslovakia), (U.S.S.R.), (Byelorussia), Horos (Bulgaria), and Hora (Romania).

YUGOSLAVIA

and Austria have all a in the Greece, Italy, Turkey, Hungary played part shaping folk and of the six songs dances Republics which now comprise Yugoslavia. But although the Republics of Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Macedonia and Croatia each display some distinct feature of their own, their songs and dances prove that the lines are in boundary purdy arbitrary, for they possess features common which stand

that it that the out so strongly seems pressure of historical events has never been able to break the will of the have created their own national Yugoslav people. They style, and it has been strengthened by long years of oppression. The Kolo is danced everywhere and is seen at its best among the Serbians, who are the Southern Slavs. of their Kolos are danced elsewhere in the purest of Ten Yugoslavia,

with intricate forms. The of these dances is the together more overwhelming impression control the and their to the superb rhythmic of dancers, ability convey, through rhythm, a their emotional reactions to the circumstances through which dance develops. into two those in which the Yugoslav dances can be roughly divided categories: main* dancers and dictate their own rhythm, and those in which they follow the music. In areas ofMontenegro and Macedonia where the Turkish overlords, who conquered the the musicians the country in AD. 1566, were unable to subjugate people completely, 74 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

ofthe dance. dance are the servants The leader, who attains his position after long practice and a role. he must know the basic structure and competition, plays unique Firstly, purpose the dance. he must dancers musicians the force of of Secondly, inspire both and by his a of his own example. By glance eye or nod of his head he commands the dancers' efforts and dictates his rhythms to a drummer, whose heavy drum-stick often marks the duration of the and whose the of the within phrase light one mark rhythm steps the enchainement of Thirdly, he must be so convinced of the necessity co-operative effort thathewill hand on the to another should his dl him. leadership powers Finally, he must be so sensitive to the the that he can that mood of group anticipate important all are as die dance to a moment when working together one, and he can work up tremendous rlimrr on the basic the other dancers him. by improvising step, following The of such dances becomes rhythm begins tentatively, insistent, develops unexpected and becomes The often elements, finally overpoweringly exciting. accompanying pipe tune chances QraduaJLLv rrom a p^Tn^iny sadness to triumpnant caiety* tnereiore sucn dances, like the Macedonian Teshkoto, are profoundly moving. This dance arises from of had to earn their the period Turkish domination, when the young men living away from home and returned for the annual wedding ceremonies. The grave opening, with its cat-like the remained to steps and vigilant attitude, shows how men impervious outside influences. But as their hearts warm to their native soil and friendly faces, so their movements expand and quicken until they are vigorously leaping and turning to their at the Similar dances are the express joy home-coming. performed by Montenegrins, a that who have the absolutely uninhibited freedom of movement typical of nation has

a is never submitted to a conqueror. Their warrior's Dance with Rifle very like the in Manx Dirk Dance, in theme, but is completely unrestrained and culminates the rapid

the rifle. firing of the Turks and thus the Bosnia and Herzegovina were completely suppressed by dances seem nervously restrained. But they appear more determined because the rhythms are therefore in the more regular and controlled, and more persistent As Montenegro, dancers their and the are allied to the stress of the usually sing own accompaniment steps words. The Turkish prohibition of native song and dance has led to the development

"silent the sound is that of the dancers' feet and the of many dances," where only jingle of the coins and medals on their costumes. In one of these "dumb reels," Starobosansko

tests his dance-leader incites the to Kolo, the man the powers of girl The men improvise and whilst the their have to twists, turns, leaps, bends, girls, holding partners' hands, .keep up witti tnem continually repeating a simple step wnicn becomes extremely last, tortuous in pattern, and complex in rnvtnm.

the of dance is different from that of the man. Everywhere woman's style notably

She often performs the same steps as he does, but with modesty, and she usually keeps her lowered. status in is the eyes The woman's Yugoslav society often indicated by she in the dances. In areas she position occupies many wealthy Moslem seldom appears. THE SLAVS 75

The Bosnians and other wealthy princes, in order to retain their estates when overrun by the swore to the Ottoman Turks, allegiance Emperor and adopted his faith and customs. To the Turks from off their these dressed in prevent carrying women, princes them Turkish so that their fashions, beauty would be hidden under the voluminous yashmak and trousers. forbade them to dance in baggy They public, therefore the women developed their own dances in the harems IQ areas poorer Moslem and remote monmain villages, the women have their own Kolos and usually dance apart from the men. In areas where the Greek Orthodox church the women the as a prevails, join communal Kolo separate group, or the Kolo is divided into sections, men on one side and women on the other. often leads the A man women's chain, and a woman the men's. In Croatia, Slovenia and North Serbia, where the Catholic church and western influences dominate the social

men and women stand in the or atmosphere, alternately Kolo, perform Couple Dances from and An on the the Austria, Italy Hungary. interesting sidelight position of women is also found in some old Serbian Kolos, when the women join in in strict order of precedence.

It is the rich Northern Plains that suffered most from invaders, and this is shown in the dances. The Plains were everywhere overrun by the Ostrogoths in the fourth and later became century A.D., part of the Byzantine Empire. They were then conquered the and in Northern Serbia by Magyars, to-day the Hungarian Czfrdds is as popular as the varied Kolos in which are often the typical Hungarian steps incorporated. As Magyars were converted and paid tribute to the Catholic church, they forced their serfs to do likewise. This meant that northern Yugoslav dances were attached to the church calendar, and their content changed. Where these northern areas became part of the Austro- a further distortion the dances Hungarian Empire of took place, for certain dements from western social dances were introduced, such as the hand-clanging and stamoinc: ^ IT o r o* and and and so arming swinging, valses polkas typical of western Europe. to the nature of Owing mountainous Yugoslavia, however, no conqueror entered in the into complete military occupation, and remote areas peasants have continued to their rituals and Kolos unhindered church or overlord. practise by

Basic and the Second The Step Augmented

are fifteen the basic the Kolos. These There ways ofperforming step of Yugoslav steps the to the side followed a of the feet is often are fascinating because stepping by dosing the continual allied, to die outstanding feature ofYugoslav mouth music, performers' practice of singing in Seconds with an occasional rise to an Augmented Second. In certain dances follow their Second an die who where the singers closely by Augmented Second, dancers, in one a Second than the are also the singers and work two groups singing higher other, the to the side and dose mark this difference. As they sing Second, they step neady,andon the side but wirn some extra movement as the Augmented Second they step to they bring the foot This of and sound is found in Bosnia and up other relationship step Herzegovina. 76 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

Relaxation

dramatic of dance is made more obvious the The persistence Yugoslav rhythms by are linked in or dancers' wonderful control. There are very few solos. The dancers open elbows or or in dosed Kolos, holding one another's hands, shoulders, fingers, Lesa, ofthe the dancers are holding one another's waist-belts. At the beginning Kolo, curiously and submit themselves to the tense and alert, but as they proceed they completely relax that sometimes their bodies collective rhythm and effort. This relaxation is so complete until a their arms and from their vibrate continuous movement ripples through encircling

are often relics of ancient and an old Skv These trembling Kolos fertility rites, saying

tells how the movement of the earth, sun or moon has entered into the dancers and made them dance in tune with the elements.

Movements are all taken from the knee and in some slow dances this leads to a to the movement tremendous drive through to the heel, which lends great strength noticeable in areas under eastern for the dancers It is particularly influence, suddenly their to and fro whilst and on the toe of the pause anil swing working leg rising faffing or crouch down before the next forwards. Such supporting leg, suddenly taking step the need of alert to an movements movements can only arise from being constantly enemy's

(Ex. 7, page 69).

Rkytkms are often based on the words of the The rhythms of the enchainements carefully

arise because in some and the rhythms vary considerably. The complexities usually the or musicians while the dancers to a dances singers extemporize keep regular pulse,

its form. and in others the dancers break away while the song retains simple of occurs in when the A strong contrasting rhythms many Montenegrin dances, song has a different time from that of their dance. No sung by the performers often signature to the first beats coincide. To some extent attempt is made to alter either rhythm make ofdance and music occurs in Serbia and other areas influenced this independent functioning by western church modes, and where the musician leads the dance. For example the in which the dancers' and of rich Serbian Vranyanka, elegant style proud carriage speak for five whilst the melodic oriental influences, has an enchamement lasting bars, phrase the dancers beats in each but only lasts for four. Both are in 3/4, marking 3 bar, they first of their enchainement with an life of their always mark the beat upwards bodies,

first their melodic This results in a and the musicians always mark the beat of phrase. the bar. This round, the dancers and musicians coming together at only twenty-first in other such as Padushka round is extremely fascinating many dances, (Ex. 9, page 78),

which is known in Bosnia, Macedonia and Bulgaria.

marks the which is not so An accented step usually changing e^aulement, frequent THE SLAVS 77 as in Greek dance, but the mixture of and accented often a slow, quick, step acquires syncopated rhythm because of the continual rise and &I1 of the bodies.

Steps and Patterns

There are three of the from the most fertile styles dance; Shaking, areas, where tiny on both feet rock jumps the body with movement as the dancers move in Lesa as in the IIA, ; on the mountain in a is Troyanats (Ex. page 81) Hopping, slopes, which hop added to the basic as in Kolo and the step Devojacko (Ex. IIB); Stepping, from the less fertile areas, as in Neda in which the Grivny (Ex. nc), body sometimes trembles at every All these Kolos are step (Ex. 10, page 80). made up of varying combinations of the basic

the left or to the (Ex. 10), progresses gradually right (Ex. nc). There are others which into chains also to the and rbaim which open usually moving right, may make Serpentine Figures, and are from Greek sources. In the northern areas these chains often move into circular or longways sets. There are also northern dances in which a rhain of men faces a chain of and these into sets or women, may develop couple dances. Some of these latter have two one the basic and the other may parts, using simple step, using steps from a neighbouring state, such as the Serbian Charlama from near Hungary which uses the cabriole, or the numbers of Slovenian dances which break into Austrian polkas and valses. One of these is like La suspiciously Raspa, the so-called Brazilian dance now sweeping Europe.

General Remarks

Until the have been on the mountain recently Yugoslavs largely shepherds slopes and in the rich northern and narrow river ofthe south. agriculturists plains valleys Many of their dances are old and some Kolos are the fertility rites, performed exclusively by sex to whom the work the and tonal the particular process belongs, tempo quality of the work-song being regulated by appropriate movements of the hands. Sometimes such Kolos are led a a an ancient of In others by girl holding snake, symbol fertility. to a cult the the to belonging moon-worshipping pattern of dance appears wax and wane like the moon. But the most dances are those the interesting from wedding ceremonies, and these vary considerably from district to district. The most varied are those of which show the relatives of the bride and Montenegro, groom exchanging presents, the selling or abduction of the bride, the dressing of the bride, which in some districts includes a dance round the in she sits as her hair is and Turkish bath which dyed plaited, or her nails are painted, and other strange customs.

in It is carried A handkerchief plays an important part many Yugoslav Kolos. by the is twisted and to the of the and is on leader, carefully waved rhythm dance, passed to the next dancer should the leader decide his are powers failing. 78 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE p PADUSHKA

(Macedonia and Bosnia)

Girls or men are linked in chains or circles, holding hands

left and 1-2. Fall on to R. ft. in front ofL, moving towards accenting t this beat

Take on L behind to centre. t 3. weight ft, placed just R., taming

1-2. above movement twice more. t Repeat t t 1-2. t

to side on R. centre and accent this t I. Step ft, feeing step.

L. and line of accent this 2-3. Hop on R. ft, raising feeing dance, Pause. step. t *

to side on L. centre and accent this t i. Step ft, facing step.

R. and back to line of accent this 2-3. Hop on L ft, raising dance, Pause. step. THE SLAVS 79

EXAMPLE 9 (cont.)

i. Fall on R. ft. in front of left L moving to and accenting this step.

2. back on R. this and Step L ft, raising ft, accenting step turning

1 t to nee centre.

on L. this and to face line of dance. t 3. Hop ft, accenting step turning

1. on to R. to line of dance. t Step ft, moving tight facing

and L ft to R. t Bring

2. on to R. ft t Step

on R. L knee forwards. t 3. Hop ft, raising with and thni with R. and Repeat this step beginning L ft, L again, times in all These arc like a smooth malring 4 steps very polka and are danced without any accent 8o EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 10

ZfflKINO'S KOLO

Danced widely in Yugoslavia THE SLAVS 81

EXAMPLE IIA TROYANATS

(From N.Serbia)

shoulders. take and all the time to the the entire They tiny steps jumps, moving right, to shake. The Kolo is group seeming very quick, and the feet are not allowed to leave the floor so that a although hop is mentioned, it is only a movement on the floor.

istbar. I. Step sideways on the R ft

and on R. ft it outwards and to the Hop turning slightly travelling right

2. Place L. ft. beside so that both feet are R., slighdy pointed towards the right

2nd bar. Repeat zst bar.

bar. times on ft 3rd Hop lightly 3 L ft, holding R. lightly on ground at side of L ft, but with toe front R just in of L. toe.

4th bar. Repeat 3rd bar hopping on R ft

' 5th bar. Repeat 3rd bar.

The dancers' cnchainement lasts 5 bars, therefore it does not always coincide with the melodic

Troyanats

mi P 82 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE IIB

DEVOJACKO KOLO

Girls' danced Kolo, cither holding hands in a dosed circle 01 opening out into chains and the "winding through village and fields.

1. to line dance. Step on R. ft., facing of

and Hop on R. ft, raising L. leg slightly in front

2. StepontoLft

and Hop on L. ft

I. to Step side on R. ft, feeing centre.

and doscLfttoR.

to side L. close to it 3rd bar. Step on ft, R.

Step to side on R. ft, dose L to it times 4th bar. Stamp 3 and pause.

Repeat entire sequence ad fit.

. I ||i U LtflLLLJ THE SLAVS

EXAMPLE IIC NEDAGRIVNY Sckumadina. (From Now danced elsewhere)

Dancers hold hands a in circle and always face the centre

ist bar. Step to side on R. ft, dose L. to it

2nd and 3rd bars. Repeat ist bar.

to side on R. ft. this 4thbar. Step accenting step, close L ft. to F-ankk

bar. into centre on ft. anlU 5th Step L ft., bringing R. to L

6th bar. bar raise Repeat 5th using R. ft, arms slightly.

bar. back on L. R. to arms. 7th Step ft, dosing it, drop

8th bar. Repeat 7th bar.

to side pthbar. Step on R. ft., dose L ft. to R. ankk

lothbar. Step to side on L ft, close R. ft. to L ankk

whole ad Repeat sequence lib, increasing speed very slightly.

NedaGrivny

FINE

RUSSIA

of dance is found the Eastern Slavs because The widest possible variety among largely Russia has no natural boundaries to the east or west; the Ural Mountains have never and movement from to have on prevented invasions. Intennamagc place place gone have for so long that folk dance, music, arts, and customs been nitermingled. not the Slavs* first contact with The influx of the Turki and Ugrian tribes were early in the and an Eastern people. Archaeologists working Ukraine, CzecWlovakia, Hungary traces of a cultivated art to the are gradually disclosing highly belonging Scythians, 84 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE . whose own it is in rich origins, suggested, were the Middle East. The designs, colours, and fine workmanship of Scythian art are still found in the wonderful embroideries, pottery, and mosaics ofthese areas. The dances, too, show a similar wealth of movement.

During the tenth century A.D., the Viking Rurik and his descendants sailed in from the Baltic and first the nomad of Russia into organized peoples European principalities to the Feudal Each was according system (see Map 2, facing page 52). prince persuaded to Kiev as the recognize sovereign state, but this did not prevent them warring among themselves and with the Finnish tribes to the north and Tartars to the south-east These raids and warlike expeditions led to a further mixing of tribes and rituals.

At this time A.D. the ties between Russia and the Eastern (circa noo) Byzantine were in was the but there Empire strong. Trade, particularly furs, principal object, was a constant of and the interchange scholar-priests, gradually Greek Orthodox church was the Russian as their official Nevertheless in accepted by princes religion. the vast was slow in plains Christianity developing; therefore the Russians never gave up their their ancient rituals pagan gods entirely only gradually became associated with the 1 local saints and church festivals. the *rpd\ days To communities living in dose contact with their these ancient rituals and a overlords, customs had achieved degree of importance which no influence could break. Thus dances and foreign many customs, particularly those of the wedding ceremonies, were preserved almost intact. the under Although Mongol invasion Genghis Elan in the thirteenth century A.D. broke the Russians' ties with the Byzantine church culture, this impact with an eastern served to reinforce certain people eastern elements already inherent in Russian folk art. For some hundred and the main of Russia fifty years part was completely dominated the Khanate of the Golden Horde Skv name for their by (the conquerors), except for the area north-east ofMoscow. This in the centre ofa vast increased tity, plain, gradually its it to the power. First, gave allegiance Great Khan, then, having gained his confidence, to collect the annual tribute due to him from the other Russian began princes. When

Moscow's was these it to leadership finally acknowledged by Skv princes refused pay the tribute and was thus able to challenge and ultimately to defeat the Tartars. From then onwards until the nineteenth the century, Russian Tsars continued to expand their frontiers to the west and east, south, and the Russian people have remained almost uninfluenced other invasions. Peter the by any Great's transformation of St. Petersburg into his did little to capital introduce western culture to any but court circles. It is for this reason that no western dance can be found in those recognized except regions where the came into contact with Polish dances influenced peasants by the Teutonic Knights. It is almost impossible for the untrained eye to differentiate between the dances of the three Russian the European Republics, Ukraine, Byelorussia, and the R.S.F.S.R. The most important are those with movements showing the influence of climate and work The Ukraine dances process. possesses many called Kolomiykas, which arise out of sheer exuberance and are with cheerfulness and as it is permeated hearty humour, and, THE SLAVS 85 an agricultural area, other Ukrainian dances arc based on the daily work of6rm, orchards, and herds. In addition there are wonderful men's dances in which the horse-riders' and movements are shown. prowess These are si'mtV to those found among Cossack tribes in the Caucasus, the Crimea, and further east

The is one of the most brilliant of these. In it Gopak the dancer, always a man, all kinds of performs spectacular the most the cobbler's steps, prominent being step, scissors, twisting, turning or over one's own and tremendous jumping foot, leaps. The are girls never to do such form an expected steps. They merely admiring background, or This stamping, clapping, dancing simple steps. performance is a relic of the time when could be.

The most dance is Byelorussians' prominent the Krizachok, which is performed by in and then circular forms. It is a couples processional comedy dance. The boys and girls dance all kinds of odd and to mafe their unexpected steps, arranged partner laugh. These consist of and sudden of the a on one if peculiar bendings legs, hop leg as the dancer had lame, or a of the thumb with a suddenly gone meaning jerk corresponding jerk of the leg.

In the of the R.S.F.S.R. the Khorovod or dosed circle European part dance prevails, Moonshine a being good example (Ex. 16, page 91). It is like other Slav Kolos, and has a smooth movement In the most Northern very easy regions among the Samoyeds, and some animal dances are in Ostyaks, Karelians, interesting found, which the performers imitate either the hunting ofreindeer, polar bears, seals, and other animals, or the ammak 1 themselves. Woodcutters and Foresters' Dances are found everywhere in the forest regions. Russian music a deal on and the depends great harmonization, dance-songs are sung choirs, which are musical instruments. the by to-day accompanied by But vast majority of ceremonial dances at Christmas still weddings, christenings, and spring are performed in the old with vocal style, accompaniment only. This dates from the time of the mad Tsar Paul in I, who, his efforts to "germanize" Russia, forbade the national instruments, the Bandura and Balalaika. But music and dance were so a the much part of people's life that they merely banded themselves into choirs and sang the old tunes for the dancers.

The the Interval the Relationship of of Falling Fourth to Certain Movements Russian music contains many Eastern traits, among which is the continual use of the interval of the Falling Fourth, which occurs in more than 75 per cent of all folk tunes, not at the end of the melodic only phrase, but within the phrases themselves. This is to some extent due to the Russian use ofthe peculiarity pentatonic scale, which produces only five notes within an octave: the interval of the Fourth is therefore the widest and most is significant interval. This sometimes associated with the outstanding feature of

Russian is a many dances, which stretching or leaping upwards on the high note, Mowed

7-(G4ii) 86 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

the a with the of the directed downwards on the by holding of position weight body actual coincidence of lower note, or on the fourth whole or half-beat of a bar. The step

is rituals and the sadder of a and stresses and interval found mostly in the slow parts dance,

is Promenade the second The best known example of this the (Ex. 12, page 89),

basic Russian which is danced Slav step of dance, always very smoothly. (The step-to-

is the first Tie same often occurs in the the-ade and dose step.) relationship or so-called and in the and pawWottmfe, bell-step, p<&de-bas

90). a or in the Dances In some sad, ritual dances which begin with Falhng Fourth, Wedding

ofthe is also which often begin withaRising Fourth, m opening and dropping 1^ matched a because in the slow or sad to the interval This can be most expressive movement, ritual the dancer but in a one the dancer a merely sinks downwards, happy gives sliding forwards the hop on supporting leg (Ex. 17, page 92).

Interptetstion oj Rhythms

in dances is a contrast As the of the Caucasus, there great of rhythms and accents, because ofthe very different^ Huid movements from hot countries interweave with more ones cold countries. This often leads to vigorous from capricious

in which there to be too for the it is most rhythms appear many steps regular pulse; 1 noticeable in the Ukrainian Horse-riders* Dances and in the of the girls steps Gopak.

In addition to the mentioned in dances of the a is a steps Caucasus, good example boy's

in which he crouches on the with a on the first and step ground jump beat, springs up one foot in and out again twisting very quickly on the next half-beat Tne of vocal for the predominance accompaniment rituals emphasizes the important of word and movement It also the rdadonship explains complicated variety of time that some tunes Most signatures present wedding tunes are based on a 5/4 rhythm, but one consists of the following sequence-Section A: one bar each of 5/8, 3/4, 7/8, SedionB: three bars of 3/8,5/8,3/4; 5/8, Mowed by one each of 3/4, 7/8, 3/8, 5/8, 3/4, and so on. This comes from the central part of tie R.S.F.S.R. near Perm and was used in Boris Godunov. Tie dancers do not by Moussorgsky step to each beat, but with the flow and accent of the words of the songs. Two further examples of contrasts of accent and of are the in the and changing weight girl's step Gopak h Moonshine (Exs. 18 and 15, pages 93, 90).

For the most Russian dances are not "set" After a part, preliminary introduction or musician, which is often sad in the dancers a by singer very tone, form ring and start to move with a basic Then, as the circle simple step. they move, grows larger, more and more in. someone feels that the communal join Eventually step is too tame and breaks THE SLAVS 87 into a solo in the to be centre, followed by otters vying with each other. The music fester until it is no to do gets longer possible anything else but turn. Everyone turns until or furiously they, the musicians are exhausted. There is a short rest and the fun starts a&ain.

There is a considerable swing of the body, head and arms. At the same time there is a smooth in the which quality movement, makes the dancers look as if they were over the surface of the This is in such skimming ground. particularly interesting steps as the Promenade 12, done at and the Pivot in which the dancer (Ex. page 89) speed, step, never accents the downwards beat but tries to keep an even balance whether it is as a or a performed travelling turning step (Ex. 4, page 62).

The Use ofArms

dances contain a element of Many powerful mime arising from the signifiranrft of the dance ritual The use of arms is therefore of great importance, and some examples are given here. There are three bows

The first is used in the less serious dances and either to given partner, other members of the or to a central in the circle. The dancer stands group, point straight, swings both arms outwards and and them over the bends and upwards claps head, low swings them down in front and out to the side.

found in the The hand is community (also Boyars' dances). right placed palm downwards over the and the arm is then drawn backwards to die heart, right side of the body, as has no evil intention. It is seldom used nowadays. third bow is used in dances and He principally wedding very ancient rituals, and by everyone. He right hand touches the right side of the brow, then the heart, then the and is drawn as the dancer follows these a bow. It lips, sideways gestures by signifies: "My head, my heart, and myself are before your feet"

of the loveliest movements is that in One which the arms are brought up to the

as if It is in breast and opened giving something. found many dances, but most particularly in those of the harvest

In the dances the often run their hands first one then the wedding girls up arm and other, as if dispkying their hands and their beautiful embroidery, for they always push their sleeves the also in up with movement Tie handkerchief plays a large part these bride often dances the this dances. The with handkerchief and finally presents to her

ties it over her head. The of the movement is obvious husband, who significance (see page 12). The most important arm movements are found in the many dances based on work

as and the is a processes, such harvesting, sowing, hunting, where gesture made usually reproduction of the actual work movement 88 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

Kinds of Dance end Patterns

As has been all dance are foundin Circles which already stated, types of Russia; usually

start with the right foot and move anti-clockwise, Chains, Processionals, Couple Dances, even the frontiers where and some Figure Dances. These last are found near western the influence. such Polish, Scandinavian, and Teutonic peoples have had some A few elements are found in the dances. These are in folk dances been Boyars' reality but, having per- formed at the a niceties of the court Moscow and Petersburg courts, acquired few dance from the Italian there. French, Austrian and dancing-masters employed They now exist only in the theatre. The few "set" dances consist of variations on the Skv basic usually simple step, or ofthree or four enchainements each one such as the comprising single step, Promenade.

Occasionally a dance will contain several enchainements in which two or three varieties of are but these are rare. The Russian to the same step mixed, prefers repeat step and establish a before on to another He sometimes ends a good pattern moving step. sequence with a not unlike the Bokazt danced to a Break, Hungarian (Ex. 59, page 178), 2/4 or 4/4 rhythm.

1. on Hop L ft., pointing R. toe to side, R. knee turned inwards. 2. on rest Hop L ft,, R. heel on floor, R. knee turned outwards.

on toe ft. 3. Hop L ft., crossing R. over L on 4. Hop L ft., swinging R. leg out sideways.

Repeat hopping on R. ft

Polkas and Mazurkas are found in the west and are danced in a free only very style. There are a few valse-like in as the everywhere dances, mostly 2/4, people prefer a move- ment in which turn they closely together, like the Czech dances. It is rare to find from the any hopping forwards, apart single sliding hop forwards as the 17, backwards is done with the leg opens (Ex. page 92). Hopping frequently leg turned outwards 15, This is to be of a as (Ex. page 90). supposed part fertility step, is the boy's in which he to a on the floor and then step jumps crouching position springs with his wide up legs apart. are seldom used in to the Stampings any quantity, except encourage dancers, although in those ofthe Ukraine which were under Polish rule in the parts seventeenth century one finds an enchainement in the feminine cadence. This can be ending stamped, or the feet are and with a click jumped apart brought together (Ex. 20, page 99). A sharp distinction must be made between the of the long leaps horse-riding peoples of the and tk plains high leaps of tk^ The former have a free, and even widely expansive, untidy movement, whilst the latter are THE SLAVS

EXAMPLE 12 t ir PROMENADE j

lasts two half-beats Danced very smoothly; tie third movement

1. on to R ft f Step

t and BringLftuptoR

and L. forwards and 2. Step on to R ft, bending R kee sweep leg backwards to before very slighdy upwards. Then bring L leg R i with L. ft beginning step

From "Moonshine" (Ex. etc.

EXAMPLE 13 PAS DE BOURR&

called the Bell (Sometimes step)

to

arms in front i. BringR-fttoLandstepontoit Drop

on and L out to side, 2. Drop heavily R ft, immediately swing leg

FromaGopak 90 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 15 HOPPING BACKWARDS

and last half-beat ^V On of bar, off R. ft, arms to ,| ( hop usually opened H theside.

L on to L it, behind R. Continue Step just by hopping off L ft and on R. t stepping Usually performed 4 or 8 times.

see (For complete sequence Example 16.) THE SLAVS

EXAMPLE 16 A VERSION OF MOONSHINE

(Danced in the Ukraine)

fields when the moon is and full, plant the seed with the coming of the new moon. then the seed to and send out shoots. The final turn They persuade sprout many represents tnc corn ina

1. 16 bars. with 8 Promenades Ex. to the Starting R ft, perform (see 12) right; immediately

swing R. leg over L. and perform 8 Promenades to the left

2. 8 bars. the with 2 in the first followed Gradually raising arms, move into centre stamps bar, a bar. arms and by 3 shorter stamps and pause in the second Repeat this, lowering backwards to whole movement moving places. Repeat

3. 16 bars. Repeat first 16 bars.

free to and with movement into 4. 8 bars. Let go ofhands, leaving arms dose open leg Step centre on ft and 2 Ex. first with and then R. perform Mveloppts (see 17) L

in first 2 bars. hands behind head and backwards in second 2 bars R. leg, Clasp hop Ex. this movement (see 15.) Repeat

turn 2 movements to each bar. movement 5. 8 bars. Pivot to R. for 4 bars, taking Repeat to L Ex. (see 4).

Repeat disk

Moonshine EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 17

TWO ASPECTS OF DlVELOPPS

L. knee arms curved round a. Step on R. ft, bending upwards, just below breast

L. and arms. Sink on R. leg, immediately opening leg

Wedding Dance, Pinnegar

&. to R. knee curved Step on L leg, bending upwards, arms round breast just below

forwards on L. Slide-jump ft, immediately opening R. leg and

arm throw head and body slightly backwards.

Wedding Dance, near Tambov

etc. THE SLAVS 93

EXAMPIE l8

1 GIRLS STEP FROM GOPAK

I. to the Fall on to Moving right L ft., keeping weight backwards, I arms opened in front

and on to R. near to L It Step heel,

this movement times Repeat 3 (2 bars).

I. Travelling backwards, R. arm bent across chest, L stretched out

behind. Fall on to R. ft.

I and on to Step L toe and take weight of body.

this Repeat movement 3 ritniy {2 bars).

Gopak

POLAND

it is often to find a Kolo in the eastern areas of Although possible peasants dancing simple ofthe ancient Skv rituals have been This has Poland, very few really preserved. happened because Poland has been swept by many invaders. Like Russia, she has no natural geo- to the where the Tatra Mountains can afford graphical boundaries, except south-east, measure of the eleventh with all the other only a temporary protection. By century A.D., and tribute Baltic States, she had yielded to the Teutonic Knights was already paying to the Roman Catholic church, then in the rffaxss ofenlai^bg its powers. Tteinfluence later influx a Turkish in of this church never weakened, because the of people, coming behind the Mongols in the thirteenth (^tury,didKdetotomtheattenti(mofthePohyi to their Eastern ancestors. The Turkish hold was not and as peasants back very strong, 94 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

the with the Moscow began to beat die Tartars back to the south-east, Poles, help of the Lithuanian also to their and southwards to the princes, began reconquer country spread But this could not be held for Black Sea, annexing part of the Ukraine. position long. the Austria started to its claims to the As part of Holy Roman Empire, press south-west, Russia to the east, and the remnants of the Teutonic Kn^hts m Prussia to the north-west. By 1795, the Kingdom of Poland had been divided between these three nations, and so lost all independence until after the 1914-18 war. a could not the Yet this complete subjugation of people prevent development of a distinct ofnational dance. The were little interested in the style conquerors very country. Even Poland is because her natural resources have to-day comparatively poor, yet to be Like so other northern in the properly developed. many states, past she had very little most of the was forest or marsh and the rest export trade; country suitable only for and the Polish landowners were grazing primitive agriculture. Consequently only too to be for themselves willing paid soldiering. They organized and their serfs into cavalry regiments, and their superb horsemanship, inherited from their nomadic made them a valuable asset in the wars over this ancestors, many fought part of Europe. The the Polish landowners to first one allegiance paid by foreign king and then another did not the in the areas east of the from prevent Poles, living Vistula, retaining their belief in a to This was the case in right independence. particularly the province of in which the Warsaw stands. It is from this area Mazowse, capital that simple dances were into the brilliant Mazurs and seen developed Kujaviaks to-day.

The finish in the of these folk dances is performance simple explained by the fact that continued to be the Polish they performed among cavalry regiments when the was under rule. The officer class was country completely foreign particularly keen to at a to express patriotic feelings such time, and do so in a national dance did not arouse the of their overlords. continual a suspicions By practice amongst particular section of tie the community, horse-riding movements, already inherent in the dance, became and In exaggerated polished. addition, other dances Kke the Krakoviak, which started as a simple Kolo based on the Skv basic ste, raduall acuired sirmV ideas.

The tie Accenting of Second Eeat

A love and of the horse have the most knowledge may inspired significant feature of Polish folk dance and music, and it docs not arise from the relationship of word and movement as it does in other Skv countries. If one listens to a horse carefully galloping or trotting, one realizes that the second beat is tie loudest and most heavily accented. This is reflected in the of Polish folk dances to a majority performed 3/4 or 3/2 rhythm, when the Second Beat of the bar is usually heavily accented. Polonaise, Mazurka, and all Kujaviak display this same of accent, and even in the more stressing western parts of Poland, where Teutonic influences have affected the one dance, finds this tendency to stress the Second It Beat happens in Laura, a valse-like dance from near Danziffo* in THE SLAVS 95

the which Second Beat of one of the enchainements is accented. It is even occasionally found in dances of a such as the the hands the second half-beat of 2/4 rhythm, clap of on a curious little dance called the Break Boijko, or the stamp on the second half-beat of in the Krakoviak in after a Moreover, some Processionals and Kolos performed wedding the ceremony, bridegroom always swings his bride towards himself with a heavy stamp on the second step of every enchainement.

In the Polonaise and the is thrust of Mazurka, there a strong outwards or upwards the as the the Beat. In the and its working leg supporting leg marks Second Kujaviak, after-dances the Oberek or Obertass, die dancer makes a sweeping circular movement on the floor with the second In all of these second on this step. dances, every step coming Beat must to be twice the in both time and The Second appear as long as first, space. a dance in time thus often like an a third step of 3/4 seems afterthought. Being usually

it is marked and sometimes before the preparatory step, only very lightly immediately first beat of a new bar. In some when the dancers the third turning steps, get excited, be This the for the beat may completely ignored. happens when couple spin together,

lifts the floor Beat and holds her there until the next bar. man his partner off on the Second are those in which the Other fi*Hnflttng uses of this accenting of the Second Beat his knee Second his round and man drops on on the Beat, partner skipping lightly him,

is the in the to and from her on bars when he leading girl Mazurka, turning alternating his in the enchainement as To the correct as he accents second step known Wibiyany. get for the Second the dancers each from an impetus accenting Beat, always begin step open the entire foot on the floor with a bent knee on the position and place directly slightly Second Beat To do this the body has to be held completely under control. to hear a similar In the very few unaccompanied Polish dances, it is actually possible as the dancers do the Cwal sound to that of horses galloping sideways (Ex. 26, page 101), the heels are beaten and a is heard. for as their feet glide very faintly together "clip-dop"

The Feminine Cadence

Second Beat also rise to the characteristic of The accenting of the gives ending many a and a ofthe which enchainements in Polish dance, step-to-thc-side clip heels, corresponds the musical Feminine Cadence occurs with the Feminine Cadence, ending phrase. A to the first or when the melody ends on the second or weak beat of a bar, as opposed beat found in Western marked the Second and weaker strong usually Europe. Having Pole does not this most feature at the end of his beat throughout, the change typical Moreover this movement often the in of his horse, the love phrase. represents reining the Polish national dance . ofwhich has inspired (Ex. 20, page 99)

the The Carriage of Body movements and the of the Polish dancers The strongly controlled precise positioning contrast to the of the Ukrainians and the neat are in great free-flowing style upwards 96 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

the are lovers breeders of horses. This is due leaping of Georgians, who also great and no doubt to the militaristic activities of the Poles and their earlier use more disciplined, of and saddles. in the and horse-trappings Every step Polonaise, Mazurka, Kujaviak, and even the the erect Krakoviak, in more modern style Country Dances, displays back, of firmly controlled shoulders, head and arms, and swift easy movements riders on horseback. in all with each Arms pky an active part dances, swinging sensitively change of are lifted above lie direction, and counterbalancing the feet They rarely straight head if to the head. The man but, raised, are kept at an angle ofroughly 45 degrees often an arm round in a which the of a a sweeps figure-of-eight, represents cracking whip, the a series of Holubetzs movement which usually coincides with Break following in the Krakoviak and 101 and In the of (Ex. 25 27, pages 102). progressive figures most

the a little behind her whose left hand is held dances, woman moves way partner, forwards as if he were her the His arm be round her whilst showing way. right may waist, her left hand is his or it rest in his free often on shoulder, may lighdy right Her hand holds her skirt or It is apron. only when the men are dancing alone that their hands are their occasionally placed on hips.

Forms and Patterns

from the ancient Kolos and the Apart more modern valses and polkas of the western most Polish dances are a leader the activities of the areas, figure dances, ordering group, as the "Caller" shouts the in figures American Square dancing or in an Irish Ceilidhe.

The Polonaise is not a folk it is the strictly dance, although performed by townspeople. It is a for as as wilL The Mazur is still danced the processional many by peasants as a dance for as couple many as will, but, among the soldiers and in the theatre, where as the Mazurka it retains its enormous it is danced popularity, usually by any number of divisible four. Some versions are "set" for four couples by couples only. The Krakoviak starts as a processional couple dance, merges into a Kolo, the dancers to and then after a Grand Chain or moving alternately right left, Hey develops into a dance. At the conclusion the entire of dancers in figure group glide swiftly away a There is one version of this dance for four procession. couples which is very old and is to the outskirts of Cracow whence the dance peculiar originated (Ex. 27, page 102). An enchainement on the Krakoviak or Mazurka usually lasts for four bars and is four times in all. It can consist ofone or ofa combination of repeated single step two steps, and is usually concluded with the Break on a Feminine Cadence. The Cwal of the Krakoviak and the women's Mazurka can be danced steps, however, for as long as the

If the Cwal is divided the foot second it by changing leading every step, develops into the sliding polka of the Poles, as to the one of Teutonic opposed stepped origin. This distinction becomes dear in a comparison between the polka dances of Western Poland and the polka of the Krakoviak. THE SLAVS 97 The Steps Because Polish folk dance has been so fostered the carefully during past two hundred years, much time is on the actual spent perfecting steps of a dance, instead of their as a outburst of in appearing spontaneous feeling expressed significant movements, as in other Skv countries. It is for this reason that the have to be more steps clearly defined. The Polonaise of 3/4 or consists of one 3/2 rhythm step only, which is performed going either forwards or backwards in dictated the leader any pattern by (Ex. 19, page 98). The Mazurka is in 3/4 broken and was first described in the sixteenth rhythm century. It consists of five Pas Pas Pas steps: Hohbetz, Sissone, Marche, Balaye, and Ohroti, (En. 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 99 to which can be or in pages 101) performed singly varying combinations. With the of the Obratf all the can exception (Ex. 24), steps go forwards, or backwards. sideways, The combinations are known as Obratzani, a mixture of Holubetz and Pas the face Balayl, couple moving alternately to face and back to back; or when the man dances towards and Wiybiyany, alternately against the line of dance with a Holubetz followed by a stamp and three Pas Sissones. Movements arc often linked Zaznachank These consist of to the balls of the or by risings feet, claps clipping ofheels in various The these while the men do more rhythms. girls perform spectacular steps. Oboroti or Pas are with the (turns Boiteux) performed couple standing side by side, almost and in touching feeing opposite directions. The man's left arm is round the woman's waist and her left hand is on his shoulder. Both are right right arms held out- stretched and or the elbows be linked and the slightly upwards, may couple can turn either backwards or forwards. Sometimes the turn side partners by side, the man going back- wards, the woman forwards.. The inside or rather are legs, hips, usually touching in order to and the man lifts his woman offher feet gain speed, occasionally right (Ex. 24, page 100). Holubetz or He is not danced the (cabriole coup taloti) usually by women; the man dances it to the line of dance always sideways (Ex. 25, page 101). The Krakoviak is in It has three and are 2/4 rhythm. only steps they usually performed

both men and women. The most is the Cwal which is a by important (chassej, develop- ment of the Skv basic It can be danced in the knees step. any direction, always being so that the foot can be kept very loose, leading swiftly changed (Ex. 26, page 101). The Oboroti is the same as in die Mazurka, the hop on the last half-beat of a bar and the two on beats I and 2 that is following steps respectively (Ex. 24). The leg raised on the circles forwards or backwards round the hop usually hopping leg before it is placed on the floor on the first beat The direction ofthe is circling determined by that of the turn. The Holubetz in the Krakoviak is in m-ililm the usually repeated series, single one followed two of the Mazurka, An of the use of this is by steps interesting example step where two Holubetzs are followed a which is the by Break, accompanied by flicking of an arm in the as if a were cracked figure-eight, whip being (&t 27, page 102). This movement is often done round each face by partners moving other, alternately meeting to face and back to back. It is also done the alone in the centre in the by men figure inown 98 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE as who into the middle to sneer at each other, Kogucik (Little Cock), go pretending

is a valse-like dance in a slow The The Kujaviak graceful, swinging, 3/8 rhythm. girls the fore-arms oftheir and the dancers make a circular place their hands on upper partners, second of a valse. Their bodies movement with the working foot on every step sway

side to side. This is followed the Oberek, a fast dance gracefully from usually by very the Mazurka the man his off the floor in the turns. The utilizing steps, lifting partner the woman in the Obcrtass is a wilder version of the Oberek, the man flinging up

and turns. thefloor. He also indulges in spectacular leaps male dances the life of In the Tatra Mountains there arc some fascinating depicting the mountain. The men use their ice-axes in somewhat the same way as the Scots use

lift off the for their to their swords, but at certain times they these ground partners jump or their heads in wide over. At other times they are swung round their own partners* Such dances as these and the arc circling movements. require great skill, steps extremely with When the in these areas dance, have not the neat, upwards leaps. peasants they of the but rather the balanced characteristic of the carriage horsemen, delicately body Georgian Cossacks in their mountain dances.

EXAMPLE Ip THE POLONAISE

dance consists of one the a and then The step only, couples making procession moving into holds his the R. hand. The must be danced patterns. Man partner by step crisply

and it starts on toe third, beat or a oar.

man's hand on 3. Step forwards on to R. ft, L hip, woman's R. hand on her skirt t

2. on R. R. knee bent at the same time as Drop sharply ft, slightly

L. in front, This is accented. t raising leg pointed step always

\. 3- Repeat beginning with L. ft. and stepping out well forwards.

An Old Polonaise THE SLAVS 99

EXAMPLE 20

THE FEMININE CADENCE **m i. to the side on R. arms toes are turned i> Step ft, open, slightly inwards.

L heel to R. and close arms across toes are ,? 2-3. Clip chest, opened. A feminine cadence is found at the end of all phrases in Mazurkas and Polonaises.

EXAMPLE 21

PAS SISSONE

I. forwards on R. L. behind. * Hop slightly ft, raising leg

2. ft this Slide L forwards past R. Accent step by dropping weight

to as is lifted behind. directly on L leg R. leg

forwards on R. raised. 3. Hop lighdy L ft, keeping leg

first on L ft. /f Repeat, hopping

EXAMPLE 22 PASMARCHfi

ft 1. Jump forwards on to R. ft

2. Place L ft in front of R. with slighdy bent knee, and emphasize

this f step.

to R. ft in front of L 3. Step lighdy on just 100 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 23 PAS BALAYl

half-beat of (Begins on last bar)

and forwards on L R. behind. t Step ft., raising leg

1. forwards L. bend R. L. Hop on ft., leg slightly behind (The R. now makes a movement t leg sweeping forward.)

2. forwards on ft at the same time as ft. Hop L brushing R. heavily on floor and it out in front t immediately stretching Slight pause. Repeat whole movement beginning on R. ft.

An Old Mazurka

EXAMPLE 24 OBOR01T

be danced (Can turning to R. or L, and moving forwards or backwards, also with Holubetz on beat i.)

i 1. on L ft, R. in front ofL, commence Hop bringing leg up turning.

2. Place R. ft, down heavily in front of L

3. Place L. ft. at side ofR. as often as ' Repeat required, always hopping onLft

In Krakoviak on the last half-beat begin and place R. ft. on i . THE SLAVS m

EXAMPLE 25 HOLUBETZ

k talon or (Coup Cabriole)

-^ ^l^^dstribLh

1 2' S J7 ^s<^ysonLft,sIighdyac^^

3. Close R. ft. to L, L. immediately raising ]eg ready to repeat movementmftVAmAn* ' r

EXAMPLE 26 CWAL (GALLOP OR CHASSl)

(Can be danced forwards or sideways, backwards)

i. Slide R. ft sideways, keeping weight well over both feet

floor. 102 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 27 HOLUBETZ AND BREAK IN THE KRAKOVIAK

Moving to R., and hopping on L. ft

i. Beat heels ofFL. ft 1 together jumping

2. heels and Again beat together then immediately jump as far as to describe a possible ofFL ft., R. arm begins figure-of-8.

f f and Land on R. ft on last half-beat of bar.

1. on L. ft at side of arm * Stamp R., completes figurc-of-8.

and on R. ft t Stamp heavily

2. Raise L. ft. ready to begin movement towards left.

A KRAKOVIAK FOR 4 COUPLES

16 bars. Men hold R. arms round women's women's hands waists, L resting on men's shoulders. Outside arms outstretched. Cwal round the room in a the circle, changing leading foot Ex. Finish in a every 4 steps (see 26). square.

8 bars. O&orori Ex. (see 24). Man moving backwards and woman forwards, outside arms raised.

4 bars. Join hands in circle and Cwal for feet large sideways 7 beats, closing together with a

bars. this 4 Repeat movement, travelling to left.

8 bars. Cwal movement in circle to Repeat right and again to left.

16 bars. Grand chain. Partners each other their R. hands and give begin a grand chain usinga sliding polka step (Lc. foot of Cwal two Pass change leading every steps). partner at first time of meeting, at second time link R. elbows.

8 bars. Oiorotf. Both backwards and moving leaning well away from each other. i<5 bats. Perform EAAetz with Break Ex. in (see 27) squares, Le., partners fcce each other and

startcmR.fc,onBreflfcmalaaqiiarto-ti^ Start again THE SLAVS 103

with L. ft. and on Break make a quarter-turn Repeat this

8 bars.

16 bars. All Cwal round in circle as at beginning, changing leading foot everv fourth rime.

8 bars. MenperfonnHo/tttewidiBrBflfeinandoutofdiecentreof thecircle. (Thefigureis known as KoguriL)

8 bars. Oboroti. Men moving backwards and women forwards.

As bars as many required. Couples sweep round the room and off with the CwaL

AKrakoviak

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

the war. This Czechoslovakia has existed as an independent nation only since 1914-18 fact can to its on the of be explained by referring peculiar position map Europe (see Map 2,

This area of hills and mountains is rivers that run from facing page 52). penetrated by north to south and vice versa, and it lies on the north bank of the Danube, which flows

river served as valuable routes to from cast to west These valleys have early migrating

the is rich tribes and later conquering armies from many areas. Moreover, as country and mineral it has been a valuable in natural resources for both agricultural exploitation, and for eastern and western It is for this reason setding-point meeting-ground people. that a mixture of Teutonic and Slav features is visible in its dances. These all reflect

the historical events the areas in which are found. something of particular affecting they dialects of a common Although the population is predominantly Slav, speaking in of Czechoslovakia are the ancient Kolos so as language, no part preserved fully they where the Greek Orthodox church are in Russia and parts of Yugoslavia, only slowly Other factions Czechoslovakia converted the tribes to Christianity. religious influencing for between the various have not been so tolerant, and the quarrels supremacy conquering had their effect powers have also of Moravia and Slovakia were overrun the in the Until the provinces by Magyars were the tribes of with Slav ninth century A.D., the Slavs o\>rniiiatmg Czechoslovakia, 104 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

as feudal lords in area. Like the Ukrainians, had assimilated princes acting every they who had been earlier inhabitants of this something of the rich culture of the Scythians, art its distinctive richness of colour and area, and this has given much of their folk design. to reinforce the decorative The new contact with the Magyars from the east, served many Czechoslovakian folk art. At the same and other eastern features still found throughout the for as the time, however, it helped to suppress pagan rituals, Hungarians gradually . _ ... * . 1 ,1 .1 *\ .1 . i .1 . .1

Moravian and Slovak serfs did likewise. In this way the ancient Slav rituals lost their more inherent features and became attached to the new church.

later the western of in which the Some hundred years (A.D. 93^) province Bohemia, Teutonic Skv tribe known as the Czechs had settled, was annexed by the Emperor Otto the and the Catholic the Great. Bohemia thus became part of Holy Roman Empire, become converted these areas church, which by this time had all-powerful, quickly the ancient Skv ritual more than the Catholic and tried to suppress thoroughly priests not of the had done in Hungary, which was part Empire.

in A.D. to the excesses and beliefs of the Roman of Wyclifle, began 1419 preach against Catholic church and the Czech and Teutonic landowners. The Hussite movement

of the wars that culminated in the of the was the beginning religious break-up Holy Roman Empire and the rise of the German Protestant church, and this was more folk dance than other faction been. successful in suppressing any religious had the these elements In seventeenth century, however, puritanical were driven entirely out of the or into in remote mountain the total country, hiding villages, by integration of Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia into the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This helped to introduce western styled Court and Country Dances into the Bohemian ballrooms

and to the Bohemian were class. peasants, who gradually changing into an industrial These historical many events have given Czechoslovak dances a varied look.

In the of Moravia and which are still provinces Slovakia, primarily agricultural and are akin to most Skv to which are added In pastoral, they dances, Hungarian steps. addition the Gipsy musicians, usually the only ones avaikble, have made the Hungarian

Czardas almost as as it is in its popular own country. Yet these Slovakian and Moravian dances to be on all festive appear performed spontaneously occasions appointed by the Catholic church and at the when the dance wedding ceremonies, peasants with particular freedom. are still their forms with the They changing changing forms of society and methods of work of these ktter have mimetic elements processes. Many strong dealing with and die of com and forestry harvesting of poppy-seeds. In which has been more Bohemia, always highly developed and was one of the earliest of Central to be dances are parts Europe industrialized, although performed gaily have not the same air of because have enough, they spontaneity, they been too carefully The introduction of the valse and preserved. polka by Austrian and German landowners, THE SLAVS 105 and the earlier introduction of court dances (from which the Cushion and finger dances are derived) by Italian nobles at the Czech court during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, tended to oust the more ancient Kolos. Therefore the older traditional Bohemian

like those of have a and air of continuous dances, Poland, acquired polish finality through on the of a Czech the dancers more practice part patriotic minority. They require from concentration on the actual performance of the steps thn on the meaning of die move- ment. The to these are those in the only exceptions stylized dances found Bohemian Forest areas of Chodsko. Here the have never been dominated Feudal peasants by princes. As in certain areas of Russia, they have lived in small free communities and have thus been able to preserve some of their very ancient rituals. Like the rituals found elsewhere the remote mountain are mimetic in character among Carpathian villages, they strongly and relate to the various and other rites the Slavs. fertility communal of early

The Short Melodic Phrase

most feature of all national such Czech The fascinating music written by composers as is melodic Each Smetana, Janacek, Dvorak, and Haydn the quickly changing phrase. section of the melody lasts but two or three bars before it is contrasted with another.

it is that This feature is borrowed directly from their native music, and this gives Czech

its air of enchainements are short and in dance great variety. The extremely usually great the feet held close to contrast to each other. A solemn procession-like movement with the floor is followed by a series of swift turns, when the dancer uses a rise to the ball of a is the foot to give him the necessary impetus, as in Do Kola; or neatly hopped step a smooth as in Both Eastern and Western followed by running figure, Kalamajka. versions of this are like the Ukrainian Kolomiykas. these enchainements become In the western part of Czechoslovakia, rapidly changing are based on a series of bars with different time much more complex, because they

form is found in such dances as three bars of signatures. A comparatively simple Salat;

nine beats in all. The accented in 2/4 followed by one of 3/4, making step, however, does 611 on the first beat of a because one within dances of this type, not always bar, step to in one bar and continue over the bar line. the enchainement often appears begin right of mixed time is found in dances like A much more complex form signatures LatovSk, are used. One consists of one bar of and two in which two rhythmic phrases (4) 3/4 bars the other of three bars of and two bars of These are not used of2/4 and (J3) 2/4 3/4.

the made ofa of four sections : alternately, melody being up pattern AABIAABjBBfAAB, the four within the two enchainements the dance are matched and steps making exactly to the rhythmic beats. deal of this results from the accurate of word and A great complexity relationship this found in and Russia. But movement in the various dance-songs of type, Yugoslavia of melodic and dance can also be the this quickly changing pattern phrase explained by in and constant friction between Teuton and Slav. This has been strongest Bohemia, 106 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

in of their dances it is is some easy to recognize that one section a variation of the Skv basic or another step typical Skv movement, whilst the other section shows the Teutonic influence in the or with its slide dose-turning valse, running steps Kiting polka and rise, as to the distinct opposed up and down movement of the Skvs. Janoshka, a Slovak some idea of the of to be found dance, gives variety step (Ex. 31, page no).

The Interval the Fourth of Rising and the Augmented Second

but does not rekte to the dance in the same quite way. Although the interval of the Fourth is known with the as in Faffing corresponding step, Russian dance, that of the Fourth is more usual. This often to the and with Rising corresponds step hop the working raised in front as the dancers turn in the Vrtak leg high step (Ex. 29, page 109). This association of musical interval and lends a more emotional larger step always expression to the dance. It is that in Bohemia such "wild" in which this interesting steps particular feature were banned until in the Western as too appeared, recently, areas, being dangerous.

The interval of tic Second also occurs and is Augmented frequently occasionally matched to some variation of the Skv basic as in It is more step, Yugoskvia, particularly associated wim the extra bounce that in Czech appears many dances, when the performer first slides or a places foot on the floor, and then rises on to the ball of the same foot with the of me in the passage notes, particularly turning dances.

Contrast m Emotional Content

Czechoslovakia dance has the same contrasts of emotional content as other Skv countries. This is much more noticeable in the eastern where districts, dance-songs with moduktions in the minor A sad prevail passage alternates with a gay one, or a solemn some work breaks into a phrase depicting process wildly exuberant enchainement, In the die west, dance-songs, influenced by both Catholic and Protestant church are modes, mainly in the major This the dances of key. deprives any really strong of emotional contrasting passages expression. Bohemia, has one however, really exciting and subtle of out of a change expression arising change of rhythm. This is their famous where the Furiant, natural 2/4 is converted into rhythm suddenly two bars of 3/4, and die dancers to mis a respond by swift, smooth turn on two after feet, just performing some varied enchaincments of either or jumped stamped steps.

Some Steps

lie vast of majority Czechoslovakian are variations on the Skv basic steps step. of or is a Pritukavaiy 2/4 4/8 typical example i, on to 2, 3 , Step R. ft., L out at leaving leg side, hold this position 4. Close L ft. to R., clicking heels. Repeat, commencing L ft. THE SLAVS 107

This is the first and then usually performed facing partners, couple moving away towards each other. Ex. and (See 20, page 99 Hungarian dance, page 196.) Danced it very quickly, develops into three Hokbetzs, while hopping on R. ft and the of the changing weight body on the fourth beat with a stamp. Tie couple usually face each R. hands with the the round other, holding L hands on hips, turning half-way clockwise. They then change hands to dance back counter-clockwise, commencing on

L. ft, Ex. (See 25, page 101.) is another variation of the basic Pfisumy Skv step.

1. to ft. Step side on R. 2. Close to the knees. Lit R., slightly bending Repeat to left. The movement is very soft.

This can be varied the heels the then becomes by clipping together, and movement

Partners race each the with the R. ft. and the very abrupt. usually other, man starting woman with the L

Polka is in and has no means This The 2/4 hop (Ex. 30, page 109). (Polka half-step.) is noticeable in a the dancers on beats 1-2. There are particularly variation where stamp several dances where a is followed on the foot single polka by two hops working

is one of the of Czechoslovakia Otativy (Ex. 28, page 108) only many turning steps dance. Others are

in or on R. then on ft. to Tocinky, which man woman steps sideways ft., L complete turn to the continue these two at a tremendous with hands one right Tley steps speed the held on hips. a valse-like with variations Sousedka, step many

or on ft. 1. Step forwards sideways R.

2. Slide L ft. to R., raising heels.

forwards or on R. ft. 3. Step slightly sideways Repeat beginning on L. ft.

or on R. ft. First Variation, i, 2. Step forwards sideways

ft. to 3. Close L R., turning swiftly.

ft. with a Second Variation. On 2, bring L up stamp. ft Third Variation. I. Step forwards on R. on R. L to R. 2, 3. Hop slightly ft., dosing

Obroiak, in either 2/4 or 3/4

1. forwards on R. ft. Step 2. Turn on ball of R. ft turning to right to Repeat on L ft, but still turning right

ft and then on movement on L ft First Variation. Spring on to R. hop it, repeating 108 EUROPEAN POLK DANCE

The speed of this can be increased so that the couple perform four movements in

each bar. can also increase the size of their Sometimes this turn is They spring. hopped, or the foot stamped on the first beat Mowed by a hop. Vrtak is ofthis (Ex. 29, page 109) the most important variation movement A smoother version was known as the Polka Tremblante.

In most variations of these beats can be added and sometimes there steps, is an exaggerated sway from side to side from the waist. are found in Siva as in Running steps some dances, notably Holubicka, Holubicka, the and are smooth in contrast to most of the other (or Dove), very steps. Occasionally one also finds the Teutonic valses and and with both feet polkas, jumps together. Male dance is much akin to that of and the very Hungary Ukraine, although it has neither the absolute and horsemanlikc of the nor precision carriage former, the complete freedom of the latter. There is a wonderful of variety turning movements, particularly in the where west, Couple Dances predominate. In the east, the Circular Dance is still the most Both areas have have popular. longways dance-games, which developed from the ancient Processionals of rites. All dances work to a fertility turning usually up tremendous in speed, particularly the mountain areas. Because of the of western preponderance Couple and eastern Circular Dances where the are linked, the arms do not a performers play very prominent part. The couples arm movements are in the really ancient eastern rituals and the mimetic dances of the Bohemian Forests. The dances after ceremonies are wedding particularly attractive and, hie those of other Skv nations, describe the work that the bride will have to do.

arm movements are also found in certain men's dances of Interesting the Carpathians. These resemble those of the Polish mountaineers' dances, but there are others which show the of trees and other a felling aspects of forester's work.

EXAMPLE 28

OTA&Vlf (TURN)

1. forwards on R. to R. t Step ft., turning

and ft. t SwingL forwards, continue turning to R.

2. Close L ft. to R.

1 Repeat, always beginning with R. ft. THE SLAVS 109

EXAMPLE 29 VRTAK STEP

Alan's hands are on woman's waist, has on his shoulders; couple turns to the right If the is danced step smoothly it is called Polka Tremblante. Woman commences R. ft.

1. Spring on to L. ft.

J I

2. Hop on L ft , t i. Give a on knee and large hop L ft,, bringing R higher turning

"I 2. Hop on L ft to Repeat hopping on R. ft, but still turning right r etc

EXAMPLE 30 POLKA WITHOUT A HOP

(Can be danced forwards, sideways or backwards.)

:< :

1. on to R. ft t Step

ft to forwards. md dose L R, raising R kg quickly

2. ft Step on R with L. ft Repeat, starting

ist and Sometimes danced with a stamp on 3rd steps. HO EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 31

JANOSHKA, A RECRUITING DANCE

(ist step)

Couple stand side by side, inside arms outstretched and Hands on

each other's shoulders. She is on his right. Outside arms axe on hips. f i. Jump forwards on both feet

2. on both feet in I Jump place.

1. on L ft. and R. ft in front t Jump point

2. Jump on R. ft. and point L. ft. in front.

1. both feet Jump together.

2. both feet Jump apart sideways.

1. both feet Jump together.

2. Pause.

Hrst bars. Perform 1st as 4 step above, looking ahead.

Second bars. ist but arms to 4 Repeat step, drop side and look at each other.

2bars. Partners R, hands and with a give change places 3 steps and bow.

2 bats. these 2 bars back to Repeat moving places.

2 bars. Partners feeing each other, I without' a to the perform polka hop right, and i

2 bars. Beat i. on Boy. Hop L ft, pointing R. toe to side. and on Hop L ft., pointing R toe in front THE SLAVS in

2 and

I.

Gin. 1-2. Cross R. ft. over and L make one complete slow turn to face partner

1-2. Pause.

Repeat these last 8 bars.

dance ad Repeat lib, getting a little faster.

BULGARIA

Bulgaria is one of the few European countries in which a conquering people have almost lost their and assimilated the and culture ofthe entirely own identity language conquered. This Balkan area became of the Greek was originally occupied by Skv tribes, who part

the the its and later of Roman Empire. The Bulgars, from whom country gets name, a a were comparatively latecomers. They were nomadic tribe from Finno-Ugrian group

the to the and the seventh round Volga, but migrated Don Basin, finally during century A.D., settled south of the Danube, driven mere by other powerful Turki tribes, who annexed the rich areas round the Black Sea.

the from this did Although the Bulgars ultimately ousted Slav princes area, they for were these akin to their own litde to change the ancient Skv rituals, not only culture, that the but the infiltration and settlement of this eastern tribe were so gradual newcomers as intermarried assirnilated the customs and language of the earlier Slav inhabitants they conversion of the and their and worked together. The gradual Bulgarian princes people Orthodox Church also did to the rituals. The to Christianity by the Greek Me change followed the of the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, by complete subjugation Bulgars, served to unite church who had by this time become entirely Slavonized, overlords, to themselves and their ancient rituals from the cruel and people in attempts preserve H2 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE oveilordship of the Ottoman Turks. These attempts became intensified each time the Moslems perpetrated yet another atrocity. Yet some Bulgar princes, like the Bosnians, protected themselves and their women-folk by adopting the religions, customs and fashions of their conquerors. This and the domination of Turkish princes has killed or distorted the older communal rituals and Horos in some parts. In the remoter mountain regions, however, the invader had little influence. There, the existing dances and rituals are almost identical with those of Yugoslavia and south-east Russia. dancers are and there are die three distinct The linked in Horos or rhftim, styles, hopping, stepping and ^airing according to the area in which they are found. The are Horos based on some variation of the Skv basic step. The Yugoslav Padushka (Ex. 9, page 78), which has a Bulgarian variant danced in 5/16, is a typical example. The most popular dance is Rachenitsa, also known in Yugoslavia and Romania. It begins as a couple dance and often develops into a communal dance in which a wonderful of is the display steps given by men. As in the Ukrainian Gopak, they are demonstrating their powers before the women, but at the same time they are testing the women's for the is strength, woman expected to keep up with her partner, performing either some form of or or deKcate tiny pa$-de-basque hops, running steps alternated with rockings on the toes. These are made steps interesting because they are danced to a 7/16 rhythm and the first two of the bar take 2 beats the steps each, and third step, 3 beats. Owing to their long oppression by the Turks, the Bulgarian dancers, however, do not the same display joyousness as the other Skv people. They are often solemn and appear to dance under some kind of as their bodies are strain, held tensely and rarely relax. The of their rhythms dances are usually complex, because many of the melodies are Turkish in and therefore the tune did not fit the origin, originally steps, which have to be to the beats of the adjusted appropriate rhythm. The enchainements are simple, and there is litde ofthe basic of embroidery step each dance as the group continues to perform. Some women's Horos are interesting performed during the harvesting of the roses for the famous Attar of which making Roses, forms one of Bulgaria's most important These the and of the exports. depict gathering pounding rose-petals, and the making of the which is followed a scent, by dance describing the beauty of the woman who uses the Attar. There is little trace of the s nomadic Bulgar ancestry in the male Horos, although horses are still bred and a hobby-horse pkys a part in some rituals. However among certain sects, the men have a few ecstatic religious turning dances, having their origin in the Shamanistic dances of Eastern and are priests' Siberia, possibly the only feature derived 1 from the Bulgarians original ancestry. CHAPTER XII

The Alpine People

I 1HE in the vast I people fiving mountain system of die Alps do not belong to the I same language group. They speak many different dialects: French in the JL cantons of the west; Italian in the south and south-east; Romansh, a modified and akin to that Latin spoken in Provence, in the east; and dialects based on old or new German in the north. Common needs and historical circumstances have, however, so united these various people, and their dances have so much in common, that the Swiss and Austrians in the will be dealt with as a whole. Tyrol (See Map 2, facing page 52.) Ethnologists studying the relics ofancient lake-dwellers in Swiss cantons have discovered that were of a distinct still in the they physical type, persisting central area. They from possibly came Ask Minor and have been called the Alpine Eurasiatics. The river to north and south have been the means valleys flowing by which numerous other types ofpeople have entered and mixed with the earliest broad-headed, dark-skinned inhabitants. Some of the new-comers came in search of fresh for their flocks pasturage of goats, and and settled round the shores of the lakes and the sheep, swine, up river-valleys, where areas of rich soil allow some of excellent agriculture. Others came with such marauding armies as those of Hannibal, Julius Ceasar, Attila, Alaric, Charlemagne, Frederick Barbarossa, and Napoleon. Yet others came in search of refuge from the persecution and of the rulers or of various bodies in their countries. oppression religious own task these and the The almost impossible of conquering mountain regions, difficulty of communications between the various cantons, prevented most warlike leaders from attempting to add the Alpine area to their own domains, although from time to time have annexed first one then another. This lack of the outlying slopes been by THng and the inhabitants an form of an all-powerful Tring gave independent government early in the thirteenth farmers in the area round Lake their history. By century, peasant themselves into a to the rulers Lucerne had formed league stop Hapsburg family (later Their efforts were of the Austro-Hunganan Empire) from acquiring Alpine territory. all the other so successful that by the sixteenth century this league had been joined by districts in almost the whole of the area now known as Switzerland, and the republican remained in existence ever since. form of government they evolved has had little effect on this and con- The various European upheavals have government that the dance rituals would remain sequently it might be expected varying Alpine

still relics of custorm similar to those in unchanged. This is not so. There survive many the various la the central the surrounding countries from which groups originated. "3 H4 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

rites that to the first lake-dwellers. But areas there are even traces of possibly belonged and Catholic churches have distorted their the powerful influences exerted by Protestant

Siprnfiranrft and tilCM" forms.

the the came under the of During eighth century country nominally jurisdiction converted to the Catholic church. Charlemagne and was gradually Christianity by rituals became associated with the church calendar and were This meant that the people's as because shorn of their most pagan dements-aot so much elsewhere, however, the Catholic acted as missionaries were so often and therefore more priests who refugees asserted their to their tolerant When, moreover, the peasant-farmers right regulate and the church's hold was somewhat own afiairs they ceased to pay tribute to Rome, slackened.

the Swiss the excesses of the Catholic church The disgust with which League regarded

its caused other reformers to seek within its mountains. and princes, however, many refuge these was the who his mission in Among puritanical Calvin, preached Zurich, Lucerne, in so in their zeal and Berne, and Geneva. As his followers grew strength, intolerance of Catholic church and at times what practices they suppressed, completely destroyed remained of the ancient rituals in areas they converted, that they were so successful is the &ct that Calvin forbade in church old explained by singing entirely. Many tunes, the reformer's which might have served as an aid to peasant memory when zeal had were in this lost. in weakened, way completely Moreover, some cantons the reformers done their so well that in the Protestant of had work to-day, parts Switzerland, only a bare minimum of dance rituals can be found.

The reformers were not able to alter the entire Swiss In remote population. villages the local and their flocks remained and the Austrian priests undisturbed, when Emperor annexed die southern and eastern ranges many were re-converted to the Catholic faith. This meant a revival of certain customs and but the ceremonies, owing to long period of time since their last and the loss of tunes that performance might have kept them alive, these rituals took on new forms as new social dances found their many gradually way into the Alps. For a time Switzerland has been a long playground for wealthy Europeans as well as a for reformers like Calvin, and like Voltaire. refuge political refugees This, together with tie arrival of Austrian princes and their courts to take over new estates, and the of the armies the presence Napoleonic during eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, led to the introduction of dances fashionable at the courts of and Paris. Vienna, Italy, These have now become of the part older rituals, such as the few chain dances or Coraule, which with a circle and into a but a begin open chain, quickly develop into polka, valse, or mazurka-like dance, in which are made. figures occasionally The Couple Dances are and hold absolute popular everywhere pride of place. Yet these dances, derived from

Austrian, German, and otter social sources, when danced in the mountains have acquired* r * . .*..._ THE ALPINE PEOPLE 115

and The Preponderance of Stamping Clapping

Man has tended to and his communal and dances always regularize discipline songs the of feet and of hands. In this of by stamping clapping Alpine meeting ground many

where is not a means of this peoples, language common communication, stamping, and on all of the has into a dapping, slapping parts body developed highly complicated and the feature the dance. This form of performance, constitutes most significant of as and dance is known in Central Switzerland as the Gauerler, in Appenzell the Hicrig,

Austrian It is notahle for the in the Bavarian and Alps as the Schuhplatder. extraordinary in which the man his his knees, and cheeks, way snaps fingers, slaps thighs, buttocks, heels, his hands to achieve an of sounds as he and claps extremely complex syncopated rhythm in front of or round his In he these dances wildly girl addition, punctuates complex or on alternate enchamements of personally made rhythms with high jumps hops feet, his efforts even effective and which make more spectacular. or vocal The same love ofmaking rhythms independently ofinstrumental accompani- ment is found in the herdsmen's dances, in wlich the men make fascinating rhythms dance before the western drum found its with their dogs. This form of originated long no doubt to the more way to these mountainous districts, and helped regularize primitive dances and customs of the varied inhabitants. and Austrian dances are those in which this and The most interesting Swiss slapping of a more modern or when the dapping forms an important part polka valse, continually tends to make them look alike. Its sudden introduction regular movement monotonously there is no set method of Each man is exciting, because performance. extemporizes, utilize of their and often that of the and the better dancers every possible part anatomy, other men in the dance, in their efforts to be different

The Yodel and the Odm Leap no doubt because of their the Pro- Dance-songs are extremely rare, suppression by the Danube. testants and the introduction of instruments by musicians who sailed up are often marched the to the of Solemn processionals through villages accompaniment * ' *" ' ' * J

, The

a method of the Yodel, whidi has Alpine people have, neverthdess, peculiar singing, their of into the mountains and either an echo or devdoped from way calling receiving often on a or lower note to their own. This form of echoing an answering cry, higher sounds made various of the music is reflected in the curiously echoing by ways holding these sounds are also a feature of the old folk hand when dapping and slapping oneself; of and wide of interval, tunes. Many of these mdodies are composed arpeggios leaps with which are often as much as an octave. The dancers often match this peculiarity of the while in the famous the upward and downward swings body, Schuhpkttler, in the musical are marked the being flung high appropriate passages ultimatdy by girls

air as in the fertility leap. n6 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

in the older folk music has also rise to the Ite constant lilting given deep swings Efts of tie in all the from the older Handler and upwards body turning dances, type in the in to the more modern robes. It is found to some extent polkas, particularly from the man and then a bounce off both feet Austria, where it often starts with a stamp to rum. as the couple begin of an and die downwards The tendency to stamp at the beginning encbaincrncnt, lend the dance that heaviness found in tie tilt of the body, does not, however, Alpine more Teutonic countries. In all the mountain areas, movements are always directed

or the downwards tilt act as a for the lift. upwards and the stamp preparation They with and but are to the are performed strength control, only sufficiently heavy give to the lift of the proper impetus upwards body.

Arms

use in the and arms a Apart from their intricate slapping clapping movements, play small in Dances. In the which are tie very part Alpine Couple Dances, preponderant, their hands or waists. At in such valse-Hke dances as the men hold partners' times, or Moleson the woman or twists under her Steyrishcr (Aussee), A (Gruyere), pivots

Nevertheless the TP** has one characteristic movement of his own. the hip. peculiarly It is found in tie Schuhpktder, where he imitates die mountain-cock at the mating season. in his braces and his elbows lite a bird His thumbs are stuck he moves using its wings. finds nrimg in dances derived the Occasionally one some stylized from seventeenth court when an element of demands that and eighteenth century dances, courtship fingers heads kisses and the are shaken, nodded, blown, occasionally couple embrace. In French- one finds the die leader in the centre speaking Switzerland Kccoulet, in which makes

to be imitated the rest of die as is done in so gestures by group, many children's games with, a ritual such as well-known of origin, Louby-Loo (die Hokey-Cokey modern I a ballrooms) and When was Young Maid.

The Steps

from die consist of litde than Apart complicated Schuhpktder, steps more simple variations on the valse and polka.

Switzerland die starts wirn a h polka step on die first beat of me bar, but in Austria it is more usual to start tie on last half-beat of a bar and tie hop therefore becomes the most feature. Another prominent polka-like step is called the RheinlSnder and has an attractive like die basic of tie Caucasian zig-zag pattern which, step Lckouri-Lezgbinka, is dictated the narrow mountain by paths (Ex. 32, page 117). He valse is danced with a full always very swing of the body. Hie feet are never THE ALPINE PEOPLE 117

and the toes a placed very accurately are often turned inwards, giving much greater degree of turn to each movement. dances are based on the so-calkd Schottische can be Many step, which performed

and In a this is like the Scottish of me same sideways turning. 2/4 rhythm somewhat step

has not its it name, but neatness nor turn out of the foot. In a 3/4 rhythm, however, loses the hop (Ex. 33, page 118). The Mazurka which must Polish dance but has step, not be confused with the true

- from the ballroom is a come polite version, also favourite (Ex. 34, page 118).

Forms, Patterns and General Characteristics

As Dances the are circular or Couple prevail patterns usually processional, although there are Dances. excellent are made the of the no Longways But patterns by turning her and into the centre and Enchainements are woman round partner, out again. simple, a series a series with an occasional intro- usually of one step followed by of another, a to the foot or direction of the dance. These duction of single step change leading the melodic enchainements last a regular number of bars and change with phrase. Although the dances of Switzerland and Austria are so much alike, the Austrian dancers are and tend to their with more lively punctuate performance spontaneous and loud calls and cries. At Carnival when relics passages of leaps, twists, turns, time, licence is taken. There is also of the most ancient rituals are performed, much greater the heels as found in In Switzer- the introduction of the clipping of Hungarian dancing. land the dancers are much more sedate and nice in their behaviour, and have a more

EXAMPLE 32 RHBMlNDER

or In the beats marked are i and 4/4 2/4). 3/4 2, 3

I. on L ft. t(b Step sideways

and Close R. ft. to L

forwards on ft. 2. Step diagonally L

R. across. and Hop on L ft swinging leg

9-

EXAMPLE 33

scHornscHE STEP IN 3/4

This can be danced forwards, sideways or turning

I. on ft Step sideways L t and Close R. ft to L

this a 2. Step sideways on L ft (When turning completes half turn the to right)

Raise towards it 3. R. leg slightly sideways inclining body with R. ft toR. if danced Repeat, starting (Still turning turning to one complete circle.)

EXAMPLE 34 MAZURKA

1. Step forwards on L. ft

2. on to R. ft. behind Jump L, immediately raising L leg.

3. HoponR.fi. Repeat, always starting with L ft. CHAPTER XIII

The Teutons

I IHE nomads of Central I Europe, who seeded along the shores of the Baltic Sea I and in the Scandinavian Peninsula, spoke dialects of a common Teutonic from which the JL language developed ancient Norse, parent of the German, and Dutch, Scandinavian, English tongues spoken to-day (Map 2, facing page 52). The dances and rituals now remaining have so many features in common that it is often difficult to discover the differences slight distinguishing the dances ofone ofthese countries from those of another. Sparsely scattered through these areas can be found ancient such as the Seven which has various forms processionals, Springs, (Ex. 35, page 123), as well as ancient Chains, Sword Dances, and other rituals.

But French and Italian court dances the and English Country Dances, together with the violent religious wars and final ascendancy of the Protestant church in most of these Vill^ areas, have all but the ancient Teutonic dance forms. England, however, in her most ancient folk dances and arts and their methods of performance, exhibits features more closely akin to those of the Celtic-speaking countries. Her tics with them are in older and, despite the almost complete annihilation of tie Celt England herself when overrun by the Teutonic race of Anglo-Saxons, those features still stand out dearly enough to warrant her being included in the Celtic section. As one enters any of the Teutonic countries from those where a Slavonic language is spoken, or descends the Alps into the Western European Plains, it is immediately noticeable that the dance becomes more sedate and heavier and the melodies less compli- cated in rhythm, form and tune. That these melodies are so much weaker in tune and the or of the East can be the fact rhythms than those of mountains partly explained by that are not characterized and short like the Teutonic languages by long syllables, Greek, but by strong and weak accents. In addition, the eastern drum was never known as it was in the^nfruntries; there- fore, until the invention of the western drum with its sticks, rhytfl**br dance move- accents of the the of ments were dictated by the strong or weak words, orty stamping feet and dapping of hands. of tone in the folk melodies is the lack of Another factor limiting the range larger in Thirds and do not move far from the intervals. The tunes often run patterns of very Because of this there are few of the keynote, to which they are constantly returning. contrasted of emotional found in Skv music and violently passages expression dance, and found in the mountains. or the range of sound leaping step

119 120 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

The lack emotional of these two factors complicated rhythm and expression tend to make the dances more even in and have much style deportment They usually the to the bar: such as exactly same number of steps as there are beats or half-beats the

valse or the is introduction of an extra half 3/4 2/4 polka. At most there an step lasting a beat in an otherwise as the to a regularly timed bar, such polka-like step 3/4 rhythm, or a Landler or valse-like movement to a 2/4.

Some of the evenness -Teutonic music and dance is due to the and regularity of slow and even of the life of and workers in of these flat tempo pastoral agricultural many

at a time folk it is also due to the regions when dance was developing. But change in of official style music at the time of die Reformation. Until then the Catholic church music and the music at court in the which pkyed had no part people's festivals, continued to take The forms since the introduction of folk place. two were quite distinct, tunes was of no interest to for the and composers writing specially prelates princes of tie Roman But Luther realized that if he were to re-awaken the Holy Empire. people's belief in and this obtain their in the Christianity through help reforming church, he must back to the ofthe Bible and make these and as go simple teachings femiliar^ part of his he utilized of the tunes for campaign many people's own his new hymns. This affected their and them more solemn and naturally tempos rhythms, making closely The identification of tune idea regulated. and religious must have affected the dances to which the tunes if ever the dances were as originally belonged, performed, occasionally In the same it affected other tunes when newer dances were happened. way, developed or were introduced from outside after the Protestant church had finally ousted the Catholic from most of these countries.

Another factor that makes the dances of these Teutonic countries look alike is their constant borrowing of each other's tunes for the newer dances. Many of them, such as "Soldier's come from the British and are Joy," Isles, tremendously popular everywhere and were introduced Scottish soldiers the seventeenth probably by during and eighteenth centuries. Continual historical has the change, however, given methods of performance to their considered enough variety justify being separately.

GERMANY

The of the tribes that were early history varying ultimately welded into the German nation is first seders extremely confusing. The. were joined by nomads from South Russia, and there was a return to the mainland tribes by sailing across the Baltic from Scandinavia. Not until AJ>. 500 could there be said to be any degree of stabilization; that time the by provinces of and as well as the eastern half of Saxony Denmark, England,' had been the Saxons and The occupied by pagan Jutes. mam area of Germany was then THE TEUTONS ui

of the Prankish and had been converted to France part kingdom Christianity. and did not become entities until after death Germany separate the ofCharlemagne (AJX 814), but it was not until the Saxon King Otto was crowned head of die Holy Roman Empire that the both of and of the Western to (AJ>. 926) power Germany Pope really began grow. From then until 1871, when the Prussian King became Emperor, the German the princes were gradually welding various Duchies into a whole. This was not done

to the where and often attacked to lady east, Skv Magyar gain new ground. (See Map I,

racing page 32.)

But although the country as a whole suffered no great invasion or settlement of have fresh elements into die folk arts as in the people, who might brought happened the for of between and affected Skv countries, struggle supremacy power Pope Emperor has dance been under such these arts tremendously. In no other European country periodic after the of the bans as in Germany. These were often invoked outbreaks deficiency was the Middle disease known as St. Virus* Dance, which particularly prevalent during the outbreaks occurred in the Rhine the fourteenth Ages. One of worst valley during and starvation had so lowered tie .century, when papal wars, plague peasants' physical resistance that thousands of them were seized what the took to be a i literally by priests violent decree was which even those dances 'dance frenzy. A particularly passed, by banned. This was hitherto tolerated by the church at certain festivals were completely

the a of reformers like the Hussites of century, when Anabaptists, group Bohemia, communities. attempted to found independent peasant the Catholic church increased The bitterness of the German peasants against during Luther started his crusade its the sixteenth century, when against excesses, particularly Luther's crusade led to the which culminated the sale of indulgences. religious wars, in the establishment of the German Protestant church. dance as the older one. the The new church was as much opposed to the Following Puritans and it and example of the earlier English reformers, published many pamphlets such activities. Yet with all this of the dance decrees against joyous vigorous banning it must not be that the which has continued throughout German history, forgotten great Mozart, and Handel, German composers, including Bach, Beethoven, incorporated as well as dance music for social many old dance tunes in their compositions, writing have some of the world's finest music, occasions. Such compositions supplied dancing fmmmt have realized. as many choreographers

The Close Turning Dance dance No German dance came in for so much censure as the turning couple peculiar

dance is still main- this of the world. the chief feature of that to part Curiously enough, rotate round the room. When tained in the more modern dances, in which the couples 122 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

and the Drehtanz, from which the Landler mmining old manuscripts prints describing to note the dose contact maintained and Valse developed, one is amazed extremely both and arms are closely between the couple. When turning, boys girl's wrapped cheek. If each other back to back round each other, and they dance cheek to they pass and if side side then dance to they really touch, by they hip hip. first of an is a from side to side, and the In addition there rolling movement step the character of the enchainement is heavily marked. All this matches regular lilting

and nature ofthe is also noticeable tie bar. The heavy roll from side to side plodding step in the Catholic areas to the north of and in the south, in the few processionals Cologne freer. where dancing is altogether

The Steps

used are unadventurous. There is a deal of and The steps great walking running, with a or heavier This is noticeable in valse-like dance punctuated stamp step. very any with a on a bent knee followed a of in 3/4, which begins heavy gliding step by dosing and in the on the first beat of a the feet and then another gliding step; stamp polka,

is a or which lacks its usual abandon. Tie Pivot step used, change-step polka-wthoulndiop, on the first half-beat or the second in which the heels are loudly clicked together beat,

is also used: and the Two-step Valse

1. forwards on to R. ft. Spring

mi Transfer weight momentarily to L fr.

on R. ft. 2. Spring forwards again

the on L. ft. This completes half a turn. To complete turn, repeat commencing used to be seen at its best in the famous Echternach There is one interesting step which in an This dance was sanctioned processional Luxemburg (now independent state). by it was to afford some kind of the Pope because, strangely enough, supposed protection It was over the bones of Saint who was said to against epilepsy. performed Willibord, as the In it the dancers walk three have cored me disease, and was known Pilgrim Step. of five forwards and then take one or two but after a certain paces paces back, reaching near the Cathedral take one one backwards and then point they step forwards, jump

three times feet similar is found in other rituals onwards with together. Something

is when penance being done,* in both Christian and pagan countries. JT o Jt ^o

General Characteristics

In form and most dances are the as pattern German same any Country Dance, Long* ways Set, Quadrille, or Cotillion. In the predominantly Catholic south, among the forests and the more mountainous dances die regions, .resemble those of Alps and Bohemia. THE TEUTONS

are centre real folk dance is almost dead. entirely Because of the of the an predominance Couple Dance the arms play important part in one's There are also the and supporting partner. stereotyped numeric gestures claps in the dances few deriving from the old Italian and French court dances.

EXAMPLE 35

SEVEN SPRINGS

The group, for as many as will, walk or hop solemnly round in a circle clockwise, taking 2 to each bar. After 16 off both feet and then R. ft. steps steps (8 bars), they jump stamp the the the end of each heavily on ground. They repeat walking round. At phrase they add one more movement, so that after the seventh round they jump then

1. Stamp R. ft.

2. Stamp L ft

3. Kneel on R. knee.

4. Kneel on L knee.

5. Place R. elbow on ground.

6. Place L elbow on ground.

forehead 7. Either lie flat, or place on ground.

Seven Springs

add one more until the dance is times. After each repeat bar, repeated 7 124 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

HOLLAND

The of Holland are Teutonic in there has been a people mainly origin, although slight admixture other to the the has as a of nationalities owing peculiar part country played

buffer state in western Europe. The complicated system of alliance through marriage, which confused so many historical issues, accounts for many ofthe difficulties encountered the achieved in by Dutch people before they finally independence 1648. Originally the then became the part of Prankish Kingdom, they part of Holy Roman Empire and were ruled the fourteenth by many different kings. During thirteenth and centuries, the Netherland often with the of artisans from France and towns, help refugee Italy,

Germany, began to grow rich through trade, and gradually formed their own municipal These like their German became governments. wealthy traders, counterparts, extremely restive with the excessive demands made for of supplies by Philip Spain (their overlord) for his war France. Holland was in revolt the against By 1567 open against notorious Duke of to the the series Alva, who attempted suppress people by most hideous ofmurders,

sackings of towns, and massacres. These were the more violent because the Protestant doctrines for the Reformation of the church expounded by Calvinistic preachers had also had and the Duke's advisers were too effect, Jesuit only anxious to destroy all trace of their adversaries. But their excesses were in vain. At the famous Siege of Alkmaar the heroic resistance and threat to flood the (1573), people's surrounding countryside the led to a withdrawal of the forces and by breaking dykes, Spanish ultimately, after further to the declaration of Holland as an struggles, independent country.

The almost domination ofHolland a Protestant church its complete by owing inception to the Calvinistic and the stricdy puritanical doctrines, preponderance of town over

life, led to the of the ancient dance country complete disappearance rituals, except in those areas where the Catholic church maintained some hold or where the people's contact with tie mainland was difficult. These areas are in the south-east and in the Northern Islands. Here can be found a few processionals common to many nations, which are now danced to old tunes with words. The same hymn scriptural type ofsong, as well as the more of and popular types eighteenth nineteenth century ballads, often some of the accompanies more modem dances in the same areas, but the words have little or no to the which are relationship movements, similar to those of the European countries where French and Italian court and early later English Country Dance forms and nineteenth It is to century Quadrilles predominate. interesting note, too, that in tk lands reclaimed from the sea there are no signs of folk dance at all

Tie Downwards Trend ofthe Musical Phrase

The severe the Dutch at a oppression undergone by people formative period of their with the extreme flatness of the history, together countryside, where many areas lie THE TEUTONS 125 below and the moist all sea-level, continuously atmosphere, have helped to give Dutch folk music and dance its most characteristic feature, the heavy downwards trend of most melodies and dances. The within a phrases tune show a marked tendency to descend, and almost end on a low note. The dancers invariably continually mark these endings with or Contact with the is a heavy stamps claps. ground rarely lost, mere rise to the ball of the feet usually being the absolute limit. This is most noticeable in the many dances based on the which is polka, often danced without a hop and only has a rise or roll of the body to mark the last whole or half-beat of a bar.

The to the Behind the Tendency Keep Working Leg Supporting One

The downwards tendency of the dance movements has resulted in the Dutchman's curious habit of his foot or his the dosing swinging kg behind leading foot, or even and witt crossed jumping up very slightly finishing one leg behind the other. This movement is best seen the fishermen of amongst Tershelling Island, where dancing still has some fire and It is almost as if the dancers were spontaneity. unwilling to progress at and this all, except by walking, stationary tendency of movement lends a sober and staid character to all the dances.

The backwards movement is noticeable in all and in a swing polkas, hornpipe step, in Denmark. The latter also found probably originated with the fishermen, because when danced them it the characteristic of all by acquires rolling quality seafaring people's Evidence of this is in the dance dances. Horlepijp, found among the Dutch settlers in Africa South (Ex. 36, page 126).

Forms and Patterns Steps,

from the above-mentioned and little else is Apart polka hornpipe steps, performed and even this into a shuffle or into mere except skipping, degenerates walking, walking occasional valse. itself, and an (See Germany, page 122.) dances as a which breaks to the usual Many begin procession, up perform figures of dance and and patterns country quadrille. Aims are seldom used as couple dances predominate, but there is an occasional use as in of stereotyped mime Germany.

General Remarks

the most Dutch dance seems staid and it often achieves an Although for part heavy, and even The of the air of hearty humour vulgarity. early growth town-life, dose

of what me dancers are rustic manners. There is a led to a strange imitation imagine of when the men and a and hoydenish throwing girls change partners, bumping slapping which are never used to make the intricate beats as well as a heavy dumping of dogs, of the Lancashire dancers. 126 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 36

HORLEPp (HORNPIPE)

1. forwards on R. ft. t Step

and Close L ft behind R.

2. Step forwards on R. ft

and on L ft t Step sideways

L dose R. ft behind L ft.

and L. round in a circle behind R. % Swing leg

2. and land on crossed r Jump both feet, L. behind R, Qump is made above times in Repeat 4 all, always beginning with R. ft. Man his hands on woman's waist and she hers puts puts on his shoulders; then Polka for 8 they fairly heavily steps, moving round counter- clockwise. Repeat a little faster.

Horlepijp THE TEUTONS 127

SCANDINAVIA

There are few very differences between the dances of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, the one dictated except slight by climate, geographical and work conditions. This has

because the formative of their all happened during period history, they went through the same were a process. Originally they group of nomadic seafaring peoples, who were in settlement The alone in long making any Jutes Denmark had made some attempts at permanent settlement by A.D. 500, and had also travelled across the North Sea to with the Saxons. England (See Map i, feeing page 32.) the ninth all By century, these people had become known to the Christian world as the a wild in continuous Vikings, sea-going people engaged raiding. Some had returned to the mainland and their Danish European rejoined compatriots. Others sailed to had America, Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe and Shetland Isles, and the coasts of Scotland. Rolf the had Ganger journeyed to Normandy, and later Rurik the Viking sailed to followed Russia, the course of the Dnieper to the Black Sea, and crossed to Constantinople. In addition there was a constant movement between the tribesmen themselves. All this was facilitated the of and by development shipbuilding seamanship, which these had been able to unhindered the people pursue by Romans, whose conquest of south-western had such their Europe cramped any activity among victims. Under and his King Canute sons, there seems to have been some unity between the various who were all in to the Christian armies Viking leaders, particular opposition which were then to the It attempting enlarge Holy Roman Empire. was indeed these conflicts of and pagans Christians that gradually sent the Vikings further afield. But the Scandinavian their serfs did and Danish kings and gradually become converted and ultimately paid tribute to the Roman Catholic church.

valuable forests and the The boat-building industry of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark quickly brought these countries into the orbit ofthe wealthy Dutch and German merchants, and as the Hanseatic League gradually enlarged its activities so these countries in and then the of events which have affected grew strength power. From on history tteir dances is the mm* as that and Holland. There is the influence of Germany jnrrgaa'ng of the Lutheran Reformation widi its elimination of the Catholic church in all but the

the of and and the of all but remote areas, development industry agriculture, replacement a few ofthe ancient rituals by the court dances ofthe eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. rituals not akin to those ofthe other Teutonic These few remaining are, however, quite countries; nor is Scandinavian folk music. The nomadic tribes who first penetrated the

$ffinciiT)3.ytiin peninsula eventualry ?^oo^.^tercd the JLapps anu rmns, members or the

Asia and in the Northern of this area. There Enno-Ugrian groups from living dp they certain Eastern which are still undoubtedly acquired or reinforced, elements, faintly

. to reflected in the folk arts of Sweden and Norway These also penetrated Denmark, the tribesmen back to the and can be traced in the Faroe brought by sailing mamlan^ 128 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE and Shetland Isles and Scotland. The most important of these features, as far as the dance is is the of the interval the Fifth the Chains concerned, presence larger of among ofThirds found in other Teutonic countries. This allows the dancer freedom and greater length of movement than the confined Dutch and German tunes. closely Moreover, nearly all the oldest tunes for mouth-music are in minor and with the keys this, coupled larger lends a intervals, slightly more emotional air to certain ceremonial dances. It is particularly noticeable in the wedding dances, which contain other features similar to those of the Skv and countries. most feature of or Hnno-Ugrian A interesting one two of such dances is that in which the kneel as the their over their girls men swing legs heads, as in the Swedish Daldans an obvious of an old (Ex. 42, page 138), symbol fertility rite, where

There also exist some ancient rTiafn which are found dances, throughout Europe, but instead of forwards or the as elsewhere merely going using pilgrim step (see Germany, the dancers some version of the Skv basic and page 122), usually perform step progress The arc allied the sideways (see page 86). steps always carefully to words.

DENMARK

Danish dance is the most akin to Dutch dance. The rich agricultural and pastoral nature of the a comfortable but air to most movements. Yet countryside gives heavy although die dances have never the hearty humour, they acquire supposedly "rustic" air, because Danish towns have not had the same influence as those of Holland, and the dancers are more truly the and fishermen. There is also more of country-folk variety step.

The Doivnwaris in Dance and Lack Tendency of Circling Movements

The downwards of Teutonic dance is tendency particularly noticeable in Denmark, since the dancers draw one's attention to it their fondness immediately by for stamping hard at the of most in a dance. The whole beginning phrases body goes down into the movement of the stamping foot, which is in front of the usually placed supporting leg, not at the side as in other Scandinavian countries. This is called AppeL The downwards tendency is also more noticeable because most of the are steps per- formed without any circling movement of the feet This means that in many turning dances, the dancers take small the fe and steps, being picked up heavily placed at varying to achieve angles the turn, instead of in circular form. In being glided order to gain the lean the halves of impetus couple upper their bodies away from each other. The which has only step any circling movement is the so-called French Reel step, which like the isexady peciiliarhoppii^ backwards ofme Russia^ THE TEUTONS 129

out of the knees. The turning only difference is that the Dane performs this on one spot It is effective when the fisherman in his trousers very performed by baggy (Ex, 15, page 90).

Forms and Patterns Steps,

and Walking, running, galloping, skipping are extremely common, as are the valse two followed a of the and the which (usually gliding steps by dosing feet) polka, begins with a but does not rise fin from the tiny hop floor. The polka without a hop is also used. The is a of the and is danced or Hopsa step pas-de-basque variety turning straight, when it is called the It usually Tyroler Hopsa (Ex. 37, page 130). is often performed in

When danced to a it is known as the Valse. It then 3/4 rhythm Tyroler begins with a instead of the and the gliding step spring movement matches the regular beats of the bar. The Hurrl or Old Mans is in the Step reality pivot step known everywhere (Ex. 4,

When the dancer is to the the is held the page 62). turning right, weight on right

this is used as a the Occasionally travdiing step but, unlike Slavs, the Danes use the

foot to take the when to the and the left foot right weight travelling left, keep just behind the heel of the this when to the right foot, reversing travelling right. The Polka Mazurka is as the fairly common (Ex. 34, page 118), are turn on two feet of the Czechs and the used in Holland Hornpipe step (Ex. 36, page 12(5).

Special Characteristics

ancient ritual dance The exists only in the Faroe Isles. Here can be found the chain dance in which of sex or as a people gradually join, irrespective status, they sing queer, chant-like tune. a variation of the Slav basic They perform step, stepping forwards on the left foot and the to it then dosing right twice, stepping forwards on the right foot and the left to it once. The arms rock backwards and forwards with dosing increasing excitement until the room rocks with movement. the mainland this On step has degener- ated into the so-called because the pilgrim step, possibly music, being newer and semi- does not the for the ancient religious, give necessary rhythm steps. Moreover on the mainland rhains the are only a beginning to a more formal couple dance.

is in A queer relationship of tune and dance found the Isle of Fano in the Sonderho dance. After die promenade the couples perform a valse-like movement to a 2/4 rhythm.

section the valse turn is times This means that in an eight-bar repeated five and every

a is like second turn begins on the second beat of bar. This something dances in the

which are to a Turkish tune. Here it the Moslem parts of Yugoslavia, performed seems

is the dance somewhat newer tune old and (Ex. 38, page 130). Danish dances are ^'mi'lar to those and The forms and patterns of ofHolland Germany. ritual a Danish men, however, have two important dances, one being fighting dance and the other, the Millwheel, a relic of sun-worshipping rites. I o EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE 3 .

1XAMKJB 37 HOPSA

like the (A step pas-de-basque)

1. on to L forwards or t Spring ft, slightly sideways.

on to R. in front of L i and Step toe, just

2. Transfer back to L ft i weight

and Pause hut continue bending L knee. with R. fL Repeat starting etc. ^ . fc

EXAMPLE 38 SONDERHO STEP

Man's Step

1. forwards on L. to Step ft., turning right

2. Swing R. ft round behind L, turning on the balls of the feet

and Lower both heek

9)

Step forwards on R. ft, to complete turn.

2. with L ft ti. Begin again. THE TEUTONS

Example 38 (continued)

Woman's Step

i. forwards on R. ft between feet i Step partner's t 2. dose L. ft. to R.

forwards on R. ft f Step

1. Spring sideways on L ft 2. ft Begin again with R.

To perform dance

linked aims and counter- A Couple stand side by side with promenade

clockwise for 8 bars (Le. walk forwards).

B. The woman's R. hand is held in the man's L and set on his L hip; her and she her hand on he holds his R. hand high on back, places L to die line of and his R. shoulder. Tie couple start sideways dance, the Sonfaho times. It must be the man perform step 5 very smooth, woman to jump round to complete the turn each time.

Sonderho Dance I32 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

SWEDEN

Sweden, like Denmark and Holland, admits to a comparatively recent and conscious

revival of the folk dance, which had been completely destroyed by the rapid industriali- the at the the nineteenth zation and urbanization of country end of century. In form Swedish dance resembles the and and pattern couple, longways, figure dances of the into the seventeenth and other Teutonic countries, which came being during eighteenth after the of the centuries, subjugation Roman Catholic church. Most of them contain of or long sections walking running steps, mixed with enchainements of turning glides or But their of form and the Swedish methods hops. despite similarity tune, of per- formance are different.

these two different of movement in one dance are Firstly, types accompanied by two different musical tempos, slow for the walks or runs and fast for the turns, instead of the or of and regular gradually increasing speed Denmark, Holland, Germany. the dancers are more and reserved Secondly, much dignified although possessing some which makes their and balon, dancing seem lighter more buoyant than that of the main-

land. Some of this dignity and reserve can be attributed to the climate, but it can also be the fact that the Swedes were at one time a and explained by superior conquering the seventeenth people. During century, their King Gustavus the Lion of the North- determined to make the Baltic a Sea Swedish Lake, and although he was killed in this at the time of the of in attempt, Treaty Westphalia (1648) Sweden was possession of most of Norway, Finland, and two areas on the mainland to the east and west of the Danish Peninsula. Tneir occupation of the mainland areas brought the Swedes into dose contact with me Poles, whose of borrowed. The ties with Poland ways dancing they were again when Poland was strengthened divided between Germany, Austria, and Russia, for

Polish aristocrats found in Sweden. It is not many refuge surprising therefore that many forms of the Pokka means are , (which Polish) found. These have little resemblance to the real Polish dances the but are based those perfected by military, on elegant movements of the aristocratic court which have been dances, strongly influenced by the modes and manners of the French, Italian and German courts. Nevertheless the Swedes' dislike of

excessive of emotion in and their almost any display public puritanical belief in self- restraint has reduced the Polish and of court complicated steps display etiquette to the formulas. In the same have made more sober the simplest possiHe way they altogether livelier dances found in those areas where the Norwegian political boundaries have never stopped the of from both sides. The same friendly gathering people restraining influence is seen in the few German folk very dan<^ brought bad by tk firm-worken to travelling the mainland for harvest work. The hold each other couples discreetly feet apart, are not raised off the even the dance high floor, though may contain hopping THE TEUTONS 133

and there is no or wild antics. for a from side steps, rough handling Except slight sway to side in valse-like there is no all. is steps movement of the body at The body held erect

a real only playing part when some dapping movement is to be made, or in some men's comic such as the Oxdansen or the Skobo dance of dances, (Ex. 41, page 137). Many these dances the originated among undergraduates of men's colleges during the last and often into and century, they degenerate horse-play. Very occasionally, usually only in the Daldans when a (Ex. 42, page 138) partners divide in couple dance, arms are held at shoulder-level and the hands are clenched with the thumbs upwards. Yet the western despite strong aspects of most Swedish dances, some traces of an eastern can be found not in the in origin only contrasting oftempos, but also some ancient dances seen at chain principally country weddings and other festivals in remote districts. They are also found in those queer comic dances where the men caricature well-known local characters or animal^ as do tie Armenians and other members of the Turki and

Ugrian tribes.

and the Melodic or The Beginning Ending of Phrase with Stamps Claps

The unemotional quality of Swedish janong seems to be stressed by the dancers* minimum to particular fondness for reducing to the absolute any extra aids rhythm. Whilst the Danes often begin their enchainements with loud stamps and the Dutch theirs a series or conclude with of stamps or daps, the Swedes stamp dap only very at either the or of a This is often done without discreetly beginning ending phrase. as in the in a the any music, Huppleken when couples having danced big ring, woman her walking and the men hopping, they then join left hands. The woman places right on the hands and her it with his before hand open top of joined partner claps right they the In other dt>T>ccs the stands with arms outstretched and the swing round room. girl his hands to his roan swings his arms upwards and outwards before joining partner's with a dap. This is called AppeL tiis has litde or no to actual notes The fact that stamping and dapping relationship fact that few old folk runes and of music may be explained by the very exist, many to a mixture often from other Swedish dances to-day are performed of tunes, very that exist bear little countries. Moreover there are scarcdy any dance-songs. Those do actual of the do indicate in some cases the rektionship to the steps dance, although they actions of the dancers.

and Patterns Steps, Fortns,

or chasse form the bask ofmost Swedish dances, and Walking, gliding, steps running are the surface. These are with steps usually glided along interspersed pas-de-basoue, a called the valse found in Denmark, the polka without hop (usually change-step), glided and In addition one finds the polska, jwflaHnozidb (Ex. 34, page 118). following 134 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

in - both feet L ft. in front of with another Dieting Step 2/4. Jump apart placing R.,

of the feet This is sometimes known as the and is jump change position Figure* step danced with the forward toe pointed on the floor.

occurs at the end of some and is a fill Fall-out Step usually running steps merely on to one foot, the other is then thrust out sideways on the heel, the toe pointed

upwards.

Gottland in is the same as the but has between Step 4/4 Bleking step pauses each jump.

in Hop Step 3/4

1. Jump feet apart

2. on to R. L. and behind Step ft, swinging leg upwards just R. second 3. Repeat movement, stepping on to L. ft.

in or Ostgoto Step 3/4 4/4 rhythm

1. Step sideways on L ft

2. dose R. ft towards L

and Step forwards on L. ft

3. Step forwards on R. ft.

the ft. Repeat this, always starting with L.

If this is danced to a 4/4 rhythm, the movement is evenly distributed to each beat

Step-hop Valse in 3/4

1. Step forwards on L heel.

2. lift R, ft. and L. heel

on ft. to 3. Hop L turning right.

Repeat on R. ft

Stride-knee Bend or is a Jumping Jack large jump forwards with to* open and turned in. Arms are out usually swung sideways with hands dosed and knuckles turned backwards. Sometimes the dancer turns round on his right foot after the jump, before jiimping again. Both these are Itisvera(misbownastie7ff^fliter^ep. steps performed by men only.

There is another found in intercstog hopping step Huppleken-this is the fevourite Dance of Wedding Dakcarlia, which is also the men. It is only performed by in 2/4 THE TEUTONS 135

1. Jump forwards on both feet

2. on L ft the R. Hop raising bee very high. L knee on the Repeat raising hop.

Yet another is known as the Del is hopping step step (Ex, 39, below) and danced to a 3/4 It is in the Daldans the rhythm. particularly lovely (Ex. 42, page 138), when movement is but in upwards very slight, other danr*; it is sometimes exaggerated. there is the favourite as Finally taming step known me Swedish Han&o, or Hwibo- Polska in a 3/4 rhythm (Ex. 40, page 136). Apart from the comic dances mentioned above, no male dances have survived in and hilt Sword Dances are Sweden, although point mentioned in old manuscripts and the men of Dinkcrsbuhl in Germany perform Guild dances of a Morris-Eke character brought over by the Swedes in 1632. The costumes worn for these are those that were in vogue during the Swedish occupation of this area.

EXAMPLE 39

DAL STEP

In Daldans mark this otherwise it has a (KB. very well, only slight upwards movement)

i. on to R. ft i Step

across to i

with toe well 1 pointed.

side or in front of 3. Return L ft to slightly R., retaining weight 1 onR.fi. with ft Repeat starting L

etc. 136 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 40

HAMBO-POLSKA

Man's Step

1. Bending R. knee, stamp forwards on L ft

2. on about of circle to Hop and pivot L & J right

in. sideofL.fi. 3. Place R. ft about 12 away from

with ft Repeat, always starting L

Woman's Step

1. backwards ft Bending L knee, step on R.

2. and on R. ft i Hop pivot

Place L ft about 12 in. from side i 3. away of R. ft Repeat, always starting with R. ft

The step is danced with man's knds on woman's waist, and hers on his shoulders.

etc. THE TEUTONS 137

EXAMPLE 41 SKOBO DANCE

Danced men by only, with very slow movement

8 bars. Two men, each take each other's hands and walk facing other, 3 steps round to the

with L ft. with an on ft. as if doubtful right commencing Stop Appel R. of continuing, on ist beat of 2nd bar. Repeat 4 times in aH

8 bars. above movement to Repeat circling left, malring Appel very determined.

Bar Men let of take round to 17. go hands, 3 steps R., startup turn.

BariS. Hrst man kneels on R. whilst second iiian ft. quickly knee, places R. heavily on floor and his L. towards the swings leg right, over first man's hf?^

Bars and 20. bars and second 19 Repeat 17 18, man kneeling, and first man swinging R. leg over his head.

Bars 21 and 22. Both walk round to the right and then bend forwards so that their foreheads touch.

Bars and Both take and mafe? a half-turn to that their 23 24. 3 steps the right so backs touch

Bars 25-32. Repeat last 8 bars.

Skobo Dance

>

Tr l Tiiirrri[irnr" ir r"if 2 3 "A. 5 6 7 8

14.

i? iff 19 i5 5 22

rnrpnrrnrpri 36 27 2* 138 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 42

DALDANS

in a circle or column. Man folds arms. The woman For any number of couples standing shoulder and her R. hand on her Both face front places her L hand on his R. hip.

8 Dal to woman's ride and Bars 1-8. Starting with R. ft, couple perform steps turning away from front

to Bars 1-8. Repeat above, returning starting place.

10. hands and with R. 2 Dal in Bars 9 and Couple take starting ft., perform steps place. in time to the make one turn Bars II and 12. Raise arms high and stamping music, complete to her R. let of hands-this is known to man's left, woman turns (They go

as Pancake Turning)

Bars 13-16. Repeat bars 9 to 12.

hers her and run to each other's Bars 17 and 18. Man folds arms, his partner places on hips they

places, turning to face each other.

20. take and one stride-knee-bend. Bars 19 and Both 3 Bkking steps

bars to 20 Bars 21-24. Repeat 17 changing places.

Bars 17-24. Repeat bars 17 to 20, twice.

Bars with R. dance 8 Dal towards each other. 25-32. Couple commencing ft, steps forward on ft and L. ft forward Bar 25. Man takes woman's hands, steps R places heel ft forward in same with toe raised and on floor. Woman places R way.

outstretched which is Partners' feet are touching. Both jump replacing foot,

Bars 26-32. Repeat bar 25 7 times.

Bars 1-8. dances 8 in 2 to make a Woman step-hop-valse place, taking steps complete

turn, whilst man dances 8 Dtd steps round her clapping his hands on the first beat of each bar.

Bars i and 2. Pancake bars Couple perform Turning (see 11-12). Im^l* Bars 3 and 4. Woman on R. knee, hands on hip and head inclined and man swings

his R. towards the left over her twists leg head and round as she rises. He daps

Bars 5-16. Repeat these'4 bars, 3 times more.

Bars and 18. Man takes to the left and 17 3 steps pauses with arms folded until bar 25, Woman dances 2 forwards. pas-de-basques

Bars She continues with I 19-20. 3 Skting steps and stricle-knee-bend.

Bars 21-24. Repeat these 4 bars.

Bars She does 8 back to 17-24. step-hop-valse place. THE TEUTONS 139

EXAMPLE 42 (COM.)

Daldans

" 9 io

if

22 33

" *> 32 tf 29

hands cm her Both take one forwards Bar 25. Man with hands folded, her Lips. step

it is bent and then te toe hits the bebind (ie. upwards floor). forward on R. ft and tab hands. Bar 26. Repeat movement stepping

ft. on floor behind R. Bar 27. Both place L slightly

to both R. ft in Bar. 28. With a jump and quick turn L, place starting position.

Bars 29-32 and 25-32. Repeat bars 25-28 3 times.

link R. arms and run round. Bars 1^4. Couple

arms. Bars 5-8. Repeat lining L both dance 2 Barsiand2. Man with arms folded, her L hand on his R. shoulder, Dd steps

both hands on shoulders. Bars3and4. Woman places partner's ManwithanAppelonLft, both hands on her waist and life her over to his L. side. places

with R. ft. Bars 5-8. Repeat bars 1-4 starting

Bars 9-16. Repeat last 8 bars. 140 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 42 (flWtf.)

to and Man dances 8 Dd steps forward, Bars 17-24. Woman takes 3 steps right pauses. as Same arm is -with ft. and arms across chest he starting R. swinging goes. back. across chest as foot is on floor. "The other curls round his

to return to Bars 17-24. Man dances backwards 8 strifa-knet-fmls partner.

in his her L hand in his L and makes an Bar 25. Man takes woman's R. hand R., as she across to his L. side. appel with his L ft. jumps

Bar 26. Man then jumps across to woman's L. side. to man's ride and both wait Bars 27 and 28. Woman jumps again L to man's R. side and he etc. Bars 29-3 1. Repeat Bars 25-27, woman first jumping following, his hands on her her hands are on her Bar 32. Man stands behind woman, waist;

hips. in alternate directions. Man starts with R. ft. Bars 25-32. Both dance 8 Dal steps swaying turn towards each other. The and woman with L, so that the couple swinging

is raised in front leg only more whilst dance Hambo-Polska. It is usual to Repeat last 8 bars of music twice couple first of bar. make an Appel on the beat each

NORWAY

and as their histories From 1307 to 1814 Norway and Denmark were one nation, previous it is not that there is little difference had followed so much the same pattern surprising dances found in the accessible areas and those of the other between the Norwegian easily of is somewhat freer and Scandinavian countries. The Norwegian style performance befits the more virile and adventurous character. It arises more spontaneous, as people's their love of the mountains and which are the main features primarily from sea, physical These lend of the north-west side of the Scandinavian peninsula. some higher leaping an attractive to the usual Polkas and hopping movements and often gait Schottisches, and Valses. But also a few ancient and Mazurkas (Ex. 43, page 142), Norway possesses dances. The of a so cut and mountains difficulty penetrating country by deep fjords high Protestant zealots from them and also later prevented suppressing entirely, prevented

(fcncTng masters from introducing new elements into some ancient circles and dbaifls

a feature all It is these which were once prominent in Teutonic countries. rituals,

scattered the the is sparsely about interior of country, which must be studied if one to

understand the two outstanding characteristics of Norwegian folk dance.

The Tendency to Begin Dance Phrases on the Last Beat ofa Bar with an Appel

The movements of these ancient dances are difficult for rhythmic any foreigner to Tie are allied to the and the capture. steps rhythm significance of words, often in a THE TEUTONS 141

Norse dialect, which are the dancers usuallysung by themselves. These dance-songs are medieval ballads of and their or of telling bights ladies, strange happenings in an earlier of age giants and Lie the dance of the Faroe the basic magic. unique Islanders, step of such chains,is A simple. typical example is: the left foot is moved forwards twice, the foot is then drawn before right up being placed either to the side or backwards. But this simple basis often becomes a enchainement the addition of complex by hops; slight

that is one who has not reached person, maturity, is wounded or is sick; or quick runs, or which are also dictated jumps, leaps, by significant passages in the words. The introduction of this into the apparently spontaneous extemporization regular and of the enchainement is pattern rhythm always unexpected, yet it helps to draw attention to a of folk so peculiarity Norwegian tunes, brilliantly exploited by Grieg their to fill from the note. This tendency continually away leading peculiar element is what causes the in the possibly dartcer-singers oldest rituals to begin each phrase on the last beat of a bar and to accentuate it with a or The it is stamp clap. Appel (as called) coincides with the usually leading note, therefore if the tune Ms away and the dance elements the and develops unexpected Appel leading note, by being repeated at the of each new serve to the beginning phrase* bring group once more into accord and give both dance and a song more regular form. This peculiarity was once noted in some old Scottish dances and is still a common feature of certain eastern male those in the dances, particularly which men are enacting some dramatic scene of war or of a hero's as a tells the deeds, singer story. The element

comes from the it possibly time when was customary for a warrior king to employ a bard or to chant the deeds of his his singer great ancestors to newly conquered enemies. The often broke from the singer away straightforward narrative to extemporize on the merits of his own Central Asian king. When present-day Akyns and Bakshys perform similar whilst old after songs they pky guitar-like instruments, the singer, extemporizing, strikes the same simple, strong chords with which he started, before recommencing his narrative. This habit the is also of using Appel a feature in more modem dances and is more noticeable than in Sweden or Denmark.

The Hailing

Another the of dance and in aspect of strong rektionship song Norway possibly accounts for its unique mftk dance, the Hailing, which Sweden has borrowed. To-day this is little than a in more magnificent display of male proficiency complicated steps, in knee-bends and take of like the which high kicks, deep leaps pride place. Moreover,

IJkrainian it is for a benefit Each uses his Gopak, usually performed girl's performer tricks vies effect But the also favourite and with another for spectacular Hailing contains ^^ mat) some very sifffim

as if before on his knees sword, making passes and g1aTng fignring finally going down 142 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE in a salute. The resemblance of these movements to those in certain Scottish dances and the Manx Dirk Dance, recently revived from an old document, in which an explanation is is too dose to be is to remember that both Scotland and given, ignored. (It important the Isle ofMan were invaded the Dirk Dance is to by Vikings.) The Manx supposed have been danced the was entrusted with the then by Kings' sword-bearer, who precious a ofbronze or iron to his master. dance rarity, weapon belonging The perhaps represents his of at the it feelings awe amazing deeds can do. At the same time, if this dance is

with some the Turki and other eastern it is compared performed amongst tribes, likely that its lies in the ofthe bard an origin practice having assistant, who wouU mime signifi- cant ofhis This would be most a warrior passages poem. important when king conquered a where his was and the bard the of a country language unknown, required hdp mime to reinforce his words and to strike terror into the hearts ofthose who be in might opposition.

EXAMPLE 43 NORWEGIAN MAZURKA STEP

i. forwards a Step onR.fi. with stamp.

2. Close L ft. behind R. ft.

on L. ft. bee well in front. 3. Hop raising R up Repeat always using R ft. and always drive well down into first beat

the centre ofthe circle. He starts with L ft.

Bars i and 2. 2 Mazurka coimta

Norwegian Mazurka CHAPTER XIV

The Celts

MrlO-DAY there are few very people speaking a purely Celtic language. Nevertheless, I descendants of this similar ancient group of European people do still show characteristics in their folk and the JL art, music, dance, despite many Historical events which have obliterated their ancient culture. The Celts were a people originating somewhere in the Middle East, who travelled south and west Central to across through Europe spread France, Belgium, parts of Spain, and into the British Isles. Their language is said to have an Aryan vocabulary with an Iberian borrowed from the grammar original inhabitants of southern Europe, whom they subjugated. From this are derived the Breton, ancient Cornish, Welsh, Scottish, and Irish Gaelic languages. The folk arts of all these countries traces bear some of an eastern origin, but at the satng time they have also developed certain common features that rati be called exclusively Celtic. The most these the outstanding of are fascinating designs found on certain ancient pagan crosses and monuments of Ireland, Scotland and Brittany, which later Christian the inspired priests illuminating some of most famous Irish manuscripts. These are also found in the intricate floor patterns of some of the most anciffot dances, as well as the Irish resembles a Tara the Scottish Jig, whose pattern brooch; Eightsome Red reveals cross within the (Ex. 64, page 189), whose pattern an ornamented a circle; the chains. Derbyshire Morris Reel, Sellenger's Round and some of Breton Rondes and this Some authorities who have noted relationship of dance pattern to intricate ornament believe that the ^^ig118 on the old Celtic monuments may have been inspired by the dancers movements in a common ritual, which the artist desired to capture for posterity. The most important feature is the equal value and proportion of each line and form and

is also in the each the even balance of the patterns. This found dance, where performer are distributed over the floor. plays an equal part, and his movements evenly dancing If he moves into the centre, he always moves out again an equal pace. If he dances to to the in a he returns the left, he returns and dances equally right, and hey ultimately his the made all the other dancers in the Set. to own place, thus equalizing patterns by each or each does the No matter what figures may be danced, performer couple exactly in the few solo movement is balanced same amount and type of step. Even dances, every and and down. to the left and right, forwards and backwards, up feature Celtic music is the of one of those The most interesting of presence larger the in where intervals usually associated with the east, Rising Sixth, although Brittany,

143 144 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

the scale is used, the Fifth tunes are of smaller compass, and wherever pentatonic Rising sound in a tune which is otherwise is more evident This introduction of a soaring in the introduction distributed between the closer musical intervals, has its counterpart in otherwise terre-a-terre or low dance; it is a of a sudden high leap an stepping pre- noticeable in dominant feature of some French and Scottish dancing^ and is particularly the English Morris. for to Another feature shared by these countries is the dancers' preference moving as in the the left or clockwise in their ancient circles and chains, instead of to the right

Celtic dances often include enchaSnements a Skv countries. Finally containing repeated with the of the same musical note. tapping of the feet on one spot, usually repetition is derived from the of Greek and What little is known of Celtic history writings information from the Roman historians who travelled through the Empire collecting of the various cults. The of about the and rituals of the priests difficulty learning history Druidical of the Celtic tribes who inhabited a of the oak-worshipping priests great part Caesar himself. He declares that the Gallic Druids Roman Empire is discussed by Julius not wish it to become accessible were forbidden to write down knowledge, as they did to the at their in verse form, to be and people large. They preserved knowledge sung their and that learnt of repeated by pupils descendants, believing knowledge by way that that which is written down to be scanned the song is retained in the mind better by This reliance memorized information of to be woven and work to be done eye. on spells in all some of is still shown in some of the ancient Celtic dance-songs, and probability in the ancient dances reflect of the rituals me patterns made something sun-worshipping the same time it must be remembered that the of these ancient peoples. At Cdticpcople the and who also tree were nearly all overrun by sea-roving Vikings Teutons, possessed those of the Celts. The inter- and sun-worshipping rituals having similar features to these and Teutonic tribes served to reinforce certain mingling of Celtic, Viking, elements, in the same way that the Mongolian invasion of Russia served to reinforce certain eastern are elements in Slav dance. Nevertheless the above-mentioned features so strongly that can be marked in those countries possessing some Celtic ancestry they safely named

area is the various historical the Celtic. That they differ in each explained by processes

people have undergone.

FRANCE

France no natural to possesses barriers prevent migrating and raiding people from entering the Bounded on three sides the her northern lead to country. by sea, plains directly the of and mere are mountain to the east great plains Europe, passes and west of the Pyrenees,

as well as wide river which the middle be It is valleys through plains may penetrated. THE CELTS 145

for this reason that the French nation is such a relics her of mixed ancestry and the of ancient dance-rituals are of so varied a character. She is included in the present group of certain by virtue surviving Celtic rituals* The Celtic tribes that settled in originally Gaul were joined by Greek seders sailing to the coastal areas of Provence to establish small colonies. They brought with them rituals from which the developed ever-popular Farandole of the local Saints' Days and Festivals. This colonization the peaceful was followed by the total occupation of the countrybytheLegionsoftheRomanEmperor(50B.c.). For some three hundred years Gauls were under their an form of a completely domination, acquiring organized society, new language, massive theatres and monuments, as well as customs and rituals, such as

and the dances in is ofthe Celts buU-fighting, which sword-pky actually practised. Many

to it their leaders. were converted Christianity when became die religion of Roman the raids of In the third century AJ>. Roman power began to break up under many barbarian tribes sweeping through Europe from the north and east. Among these were the Franks, founders of modern France. This Germanic tribe had settled in the lower

started out from to Rhine valley but, under their King Clovis, they Belgium conquer Province the next four hundred until the Roman of Gaul (A.D. 481). During years, and wise the death of Charlemagne, the Prankish descendants of Clovis, by conquest an area of Western marriages, had acquired enormous Europe, comprising France, most of This meant that other ethnic had been Italy and Germany. many groups and other rituals which can incorporated in their kingdom, bringing Teutonic, Alpine, became attached to the Catholic church still be traced in the various regions. These calendar as more and more people embraced Christianity. the of the Roman Although this movement of barbarian tribes led to downfall ofthe Celtic in it was at the same Empire and the complete absorption people Gaul, time, some of the ancient Celtic rites. by a curious accident, the means of preserving Among from home the Teutonic tribes were Britons the many people driven by warring fleeing and These Celts from Cornwall established themselves from the Angles, Saxons, Jutes. which was hence- as fishermen and husbandmen in the lonely north-western peninsula, here retained their ancient and customs. forth called Brittany, and they language Owing and the ofits has been to its isolated position poor quality land, Brittany always by-passed die main of French It is for this reason by the major movements affecting body people. a sense of and in then- that the Bretons have developed such rugged independence pride in their dances. own achievements, which shows distinctly

ft because of the differences between The Empire of rWWgn fell apart political Latin of Romanized which those Franks who had learnt to speak the corrupt Gaul, the French and those who still the Low German of the developed into language, spoke and kve remained Rhineland. In AJ>. 843, France and Germany became separate entities, die fact that have so cultural elements in natural enemies ever since, despite they many I46 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

from the ninth until the accession of Louis XIV, is The history of France, century It was in a state of wars of succession between its own extremely confusing. perpetual and with states. The situation is not made easier for the historian princes neighbouring made the of ducal and houses. by the many alliances and conquests by mterrnarriage royal adds further The invasion of Normandy by the Viking Rolf the Ganger complication, for the French throne. for his descendants also entered into the struggle

the different of with their rituals found Yet despite types people varying throughout in and action France, historical events have so welded the ethnic groups together thought tend to make all their dances look alike. that sijpikr methods ofperformance Everywhere careful in and in form. they are extremely neat, self-restrained, behaviour, simple the and sm^H of in one dance and of One explanation of simplicity variety step any has fertile the restrained behaviour of the dancers is that although France some regions, In the mountains like the Rifoe and lake vaHeys, it ^^ of and it is difficult of Savoy, the central massif Auvergne, Brittany elsewhere, extremely to make a This as well as constant has made them for the peasants living. difficulty, war, source of material to maintaJTi very careful husbandmen, using every possible existence, to over hard times. and always storing enough tide them of Another factor making them careful of their behaviour was the growth the many to outvie the other in the of the petty courts of the Feudal lords, each trying building are France. lie best magnificent castles and chtteaux which sprinkled throughout dancers the local were made to at entertainments their among peasants perform given by in halls to This doubt masters the of these minor palaces impress visiting princes. no effect as well as to the had a sobering on the dancers, serving show them something of the dances and manners were often polite behaviour of courtiers, whose imitated. to the the in a The tendency display folk dances of country form oftheatrical entertain- Catherine de used to ment became particularly popular with Medici, who every chance the wealth ofthe French state and court this ceased the display But policy when Cardinals

Richelieu, Mazarin, and Colbert, in their attempts to establish the absolute supremacy of founded the Louis XIV, various Academies of Art and Science. Here everything was dedicated to the of the and the folk arts no glory King, people's played part. This and their masters' absence at the Royal Palaces broke the ties which kd hitherto

were left therefore neglected, few seventeenth and eighteenth century court dances came down to the The ofLouis and peasants. extravagance XIV his heirs finely resulted

and circle which now became known such dances, by mmcs as the Carmagnole, and were accompanied by revolutionary songs. To these were added, for the amusement of the new in the bourgeoisie towns, several dances which were versions of the Epgtt Dances fashionable the French Country among eighteenth century aristocracy. These latter are still danced in the fie de France. THE CELTS 147

The was too short-lived to revolutionary government make any lasting impression on the tenor of folk arts or the life of the in tie the general peasants oudying areas, and rise of and the that Napoleon campaigns followed brought further anxieties to discourage the own dances. At die same time dances then people*s popular at other European courts, such as the Valse, Mazurka, Polka, Quadrille and Cotillion, were introduced to the officers and and wealthy citizens, occasionally penetrated to the rural areas to which they were soldiers. From then brought by returning (circa 1800) until the rise ofthe 1940 Resistance old French dances were in movement, rapidly disappearing. Then as happened other countries at a fa'tnp of the to their folk dances suppression people began practise again.

The Small the Tunes and the Neat but Small Compass of Variety of Step Wherever one in goes France one is struck by die small compass of the folk tunes. for the tunes of the Bretons and a few of the mountain Except regions, they rarely go an those within a beyond octave, lying range of five notes being in the majority. This small of notes is reflected in range the movements of the dancers. Whether they are in or dancing couples, threes, fours, larger groups, they always keep dose together,

and There is none of the close moving neatly behaving very carefully. couple dancing of the or the wild boisterous or the wide of Teutons, changing of partners, sweep move- ment of the Slavs. Politesse is a observed between the couples and members of set *fra* The restrained quality ofFrench dance is stressed in there are usually the same number of as there beats the bar. the dancers' never steps are to Moreover single steps cover very much, ground.

is introduction "What makes some French dances exciting to watch and perform the at the ofa in some Bounces of of a sudden high leap which appears end phrase Auvergne, which the the in the and La Volta of Provence (in man Ms woman high fertility leap), 1 of These are the more because the Shepherds and other dances Brittany. extraordinary the in the mountain and never jumps performed elsewhere, particularly regions Poitou, so a into the air as a of the from the for seem to be much travelling lifting legs ground, the are bent as far as legs usually upwards possible (Ex. 45, page 151). of and in the mountain In the high jumps of Auvergne, Brittany, occasionally areas, with them in the and returns to the the dancer leaves the ground straight legs, parts air, 3n he also and hits his seat with his feet ground with feet together. Brittany leaps up

This is different from the curious ofthe Danse Maraichine (Ex. 44, page 150). quite jump the enchainement takes 2 bars ofPoitou in which to a 2/4 rhythm (Ex. 45). in the Bounce a of which is danced At the end of the phrase Quarre Auvergne, by four the on one and their hands two couples round wine-botdes, girls jump leg dap In all mountain districts beats and somewhat similar to those under the raised leg. capers ofScottish and Irish dances may be encountered, but tky are nowhere brilliandycxmited. 148 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

and Repeated Sfampings, Cldppings Tappings have Some of the oldest dance-songs of Provence and Brittany strange rhythms in the the often which dancers' movements coincide exactly with words, and in these dances there are definite such as the vestiges of some work movement, Provencal Danse Ronde de the Piler-Lan k Civaia, a harvesting dance; Breton (Gorse beating) (Ex. 46, and and a woodcutters' dance from page 152), Stoupik (Hemp-stripping); Champagne, the In such dances the bar line is often Soyotte (Ex. 52, page 158). regular broken so that the dancers to continue an movement can introduce an odd wishing important step or in an finish pause otherwise regularly formed enchainement, and evenly with the music. But the is more often evened out a of the feet or a rhythm by tapping dapping of the hands two or three times to the a which mark end of phrase, occasionally ends with a feminine cadence*

This and also occurs with the a repeated tapping dapping repeat of musical note, and an alternate heel and toe movement is sometimes used to mark the beginning of an enchainement when this occurs at the of a as in the Polka beginning melody, Piqued, which is danced in a widely 3/8 rhythm (Ex. 53, page 160).

Steps

A number of old circular dances of France are built of variations of a up step-to-the- side and dose, to which is added a neat bend of the knees. This sometimes makes the dancers look as if were In addition there is often the they continually bowing. twisting of one foot in front ofand behind the which is common in supporting leg, very Brittany, or a swift ofthe as a foot from front to as in the Bourr&s tap dogs passes back, ofAuvergne. are as well as Pas which are Running steps widely used, Swt&, light jumps from one foot to the other with the raised in and the usual leg comparatively high front, skips and occasional Some have a basic for polkas. regions, however, step many of their dances, such as the Gavotte of and this Brittany, appears in several dances. It is likened by the Bretons to a wave of the sea and is as if the dancers were performed running neatly over the ground. The movement is to the left and is ina always 4/4 rhythm (Ex. 47, page 152). Other dances from are the which are interesting Brittany Rid&s, usually circular dances of a movement to which a consisting simple walking hop or pointed toe and heel movement is added. The word Ridee a wrinkle! signifies TheRid^e ofPontivy has an unusual rhythm and combination of and the arms also interesting steps, swing backwards and forwards with the beats of the bar evenly (Exs. 48, page 154). There are several Bourrees, that ofBourbonnais in a 2/4 rhythm and that ofAuvcrgne The former is done ma3/8rhydmibemgthemostkteresti^ lazily with a considerable swing of the shoulders and hands on die or the hips aprons; latter is more virile, with hands often held over the head as in Scottish and dancing (Exs. 49 50, pages 155, 156). The Bourrees of whence die Poitou, Minuet is believed to still contains a derive, step in old charts of diis court prominent dance. Its rhydun is 6/8 THE CELTS 149

1. Drop on R. ft. in front of L

2. Step on ball of L ft. behind R.

to side on R. ft. 3. Step Repeat, beginning L ft.

In some areas are found in which die are steps legs flung up sideways alternately, and are the feet clipped together as the weight is transferred. To this is often added a curious in which the is turn, step performed three times as the dancer whisks round (Lou Panliran This ofLimousin). step was known as the Rue de Vache. There is also the because Farandole, curious, although usually danced to a 6/8 the would fit a rhythm, steps normally 4/4, for they lack the little hop at the end ofeach which is usual with the the Italian love triplet 6/8 rhythm. Probably ofcantabile, or go-as- the where this dance is found you-please, penetrated regions (Ex. 51, page 156).

Use ofArms

An unusual feature ofthe dances of the and is the Provence, Vended, Brittany, regular

ofthe arms to and is swinging fro, which extremely interesting when the dancers occasion- to whilst the a ally perform two steps two half-beats, arms keep to regular rhythm

This is to that (Ex. 48, page 154). arm movement quite contrary ofthe English Morris.

In .Brittany the dancers are very rond or imicTny tnffltr little oncers together. This 35

to a formula for a is out fact supposed be magic good, supposition which borne by the that in some old witches' dances in the Pyrenees they moved counter-clockwise or "widdershins," and held each other by the thumb !

Apart from tie few work dances left, however, the arms play little part in French their their and the dance. When standing alone the men usually hold hands on hips women hold their skirts or aprons, except in Auvergne and regions under Spanish influence, where the arms are often held over the head.

Forms and Patterns

dance arc of and more The forms and patterns of French great variety. Simple circles are made are common. There are complex in which patterns very many pro- a as well as most of cessional couple dances and few longways sets, simple couple dances, an element of fbaim and those with which possess courtship. Simple serpentine figures Elsewhere there are dances for of are found mostly in Brittany and Provence. groups involve threes and fours, as well as sets for four couples, which sometimes complicated crossings. of French dances are based either on one i.e. all sautts, The majority single step, pas or or on a mixture of two one and the other skips, steps, walking running, skipping, of feet The enchainements of the remainder are similar polka, or a repeated tapping and Provencal to those of Greece and Yugoslavia, as me Breton examples show{Exs. 45, 46,47,48,51.) 150 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

the Various Characteristics of Regions

is than most each area aware of France more regionally conscious nations, being very so that certain characteristics stand out above its own particular traditions and customs,

is the most individual of the commonly held French features. Brittany strongly alL is often a in the in the backwards of the There jerkiness movement, particularly swing

to its isolated few of more arms in the Ridecs. Moreover, owing position very examples modern dances are found.

dances of the southern of A major element influencing the folk regions Provence, and of at a was the of Savoy, Dauphin6, parts Languedoc very early period emergence from the courts the troubadours. They and their assistant jongleurs Provencal travelled effect on the widely, singing courtly songs, and these had some peasants' dancing. Some

it is notable that in songs actually contained a fknn'ng lesson, and to-day Dancing these dance the areas is more courtly than elsewhere in France. In Burgundy, displays more indolent ease of the Italian peasant Alsace and Lorraine show more Teutonic influences, in die valse-like while the Paris particularly dances, Northern provinces round show dances that the influence of the French court and of in the few exist, English country In the of the are to be found the wonderful dancing. regions Pyrenees Basque male dances left traces in the so which have dance of many adjacent mountain areas. These varied characteristics lend colour to the of the performance simple steps.

EXAMPLE 44

TWO MEN'S JUMPS FROM FRANCE In the is danced on the Auvergne step usually cry "Hoik!"

to i. is made both knees. Hands on the a Preparation by bending usually

2. and Leap up part legs in the air.

Breton tack their into their Shepherds usually fingers armholes.

<> i* Prepare by bending knees.

<> 2. Leap up and hit seat of trousers with R. or L ft.

From A Breton Shepherd's Dance THE CELTS 151

EXAMPLE 45 DANSE MARAlCfflNE OF POITOU

The stand couples ade side, either in one by long line, which advances and retires, in two lines long feeing each other and and or in a meeting retiring, circle moving into the centre and out again. Everyone holding hands.

1. on L. ft. Arms forwards Jump swing and upwards.

and on R. ft. *\j Jump

2. Jump on L. ft. Arms swing backwards.

J and Pause with both feet on floor.

.. '1

f ' V i. R. ft. on floor. arms Stamp Swing forwards and upwards.

and off both feet them off Jump (picking high floor, but not rising % i.'mgnt, j,m m pip 31TJ.

2, Fall on to R. ft arms backwards. ft Swing (L. remains bent in up air.)

and Pause on R. ft.

the dance Repeat gradually increasing speed.

Danse Maraichine 152 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 46

PEER-LAN (GORSE BEATING)

chain rTiain A of women and a of men begin this dance facing each other. The men hold hands and do not alter their The women have their hands on their position. hips and on the first beat of each turn to face the direction are phrase, they going. To the women have the heel on the the men's begin, L poised ground opposite R. heel, also poised on the ground.

1. Men bring R. ft. to L, women bring L ft to R. and turn to face line of dance.

2. Men on L. ft. forwards ft. step sideways Women step on R.

Men dose ft. to forwards on ft. 3. R L, women step L

Men on ft. 4. step sideways L ft, women step sideways on R

1. Men close R. ft. to L, women dose L ft. to R

2. Men on ft ft. in front of hop R swinging!, R, women step sideways on L ft.

3. Men L ft. to side of beat Women make a turn to face bring R, marking quarter partner and bring R ft. to L

and Men thrust heel out in front and told. 4 5. R Women thrust L heel out towards partner and hold.

Repeat, getting faster.

Piler-lan

EXAMPLE 47 GAVOTTE

In I* dc it is danced in Pays Quimper chains of four, a man at each end and two women intheccntxe. It can also be danced in cirdes with littk hnked or fingers in long chains which weave in and out In these hands are held, elbows linked or little fingers. The line always moves to me line of dance and the dan<^ sideways appear to skim over the THE CELTS 153

EXAMPLE 47 (cont.)

i. Step obliquely forwards on to L ft.

2. Bring R. ft to ride of L

3. Step obliquely forwards on to L ft.

on L. ft R. knee keel 4. Hop raising straight upwards, R. roughly at level of L. knee.

i. R. round in a circle and ft. on Carry leg place R. ground just

behind L. ft. 2 are as (These movements .known the Poz Dreo.)

2. L. ft. Step obliquely on to

on R. ft. knee and 4. Hop raising L upwards slightly sideways, roughly L toe is on level with R. knee.

with ft. Dance a little faster. Repeat, always starting L gets

Gavotte from Quimper 154 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 48

RIDfiB DE PONTTVY

The dance has a to very lively movement, the dancers seeming whisk over the floor. dance Men and women standing alternately, holding hands in a

A f ^ circle and feeing the centre.

L. arms forwards. Step sideways on ft, swing

, Close R. ft. to L., swing arms backwards.

3. Step sideways on L ft, swing arms forwards.

4. Clip R. heel on L heel, swing arms backwards.

and Step sideways on L. ft

I. R. ft to Bring L marking step.

3. Rise on balls of arms in n again feet, holding position.

4. With a on R, cross L. ft over jump ft, R., resting L toe on floor, swing arms backwards.

Repeat edtik

Rid&dePontivy THE CELTS 155

EXAMPLE 49 BOURRfe FROM BOURBONNAIS

each other Usually danced by the couples facing

1. forwards on L. ft. I Step

2. Glide R toe besides L ft.

1. R heel forwards. t Tap

behind R. 2. in on R ft., L. ft., I Jump place raising slightly

backwards on L. ft. i 1. Step

2. Glide R. toe backwards to L ft.

behind L ft. i. Tap R bed on ground

front on L ft., in ofR. fl> 2. Jimp in place R ft., raising slightly EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 50 BOURRfiB OF AUVERGNE

i. or forwards on R. ft. t Step sideways i 2. dose L. ft to side of R.

3. Stamp R. ft on floor at the same time as turning on ball of R. ft

and heel of sabot as ft is hitting L L slightly raised from the floor. with ft Repeat step L

A BOUTT& from Auvergne

EXAMPLE 51 FARANDOLE

version from near (Provencal Nice)

Men and women and linked standing alternately to each other by their handkerchieves. The leader draws them down the with a dancing space long serpentine figure. He then winds them into a maze or knot, and leads them out of it tight directly by going under thearches made the dancers into a by any couple. Having brought straight line, he and /-i ., . .^

The dancers can perform the usual the skipping step throughout by nmtrng step on tie first note of each and the triplet, on the last 2 to each hop fi.e. skips bar). Usually the following is Dance moves to the step performed. always right THE CELTS 157

EXAMPLE 51 (COM.)

1. both feet Jump apart, swing arms forwards.

2. Cross ft. L behind R., swing arms backwards.

; . 1. Step to side on R. ft, swing arms forwards.

2. Cross ft. L in front of R., swing arms backwards.

a second enchainement can be which bars. Ttds Alternately used, occupies 4 step

1. on R. ft, in Jump L ft, pointing front, and swinging arms forwards. 2. Touch L knee with toe ofR. flat the same time as on hopping L ft., swing arms backwards. 1. on L to Jump ft, pointing R. toe side, and swinging arms forwards. 2. Touch L. knee with toe ofR. at the same time as on ft, hopping L ft., swing arms backwards. 1. Step sideways on R. ft, swing arms forwards.

2. to R. on it behind Step sideways L ft, placing just R., swing arms backwards. Repeat ad lib.

Farandole (Provence) r 158 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 52 SOYOTTE

woman's R. hand, his L holds her L

Bars i and 2 and and in are danced the bars i and 2 5 6 each of the 4 verses always same, starting with the R. ft and bars 5 and 6 with the L ft.

Bars 3 and 4 and 7 and 8 are different in each verse.

Bars i and 2.

ist Verse

$ i. Raise R. knee, and immediately hit R. ft heavily on floor beside

raise it ft L ft, and again.

2. Step on to R. ft, and raise L. knee. fr

1. Immediately hit L ft heavily on floor beside R. ft, and raise it

again.

f- 2. on A Step L ft, and just raise R ft from floor.

For and start with L ft this 5 6, During step the arms are

Bars 3 and 4 of ist verse.

i. on R. ft t Step sideways

fe" and dose L to it

this times more. Then a ju Repeat side-step 3 dance bars 5 and 6, and these to ? repeat side-steps moving the left

2nd Verse

bars I and Repeat 2, and in bars 3 and 4 man turns woman under his R. arm, then turns himself under her L arm. Repeat this THE CELTS 159

EXAMPLE 52 (mt] Bars 3 and 4, 7 and 8.

yd Verse Cij!,,

I. R. ft across toe Stamp L, pointing to left.

( \r

2. R. ft it round so that toe to Stamp again twisting points R. t and foot is at side ofL

I. Lft beside after it fromrloor. I" Stamp R., raising slightly

Bars 3 and 4

and 8. now turn to face each hand 7 Couple other, R. holding partner's L. hand, and L. band in R. Cg^ f ! on R. ft L. ft in front ^|* Jump pointing F>i! L

2. L. ft R. ft front Jump on pointing m

these 2 bars Repeat these two movements once more. During the are to and fro as if arms pushed sawing logs.

Song

ruban suis et en ri'bott! D'avoir fanst la Soyotte, Mon s'envoldjc haw Mo'cafakrtrowra.

2nd verse: Mon bonnet senvok! .... etc.

3rd verse: Mon sabot senvold .... etc.

4th verse: Mondoux cm s'envok! .... etc.

Soyotte i6o EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPEB 53 POLKA PIQU&

man There are many forms of this dance. In Bresse, the holds his R. -arm round his Other arms are held partner's mist and her L hand is on his R. shoulder. outstretched.

Each a half-turn so that the first faces and then backs the line polka step makes man of dance. Man's are reverses the movement and with steps given. The woman begins R. toe pointed backwards.

The opening 8 bars can also be danced thus : one movement forwards, one movement backwards and then one with the couple moving sideways away from each other and one to arms for 8 returning join polk&-without-a-hop steps turning.

i, 2, 3. Tap L heel forwards on 1st beat and hold for the rest ofthe bar.

toe backwards and hold i, 2, 3. Tap L position for the rest of the bar.

1. Glide ft. forwards and turn L obliquely begin to to the right

2. Bring R. ft. up behind L ft.

on L ft. R. knee 3. Step raising upwards and completing half-turn

very sharply.

Hold this 1,2,3. position.

with R. ft. to turn. Repeat sequence complete Continue to progress round counter-dockwise.

Polka Piqufc THE CELTS 161

THE BRITISH ISLES'

Ik of tie British like that of reveals a constant early history Isles, Europe, sniffing of and invasions. Scattered population through migrations over the countryside are the

Whether such influenced the dance of later it is pottery. people comers impossible to The who came from say. Britons, however, North Gaul and spoke a Celtic dialect, danced at the of the Druids in a form of ritual in undoubtedly bidding religious honour the sun. ofthe oak and Traces of their circular dances are to be found in Ireland, Scotland and where the Celts found Brittany, refuge. The complex patterning of such dances as the Morris Dances and Round alternative Sellcnger's (Ex. 56, page 170), whose name

At the of the World is mentioned in Beginning very early documents, suggest that they too to Celtic Moreover the the Celtic belong history. similarity of designs on monuments floor to the patterns of many Scottish and Irish dances, and even some more modem as well as the curious hit in their musical Country Dances^ accompaniment, suggest that the Celtic influence was than is stronger generally supposed. the Roman B.C.-A.D. die assimilated a During occupation (55 436^, Britons great deal of as the relics of Roman culture, great buildings, towns, and roads bear witness. were also aenverted to but the did not They Christianity, early priests entirely suppress the for traces of the ancient Druidical lite the pagan rites, beliefs, magic properties of mistletoe, arc found throughout England. Such dances as the Helston Furry Dance, which derived from the Roman custom of Atmrmcr throuflh the streets and houses used o o * to be found in Cornwall, Wales, and Cumberland^ where the Romanized Celts found sanctuary from toe nflflTjui^iin & jLcutonic tribes*

ENGLAND *

the and marks the foundation of the The conquest of Britain by Angles, Saxons, Jutes new invaders with them dances and customs English people and language. These brought tie traditional customs. Numbers of these are similar to those; which became a part of in from whence these had come: for found the northern plains ofEurope, people example, the and and dancing round the bonfires on St. John's Eve, Maypoles Jack-m-dhe^green, Danes the Short Sword Dances. The Anglo-Saxons in thdr turn were invaded by Scandinavia. These also and Northmen, or Vikings, coming from people brought rituals, and the famous Abbot's Homed such as the Long Sword Dances, possibly Bromley the of which is found in the reindeer dances of certain Enno- Dance, only counterpart 162 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

Ugrian tribes, with whom the Northmen came into contact during theirjourney through the Scandinavian Peninsula.

was the Normans This led to the Finally England conquered by (1066). introduction of as as to a revival of certain Roman some form of courtly dance well traditions, for the Normans were of the same as those Northmen who had although origin swept through England, they had settled in France and assimilated the language and culture of Romanized Gaul. It after the invasion that the well-known was Norman figure of a in Punch, descendant ofthe old Roman mimes, appeared in the form which he is known even This character in the to-day. represents some way Englishman's traditional dislike of

official interference his and is the with own private affairs, surely outcome ofthe continual interference of whose customs were often resented and then conquering races, reluctantly and turned into accepted finally something essentially English.

When Pope Gregory sent Saint Augustine to convert the pagan Anglo-Saxons, the love of dance was first noted. In letters still it will English existing be found that the did not insist on the absolute of ritual Pope suppression pagan (A.D. 597). Instead the are ordered "to the wherein such rites took priests purify buildings place ... and where the people were wont to sacrifice cattle to demons, thither let them continue to resort on the of the saint day to whom the church is dedicated, and sky their beasts no as a but for a social meal in honour of Him longer sacrifice, they now worship." This more tolerant attitude ensured the continuance of many rites which were thus to the service ofthe church. It brought also gave rise to some curious anomalies, because not all the converts were certain of the value of their new religion. Occasionally a king and his serfs would worship both new and old god at the same time; thus Reduald of Angta worshipped at me dtar and thmt^ andofien the danced in the after the congregation churchyards services. In England also there a was widespread use of certain traditional dances in the Miracle and Morality plays the church and later the staged by by guilds, and so was their survival ensured. The continued between the Roman churdh and struggle me King and Barons, which was such a feature of was resolved when early English history, finally Henry Vm (1509-47) brokeall ties with the and declared himself head of the Pope English church. Thishad an immediate efiecton the dances of all classes of society. People were no longer afraid of the of the church and became power everywhere dancing much gayer and freer, so that ambassadors to write about "the foreign began dancing English." During this there was a continual period (circa 1520-1640) exchange of dance movements between peasants and court, as can be verified the by reading Masques of Ben Jonson and other writers in whkh folk dancers and courtiers were closely associated. This Eveliness was halted the gay by outbreak of the Civil Wars. The leaders of Cromwell's were government only too anxious to all suppress extravagances, Romish and practices, foreign customs introduced the Stuart by Kings. But it is a mistake to that this a suppose was period of unadulterated The gloom. Commonwealth leaders, THE CELTS 163

Cromwell were not averse to including himself) dancing, provided it was seemly and to the occasion. Their interest in social led to the appropriate dancing publication, by the Printers of Government orders, of The Master Edition many Playford's Dtwwg (First It contained the music and directions of 1650). dances which were performed by the now the Some of these were derived from folk as people ruling country. origins, were some of the tunes, but the were largest proportion specially arranged by dancing masters, so that would decorous in the new Such elements as the they appear society. high of the Morris 55, the of La jumping (Ex. page 168), fertility leaps Volfc, gay jigging, and dances were eschewed. All dances were couple permitted longways or circular sets, in which took and many part continually changed partners so that there could be no accusation of flirtatious behaviour. It is to note that important no couple fanvs exist these among traditional dances of England. This toleration of a certain form of dance arose from the very varied views ofdancing held the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. As in other during every European country, tracts were "lewd and many published against lascivious dancing," and in a pamphlet the by Christopher Featherstone, following argument is advanced: "If dancing were a recreation of the then it should refresh the same it body being weary, should make nimble the and the make soft the feet and it should joints strengthen legs, finally bring the out of into but is so far from body being temper good temperature ; dancing refreshing the body from being weary that it maketh the same more weary; For I have heard tell those which have danced one half for and laid in of day pleasure have bed for three whob days of pain . . . How many have been lamed? What incurable diseases have arisen?

"What agues and shaking? What heaviness, sleepiness and sluggishness ensues after men's servants set to after their such dancing? How many being work do dancing days lie snoring in hedges because they are so weary they cannot work, whereby their but small masters do reap gains." the This statement would seem to prove that Puritans' violent prohibitions of the revels and similar festivals were not on but also from May-day only religious grounds, be unable to their tasks after such the fear that the work-people would complete revelry.

These workers had an important part to pky in the industrialization of England, which at a &st had started during the Tudor period, and was now prcjoeding tremendously pace, as was overseas trading. the the Yet, in other pamphlets actually published during Commonwealth, arguments earlier Sir Thomas The Goverww of about tie value ofdance advanced by Hyot (in 1531), in favour an edict to as a method of education, were continually being repeated of of masters. Thus Commonwealth leaders encourage the licensing reputable dancing the because it tried to have the best of two worlds; to suppress people's own dance,

beliefs and was but to their own offended against puritanical uneconomic, encourage to dance because it them and sons and daughters gave good carriage, pleasant manners, to behave in a knowledge of how society. DANCE 164, EUROPEAN FOLK

folk dance. The The Restoration ofthe monarchy did nothing to restore English new and the with which was court was made up of foreigners, speed England becoming the where found neither industrialized brought more and more people to towns, they in the conditions under which existed. However time nor space for dancing squalid they dancer-mimes was noted. the tie prowess of the English everywhere John Weaver, the first ballet without words in and dancing-master, produced complete 1717, items in the theatres. in the remote areas of many native dances became popular Only of the real folk dance the the countryside were tiny elements preserved among peasants, fanners fishermen, and miners. a student of folk to realize the It was not until Cecil Sharp, as music, began great rural areas that a revival of folk dance wealth of material lying dormant in some English This movement has now fresh from the researches became possible. gained impetus

of the seders in America. It is into traditional dances kept alive by descendants early of folk dance is built from such sources that a true picture English gradually being up.

The real folk dances, the Morris and Sword Dances, as well as the many Country one characteristic different Dances evolved by dancing-masters, possess strikingly from to culture. Their those of other nations that have contributed English outstanding feature

is their This is due to the absolutely even-tempered quality. firstly specific quality of folk of folk which have been a English music. The majority English tunes, source of to since the first of written have a inspiration English composers days music, tendency to the and minor continually modulate between major keys throughout the melody. The tunes often run and down the scale known as the Dorian a scale easily up mode (e.g. the white notes on a produced by playing only piano, commencing on D). One of the loveliest this examples containing typically English trait is "Greenslcevcs." This hesitation between and sadness in folk music one finds a gaiety (for usually happy tune is in a and a sad is in major key, one the minor) seems to reflect the Englishman's traditional reluctance of his emotions in displaying deepest public. This same reluctance to violent emotion display any appears in the English dance. To the smooth often (legato) yet poignant tune, modulating up and down the scale, the dancers move and to the simply evenly left and back again, into the middle and out, set to their own and then to their in the or partners neighbours circle, square, longways set and otter to their They perform Keys figures, ultimately returning own places, each a turn until all have This and taking performed. co-operation equality among me is the feature of all participants outstanding English traditional dances, as it is in the famous English Madrigal singing, and the influence of both on Continental music and dance is too fa often ignored. The smooth, of movement which even-tempered quality characterizes the per- formance of tie best folk and English ballroom dancers is first achieved by the way in THE CELTS 165 which their bodies are held. are balanced so that the They delicately dancers instinctively incline towards the direction ofthe whole movement Thus if the is directed step forwards, the whole inclines that if backwards the body way, weight is adjusted to tale the dancer back to his easily starting-point. Nowhere is there any stiffness or tension, for arms

and heads are held erect the are all swing softly easily Moreover, movements softly controlled so that the dancers apparently glide over the ground. They do not sink into it as would into the rich earth of Teuton or nor rise they Slav, do they abruptly offit like the or mountain Czech, Polish, Georgian people. The even is also marked in the quality complicated Morris and Sword Dances, which are still of the love of fine outstanding examples Englishman's crartsmanship. Unlike the Morris and Sword Dances of other die countries, where leap is either performed at the end of an enchaJnement or, in more primitive areas, whenever the dancer feds

in the balanced is inspired, England regularly jigging movement punctuated by high that are distributed the leaps evenly throughout dance. In addition, the arms are kept to fit the foot movements. tie dancer moving evenly throughout, As jigs, so the handker- chieves flutter and are or gracefully up down, slings twirled, coconuts regularly beaten.

the both arms arc raised above the increase its With leap head to height, and ifthe dancer

moves the hand on the same side as the raised foot at the It is in sideways, goes up leap. that the TRnglkh Morris, too, one gets the fegfmatrpg "balancing" before a caper. Here one the the men pose lightly on toe, other leg raised in front, and balance their arms before the delicately sideways they perform leap. In the whether use like tie Skelton Sword Dances, they running steps, North men, or complicated beaten movements with feet in dogs lie the Grenoside team, the dancers are piflintain the evenly balanced quality throughout, as arms and bodies swiftly dropped, in to the and while it twisted, and turned order keep group moving smoothly easily

its the linked swords. The in such dances is makes complex patterns with only pause a and in the that in the Morris, where the men pause for a caper in slow movement, in Swords, when the leader raises the interlocked swords on high. Incidentally, some of

these dances, each man takes it in turn to raise the Lock, and this again adds to the even the dance. quality of

Patterns Intricacy of

for its floor These English folk dance is most interesting choreographically patterns. in absolute contrast to the of the arc often extremdy complicated, and simple steps in the Dances such as dancers. They take many different shapes, particularly Country and a circular set the Morpeth Rant, a longways set; Newcastle, is at its most in tie linked Sword Dances, But the intricacy of pattern interesting of the is until the when every possible way changing interweaving figures exploited, swordsarelinkedtogetherhtkl^ Tlierascinationof each man these dances is to watch the pattern gradually taking shape, moving individually

io (6411) 166 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE but in so far as his affects the as a whole and only particular movement group helps the

to its the group achieve purpose, the making of Lock

Dances in Three Sections

Another feature dances is that one sometimes finds a important of English dance the of with three distinct musical sections, instead of normal two most western European and these are not contrasted in emotional content countries, although directly they have distinct melodies, and sometimes different rhythms. This gives an unusual aspect to an otherwise evenly balanced form. Gathering Peascods, Rufty-Tufiy, Hit and Miss, and

Staines Morris from the first edition of are tunes of this Playford's Dancing Master, type. It must also be mentioned that there exist some very old folk songs in 5/4 rhythm. Some in the of these were undoubtedly dance-songs, which dancers' movements coincided with the actual of the as still do in a few of the children's rhythm words, they singing But these were the first to games. possibly be suppressed by puritanical zealots because of their and no such dances exist significance, to-day.

Steps

In the folk dances, consist of little more than smooth or steps running walking steps to the beats of the bar that two are taken in a or regular is, steps 2/2 6/8 rhythm and three in a or or in a or the or steps 3/2 9/8 rhythm; skipping slipping step, hop dosing of the feet is together performed on die last quarter or last third of a beat In the Morris are based on two Dances, steps very simple movements; the first in which the dancer feet with a or mere changes jump, slide, closing, and the second in which he or offboth feet or offtie foot on which he has keepsjigging, leaps been hopping 55. A tremendous ofmovement can be evolved from this (Ex. page 168). variety simple for there are of and the beginning, many ways twisting swinging working leg. Moreover, it is to note that in movements the dancer important many appears** to hold himself in *./ .1 4 . 1 - ._

h the Sword and Morris Dances when dogs are worn, the rhythms beaten by the feet become since each beat can be divided into extremely complicated, halves, quarters, or the slick action of the foot triplets by moving flexibly from the ankle. The most of dance in the complicated steps English appear traditional dog dancing the miners of among I^ncashire, Yorkshire, Durham, and Northumberland. It was from these that the English tap dancing devdoped, which has become almost world- famous. In such dances is found the neat footwork, easy movement, and evenly balanced bodies and that are notable rhythm always in English dance. The English Folk, Morris, and Sword Dances have been Country, fully covered in numerous books Cecil J. and Novello and Co. by Sharp published by Sellenger's Round (Ex.56,pagpi7o)indudcdh^ The Morris Jig, Shepherd's from the Hey, Headington is a solo and some idea of the group gives ordinary steps used in a Morris. The hand-clapping is, however, unusual for England (Ex. 55, page 168). THE CELTS 167

EXAMPLE 54 SWEET KATE

A. Bars i to 4. lead a Joubk and back a to is Couples up M Mle places. (A Mk 3 with R. and finished running steps beginning ft, by dosing the feet together on 4th step.)

Bars 5 to 8. Repeat this movement

B. Bari. Partners face each other, on ft on simulr (i) Spring lighdy L (4). Hop L ft, R. ft. and it from to left to hit taneously raising swinging right partner's

Bar 2. Repeat, springing on to R. ft

Bach dancer own hands. Partner's each other's R. hands Bars. (i) claps (4) dap

together.

Bar 4.

Each dancer runs their hatnk round as if Bars. (i, 2, 3) round and winding wool

6. bar index Bar Repeat 5 shaking L fingers.

to Bars 7 and 8. Each dancer turns a single on their own (Lc, dance a double turning round

Repeat whole ofB.

Second A. Partners side with each Le. forward a Ule each other L part. other, passing by shoulder, turn and come back along the same track.

B. Repeat as above.

with the with a and then arm with the L Thirdpart A. Partners arm R., running step,

B. Repeat as above.

(FromPkyford's and Co.) 168 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 55

MORRIS JIG

(Headington Tradition)

(From The Morris Book Part H by Cecil Sharp and Herbert C. Madlwaine)

' 7 A JL O' unusual Tie performer dances facing his audience and makes no movement backwards or forwards. dance is and restrained. The quiet

first to are the The 4 bars (known as "Once yourself") played and dancer waits, feet together, jumping off both feet on the last half-bar. He raises both hands on the jump.

A Shake-up ist bar. with R. run and on R. ft in Starting ft, 3 steps hop place, dropping hands on beat I,

2nd raising them on the hop.

2nd bar. ist Repeat bar, starting with L ft

bar. Cross-back 3rd step

1. R. ft behind Swing L so that big toe touches heel of L ft

2. Twist on both toes and feet open slightly apart Circle arms inwards during these 2 beats.

3,4. Repeat, swingingL ft behind and drding arms.

4th bar. i, 2. R. ft behind as before and hold Swing position.

feet 3. Jump together. Swing arms upwards.

4- Step on to L. ft

Repeat these 4 bars. THE CELTS rip

EXAMPLE 55 (cent.)

ist bar. i, 2. Clap hands together twice.

3, 4. Bend down ;

facing front

ist bar 2nd bar. Repeat touching L. calf with L. hand.

2. hands 3rd bar. i, dap together twice.

Lift ft 3. R. and dap hands under R. knee.

4. Stamp R. ft.

4th bar. I. lift L ft and dap hands under L knee. 2. dap hands behind back.

3.4- 1

Bars 5-8. Repeat above 4 bars.

Now continue repeating A and B, but in the first repetition of JB myt>^ of touching rajfi breast with R. hand and arm as if a Vi then touch L. touch R. open immediately blowing t breast JB, second repetition, touch side of cheeks with R. and L. hands. B, third repetition,

of with and hands. but i.e. touch side head R. L Finally repeat A, perform 4 capers, 4 high

with R. ft, and hands in air with each last 2 bars. springs starting circling spring during

Shepherd's Hey 170 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 56

SELLENGER'S ROUND or AT THE BEGINNING OF THE WORLD

as as hold R. hands Round for many will Men partners'

ist Part

A. i 8 chassis to the left and 8 chassis Bars to 8. AH join hands in a circle and perform to the to tight, returning places.

B. Bars i and 2. all take 2 to the centre. Starting with R. ft., singles (Stogie is, spring lightly to take on toe which is at side of on R. ft., weight momentarily L placed then fell back on to R. ft., immediately R ft.)

Bars and All fall a double to 3 4. back places.

Bars to 8. Partners set and turn 5 single.

Repeat above 8 bars.

2nd Part

A. Bars i to All hands with dance a 4. join and, starting R. ft, double into the centre, and

Bars 5 to 8. Repeat bars i to 4.

B. Repeat as in first part

3rd Part

X. Bars i to Partners side with each other. 4. (Sec Sweet Kate.)

Bars to 8. 5 Repeat bars i to 4.

B. as in Repeat first part. jtkPart

X.Barsito4- Partners arm with the R.

Bars5to8. Partners arm with the L

B. Repeat as in first part A

tone is not in but is the version used and (This Playford, by Byrd, arranged by Cecil Sharp in The kind of Novello Country DanceBook,No. 4. By permission and Co.) THE CELTS 171

WALES

are a nation of whose tunes are Scot and Irishman. The Welsh singers, echoed by Breton, Yet few Welsh tunes have a dancing rhythm, for they are predominantly solemn and sad, and to-day there are in Wales few traces of the dances that were once shared with other Celtic peoples. This solemnity and lack of dance tradition is explained by the influences that have the lives the Welsh. religious always dominated of the Christianity did not die out with the Roman withdrawal from Britain and were so each onslaught of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. These pagan peoples busy fighting land ofthe "mountains other for supremacy over England, that they scarcely penetrated the the Christian continued and dales." Behind the valuable protection of Ofra's Dyke priests missionaries to serve their flocks, spreading their missionary work to Ireland, whence later returned to re-convert the inhabitants of England, who were now pagan again. In written manuscripts of this period (eleventh and twelfth centuries) by monks, descriptions similar to those found other Celtic races. are given ofreligious processional dances, among to the in after battles had The Welsh finally submitted English King 1282, many were their Bards been fought in which the Welsh always encouraged by singing songs of heroes and victories, similar to those produced at present-day Eisteddfods. By this more tolerant in their attitude to the and time the Tfrgfali had become conquered, apart from the introduction ofnew kws, the Welsh were allowed to speak their own language, their to etain their own customs and live, as before, under the surveillance of priests; at castles built to out fresh these were added the English clerics, in attendance great keep invaders. was Because of this connection between the Welsh and English clergy, Wales always troubles of From time to time she was embroiled in the religious England. swept by occurred in the Revivalist movements. The most important of these eighteenth century and mission the when certain Welshmen promoted an educational religious among their aim to teach them to read the Bible and save their illiterate peasants, being thereby influence where dance is for souls. These leaders had a particularly strong concerned, such a outlook that old whose they gave die Welsh puritanical many people, memory believed that should show of the dances might have helped research workers, firmly they to the outside would be condemned to eternal damnation. any dance steps world, they at a revival of Welsh folk This attitude to the dance has so tar prevented any attempts dance from being successful. of the However some traces remain. Lady Hanover tried to preserve something intricate olddances. The famous Uanover Reel, which has fifiecn figures ofan character, as another Llanover This is a form of has the same curious step dance, RiifWyth. polka the the heel of the foot and is before . with a syncopated beat on working performed just at the end of four or bars. Both dances have hop. The dancers also stamp every eight Dances. There is also a smilarfonns to those of Scottish and English Country vigorous 172 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

which movement to revive what is believed to lave been Welsh dog dancing, resembles

Irish and is step dancing quite expressionless. and this that their The Welsh arc, however, largely a mountain people suggests ... . . < . . / 1 i / i 11 1 let themselves go. told Mrs. a student of Welsh The following story, by Hyllarie Johnston, great dance, to the ofWelsh dance. Afier that booklet may give some due problems explaining every continues on Welsh dance mentions the Wood fcmily of Bala, she

is a and a friend of with whom I often "Now Jim Wood gipsy very good mine, go I had seen him and his brother and had held fishing. Some years ago Llewellyn dance, conversation which I my own theories about the dances. Perhaps the following hdd with him at the local inn may be of interest 'Where did you learn your dances, Jim?' hie in the for 'Well they've been handed down from my family family generations, like/

dances are of Irish aren't 'Jim, your origin, they?' 'Yes, ma'am. They is more Irish than anything else.' Then, you old bandit, why have you let these writers, etc., quote you as an exponent of old Welsh dance?'

a has the *Well, ma'am (with very sheepish grin) none of them had education to see as wasn't and I never told them as takes it for they Welsh, they waspeople just granted that because I lives in the dances must be and should I tell them as Bala, Welsh, why they

IRELAND

Irish dance is a reflection of the dual nature-of the Irish a nation perfect people, curiously divided in itself there are two distinct there is the styles. First, gay spontaneous dancing at the which can into a most village Ceilidhes, develop glorious, free-for-all romp, in which all can a caller often the Such dances are as join, shouting figures. invigorating an as the brilliant conversation of a and are a true experience loquacious Irishman, expression of the will to live and themsdves in their people's enjoy own way. Secondly, there is the solo of the highly professional dancing competitive Feis hdd in the towns. This is a matter of technical in which the alone a purdy accomplishment legs pky part The half of the is hdd erect but and the arms to the so upper body passive, hang stiffly sides, that me dancer's whole attitude seems He or she never utterly expressionless. responds to the and emotional tunes that the haunting accompany resdess tapping feet Itisasifthey were themsdves to behave in a manner to some willing proper according rigidly framed command, instead of tbemsdves and the letting go allowing music to guide them into an world of exciting warm, expansive movement. THE CELTS 173

This difference in dance can be Ireland's striking styles only explained by studying historical complex background, which is full of contradictions. This complicated story cannot be told here. The reader is referred to Scan O'Faolain's brilliant book, The in which he describes the Irish, many dements that go to the making of his countrymen's character and mini one or two which are related to Nevertheless, points specifically the dance must be noted.

the Celtic settlers converted to in the fourth When early were Christianity century A.D., in the Irish into more the new priests, adapting fantastically imaginative legends something the their in keeping with new faith, managed to preserve something of magical properties, die into saints for and used the by transforming old gods (Saint Patrick, example), in the their allowed the pagan style of ornamentation illumination of manuscripts. They the peasants to retain those same qualities in their tunes and dances, only banning more pagan elements of ritual were of two the one an aesthete who withdrew from the world These priests types, of the and the and the other ofa more to contemplate things spirit mortify flesh, worldly nature who tried to minister to the widely scattered tribes ma o>untry where communica- This rise to two distinct forms of tions always offered great problems. gave Catholicism, which came into conflict with one another. Later they both came into conflict with over Ireland in Protestant reformers when the Tudors extended English Sovereignty troubles the almost lack of the sixteenth century. These religious explain complete to find in such a backward and also the ancient ritual which one would expect country, one on the feet and the other awarm two types of dance- concentrating alone, pulsating stream of life.

coastal but the The Danish invasion of the ninth century affected only the areas, ir^uenceOTtk m the more accessible later invasion by Normans had considerable peasants and were built It them better valleys where roads, towns, abbeys taught husbandry

the work of Irish who to the life. It also added a courtly element to poets, began adapt to their own formal and added elaborate conventions of Provencal poetry traditions, to certain dances which to be in the newly built an air of sophistication began practised the hvaders, castles. Some of these dances took the &ncy of sixteentln^tury EngM Hizabedb. Trenchmore is and one hears of their being performed at d_court.cQueen which Rinnce the old Irish dance, Rinnce Fada Dance), of an adaptation of peasant (Long is a modern version. Others can be found in Mor (Great Dance) (Ex. 58, page 177) the services Master. When such dances were at court, Playford's Dwdng performed efforts of masters were to their crudities, and it is me of dancing required prune away mat has the Irish dancers of their expression, these gentlemen deprived professional to throw off rule under in When the Revolutionary movement English got way was drawn to their nineteenth the attention of all of Irish artists the early century, types to the of such schools as the own national traditions. This gave rise founding .dancing m EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

amousonesofLimerictKerry.andCorL Insudmartifidalenvi^ that came the elaboration of the of was vital, and with elsewhere, the polishing steps these masters itsfootwork. Unfortunately, dancing outstandingfeatureofafllrishdance: and no attention s dances ofthe remote countryside, paid were not interested in the people When the of whichstill remain ina few ofthem. pupils to the occupational gestures, thdr to their homes to impose polished style such dancing masters returned they began some of its wii the result that dancing lost spontaneity. on that of the peasants, village and this is ofarm movement that was practised, rarely Moreover, the only thing by way seen in the danced to was a movement with a clenched fist, Jig seen to-day, threatening

what is known as a 'Tune of Occupation." them from other tunes because it is difficult to These tunes are interesting distinguish of between the Ireland or Scotland. The constant interchange population played in of tune. In addition, certain English Irish and Scots has led to a constant interchange both nations from during times characteristics have been acquired by English regiments and take between the sailors of all three countries. of war, and by the constant give Scottish and Irish the of tune and between dances, Yet, despite similarity pattern features their dances a more downward type Ireland's climate and physical give village and sometimes an look. Moreover the Irishman's ofmovement, a more fluid style, untidy and brilliant of when conversing seem equally love of elaborate eloquence fights fency

to affect his feet.

The Elaboration of Step

it is Irish communal dances are based on some five Although most simple steps, form. at the of an that one sees them in their original usually only beginning evening warmed and the and Guinness flow, so the dancers add As the group gets up whisky extra and shuffles. A can be worked more and more taps, stamps, very good example a on the left the out by fiHng as basis simple jump foot, simultaneously pointing right when the dancer on the left foot in font on the floor. The second stage arrives hops the foot The third finds the dancer on the foot before pointing right stage hopping the foot on the floor twice with the ball of die foot. The left foot and then tapping right involve the dancer on the left foot, twice with the fourth stage may hopping tapping on to the left foot and then the foot ball of the right foot, stepping again swinging right the toe on the floor. This elaboration can be carried just behind the left and resting right i .1 out to an amaying length, deal of this elaboration arises from the feet that the Irish now use the same A great

for dances in either Red or i.e., a or arid a 6/ 8 or occasion- basic steps Jig time, 2/4 4/4, and in order to fit the more some elaboration is needed, ally 9/8 rhythm, steps easily

of the music is lost or the dancer loses a otherwise the rhythmic quality speed, thing transcribe the unheard of in Ireland once the run has started. It is impossible to steps dancer himself to the for he suits himself. In a similar of the village fitting music, way THE CELTS 175 it is impossible to transcribe the intricate of the stepping professional at the Feis. The are the following steps base on which all work. It is usual to count the in a Jig 6/8 rhythm ac if it -ow^ >/ A as if it were 2/4.

i.

and forwards onL R. Hop ft, raising ft,, pointed forwards. 1. Step forwards on R. ft. and Bring L toe to hed of R. ft. 2. forwards on R. ft., L. behind R. Step raising slightly Repeat commencing with R. ft.

2. in The Seven, or Red, two bars of music and is a kind of Jig rquires queer pivot step (Ex. 59, page 178).

3. Two Threes, in or Reel, two bars of musk and is a Jig rquires pas-de-iourrle type of step (Ex. 57, page 176).

4. or Rise and is found in It Rising Step, Grind, only Jigs. rquires two bars ofmusic and is a of the elaboration of a It good example simple step. is counted as 3 beats to a bar

The Rise

1. on Hop L ft., slighdy raising R. leg w& 2. on ft. and R. to hed of without Hop L bring L, touching ground. 3. Step on R. ft. behind L

The Grind * I. on R. L. behind Hop lightly ft., bring R. hed.

2. Beat R. ft. on floor.

and Beat L ft. on floor.

Beat ft. floor 3. R. on and pause.

These beats are done and the is the very quickly body kept over right foot

Side is found in Reels takes four bars. It 5. Step only, and combines the Seven Mowed

Two Threes. It is then in the direction bythe usually repeated opposite (Exs.57,58). Other are known as and double and doulk steps single shuffles, single drumming, single and double and down but these are in the nature battering, up tipping, Kerry tipping, adding, and are found in the solo and of step dancing only Reels, Jigs Hornpipes. and are favourite dances and have similar to those of Both Red Jig figures Country

is a character accent in the It Dances. The Reel generally of smoother with one bar. can danced or sixteen The solo Red is often in be by four, six, eight, twelve, people. two one and the other more The has an portions, simple complicated. Jig altogether 176 E UROPEAN FOLK DANCE

livelier and movement and can be or jerkier danced by three, four, eight people. The solo also has two and often has to be to the Jig parts specially arranged owing irregular form of the a of music, phrase eight bars being followed by one of six. There is also a or in a for two which can be Hop Slip Jig 9/8 rkythm people, particularly lively. It was the that came under so bans the sixteenth and Jig many during seventeenth centuries,

because it was believed that the minstrels who its incited sang accompaniment the people to revolt. Its stirring rhythms certainly seem well suited for this purpose, and there was a time when arm movements and a vigorous flourishing shillelaghs played large part in the dance. These have ncxw been all but in the same that all expurgated, way significant arm movements have been eliminated from die Irish The Hornpipes. only thing remaining of its is the seafaring origin rocking movements common to sailors' dances all over tie world. An odd result of aJl this would seem to be the Irish dancers' suppression tendency to keep the weight backwards, and to move backwards more than forwards. The elimination of the of the significant movement, ignoring rhythmic qualities of the music and tie of the characteristic will lead to generalizing steps the complete disappearance of the real Irish dance. For into contact with the villagers coming highly technical footwork of the town-trained dancer become embarrassed when dancing in their own in to way public, preferring take the line of least resistance, and either sit out or wander round to modem ballroom tunes. Moreover there are no Irish regiments to the dance alive as national keep regiments did in Srodand, Poland, and Htmgary in timw

EXAMPLE 57 TWO-THREES In or Reel 2 Jig time, requires bars

i. Titl a of the R. sligkswing leg bringR. toe behind heel ofL. ft. 2

(tad Step obliquely forwards on L ft.

2. Bring R. toe to heel of L ft Pause.

Eepcat,l)egpiningbyswmgm Hft

From "Rakes of Mallow"

etc THE CELTS 177

EXAMPLE 58 RINNCEMOR

(The Big or Great Dance)

Danced to any good reel tune. There are 2 sections of 8 bars, which are repeated. dance for as as will hold R. hands. Round many couples Men partner's

All a circle centre and a A. Bars 1-4. join hands m facing the perform

Bars to the 5-8. Repeat side-step moving right

Bars 1-4. Each man swings woman on his left clockwise.

Bars 5-8. Both turn and swing round counter-clockwise.

clockwise. B, Bars 9-12. Man now swings own partner

Bars 13-16. Partners turn and swing counter-clockwise.

link Bars 9 and 10. Each ipan R. arm with woman on his left and turns.

Bars II and 12. Partners now link L arms and turn.

link on his left and turns. Bars 13 and 14. Each man R. arm with woman

crosses hands and turns to on Bars 15 and 16. Man goes to his own partner, place partner

Next 8 or 16 bars. All face counter-clockwise and lead round.

dance from new as often as wished. Repeat position,

and cross hands hold. Lead round with Prowwwi.) (NJB. Swing using pivot step

Rakes of Mallow 17 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

BXAMPO 59 THE SEVEN

In or 2 bars of music Jig Red time, requires

Injig Time

i. on toes of both R. in front Jump lightly, landing feet, of L. and

and on toe ofR. ft i Step sideways

2. on behind Step heavily L ft, just R

and i and 2. last two movements twice Repeat more pausing on last

SCOTLAND

Scotland's follows as a Although history complicated pattern as that of Ireland, many of her ancient dance forms can still be traced in the extremely lively dances performed throughout the This can be the country to-day. explained by intense pride every Scot has in his race and traditions, and tie fact that Scot seems to be a by nearly every potential dancer, despite his reputed dour character and careful nature.

This in is first recorded prowess dancing by the historian Tacitus, who mentions

*! j. / Cr *ur*vu. iswvruouu in }

to the dances alive the Calvinists and Regiments helped keep when struggles between and and and Scotland were at their Catholics, Royalists Jacobites, England height.

reason the still Another was peculiar construction of the-dan system, which plays some in Scotland's social the various clans into which Scotland part history. The members of divided were descendants actual chief was early of an or mythological ancestor. The these from both clan and the in which lived their of groups, whom territory they got names, was in theory the owner of that land and director of the clan's activities. Hewas

an It rule that each laird had so to not, however, absolute autocrat was an accepted

a natural features food and clothing no easy task in land where the physical continually in the of and industrial put obstacles way proper agricultural development. Nevertheless, tie members ofthe clan were from this important rule there developed a system by which die and in time the fulfilment of that became the deputed to various tasks, particular job function of one family. tie case with those families who stood closest to the chief and This was particularly such duties as and and without performed Piper, Sword-bearer, Bodyguard, Soldiers, die of chiefs. whom he would have been incapable ofwithstanding onslaught neighbouring with his clan and was thus con- In addition, the chief always lived in dose contact kept

its Like a fadier he had to listen to their their standy aware of needs. complaints, outspoken a no matter how has never been comments and openly given advice, for Scotsman, poor, for and considers himself as as else. It is this afraid to speak up himself, good anyone that has led the Scot to invent so solo dances. strongly individuaKstic trait many the chiefs and mek followers was not lost when die The dose rektionship between of Scodand. The fashions and manners chiefs began to pay homage to the Kings diey at court influenced the traditional ceremonies and rituals, which had acquired gradually their more dements with die been sedulously maintained, losing only pagan country's

conversion to Christianity. dements die dance was die One of die first important influencing undoubtedly the death of French fashions introduced by Mary Queen of Scots on her return after who to Francis L Among her retinue came musicians and dancing masters, began organize court entertainments m die manner ofrnose ofCatherine de Media The chiefs and dieir were stalwart men in and various bodyguards, all ofwhom young proficient sword-play took and no doubt tamed and their wilder dances to Highland pursuits, part polished fit for make them more polite society. masters continued to be fdt for some time for, The influence of foreign dancing of the Scottish with the accession ofJames VI to die throne Engjand, King's bodyguard, 1 came into contact widi further court fashions and dances, composed of chieftains sons, an the constant which were now devdoping extremdy polished technique. Despite and friction between the various Scottish fictions and die two countries, religious political and old these continued to and the many Calvinistic edicts banning the dances rituals, i8o EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE be and further with the return of the various clansmen from practised, acquired polish service at court, or from the wars abroad.

real of Scottish dance came after the of the Act of The perfecting Repeal Proscription with the to in 1782. The attempt of Prince Charles Stewart, in affiance French, recapture act of which tried his kingdom, had been immediately followed by this savage 1746, to to clan and all Scottish national the for- put an end the system feelings. Among things the of on bidden were the playing of the bagpipes and wearing Highland costume, pain to the colonies. as in other countries when of transportation Strangely enough, happened similar bans were enforced, this had a reverse effect to that which had been desired. It

with in an fashion. The first the greater intensity, "underground" Highland regiment, of Scottish Black Watch, had been raised in 1739; it was entirely composed clansmen chiefs to the House of under their own officers, mostly sons of prominent loyal Hanover, and their uniform was their own Highland costume. By 1782, when the Act of Pro- was more than battalions had been all scription repealed, twenty Highland raised, wearing their traditional costume and all keeping up their traditional ceremonies and dances as travelled to the battles. they abroad fight King's With the of the soldiers from these to a repeal Act, regiments began pky prominent in founded the various clan chiefs societies to stimulate part competitions by and interest in Scottish traditions. from all the clans Hereditary pipers leading pkyed against each and dancers from the and the other, regiments polished, perfected, enlarged steps of the solo and male group dances tinder the eye of a regimental dancing master. Other

the various chiefs to balls at which clan tartans were worn all give grand by present. also created dances the They special based on ancient Celtic forms in honour of some member of the house. Both and Lowlanders Highlanders joined vigorously in this which travelled further than its native The Act of movement, country. Proscription had broken the clan and Scots up system many emigrated and helped found the British colonies, their customs and dances with them. In taking addition, particularly during the Peninsular and Crimean Scottish introduced their wars, Regiments lively dances to other countries, where still are these is the they practised. Among Strip Willow

6*5, known as La in France and as La Virra (Ex. page 190), Boulangere Extrapassado in u

The unbroken of Scottish dance and its continued history performance thus keeps aliva Scotland's link with her Celtic The of the ancestry. similarity Sword Dance of Papa Stour in the Hebrides and that of the Baccubert dancers in the Dauphin^ has been noted D. G. MacLennan. The Dirk almost by Dance, now forgotten, links the Scots with then- ancestors. Scottish Dance in form and Viking Country pattern follows that of the other Celtic and Teutonic countries. But in methods of performance the Scot is very different In the first he the characteristics of all mountain place possesses people. His extreme THE CELTS 181

neat and are dictated the lightness, footwork, delicately balanced body by country's and these have been the as the physical features, qualities acquired by Lowlanders, High- His landers were driven south by England's deliberate breaking-up of the dans. move- are ments also more upwards than along, and this is one important difference between in Scottish and Irish But there are also other to be taken into the steps dancing. elements account

The Snap

of Scottish dance is more notable because of The light, upwards quality particularly feature as a subtle alliance between certain movements and the peculiar musical known

This is also found the and and the Snap. among Hungarian finno-Ugrian groups, may the This feature consists therefore have been of Finnish origin and brought by Vikings. It and of a semiquaver immediately followed by a dotted quaver. usually opens appears the oldest dance tunes or The short note is not an anacrusis throughout Strathspeys. in the last of a bar. It is the first note and therefore marks the first appearing period

or It one to . beat, although played sung very lightly. serves, might say, give impetus sounds and is stressed but does not mark the to the dotted quaver, which always loudly at and in actualbeat The best dancers village festivities, C^edonian balls, Army groups react to mis Instead of a before the first beat, instinctively peculiarity. anticipating step lift into the air on the so that their foot hits the ground as it is sounded, they themselves a or offone or both and arrive on the first semiquaver or beat with hop jump feet, ground note which occurs after the first beat on the dotted quaver or more prominent just This means that the dancer's first movement and accent is upwards and not downwards this subtle affiance of movement and musk as is usual in European countries. As appears the and other it and throughout Strathspeys, Reels, dances, lightens changes considerably as the basic the and others. the look of such steps polka-like strathspey step, pas-de-basque the of the because the dancer has no time to his It quickens hiring process dance, press to mate the more usual for a The heels, heels firmly into the ground preparation jump. do touch die act as an extra to the of if they ever ground, only springboard strength the of the into the air. But this ankle, knee, and calf muscles to propel weight body as the of the is carried so forwards on the toes rarely happens, weight body delicately are in a state of that me knees and thighs kept high elasticity. the for a movement in the dance that whenever the So strong is urge rising Snap as those of the Hebridean occurs in the musk, even with such simple running steps themselves on the or first Weaving Lilt one sees the dancers raising lightly semiquaver before the dotted with a This reminds one beat in anticipation, noticing quaver stamp. a backwards in order to set it in of a spinning-wheel being given slight swing properly motion. have die dancers for have a scale Bagpipes, whkh accompanied many generations, rise to more unusual -intervals and thus to the rises of nine notes. This gives lilting ite EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

and falls in the tunes for It also to account for the since it is dancing. helps Snap, necessary to have a short intake of breath before blowing out the note, and as this intake is not

soundless it has become the But it must be noted that the necessarily semiquaver. Snap is also found in mouth in and so is the music, especially Hungary, great urge to tnqfcp this sound that the often add it to diek as the dancers preparatory singers song deliberately add the to their preparatory jump steps.

Elaboration of Step

Like all with Celtic people or Viking ancestors, the Highlanders love ornamentation in their dress. also love elaboration of but it is to note They step, important that, imljlcf the who elaborate their the the Scot Irish, steps by beating floor, usually beats his feet in the air This lends an soundlessly. again upwards quality to the dance, for if one has to

jjmw .. i unity WAVLB v .-.|vj jju. UUV OJU. VAUV JA"-J IAJ 0ULV JLU UMf ALL UUUtU JLLOvUUJJL Vl d KUUiiU 1UU|CX. It is most noticeable in the and double and doubk single shuffles, single highrcuts, and shakes. These are not difficult to without only perform much practice but also to describe. The following is a rough outline. The on to R. L. Skjfr-spring lightly ft, throwing slightly forwards with toe brush it on to R. and out pointed, instep immediately again. The three movements occupy one beat Repeat beginning with L ft

The on to R. ft., L to side and Highrcut spring opening leg slightly immediately beat it behind R. calf with knee well Tlis one opened sideways. occupies beat Repeat bcsinmn& on L. it *

The Shake in Seann off both R. (as Triubhas) spring feet, raising leg to side and it from knee downwards with toe well This shaking pointed. occupies one beat. It is also with the as in the performed shaking leg pointed obliquely forwards, fling.

Steps

~ ~ >* v* HIIW S/ -~f WbttULUL/V T OJULVt XVvVl) JLVJ1 WCY CUG UIC U

or used in Strathspey step Figure of 8, figure dancing

1. GlideforwardsonR.it

2. CloseLrt behind R. heel

3. Glide forwards on R. ft

4- off R. ft, ft with Hop lightly bringing L toe pointed to R. shin. THE CELTS 1*3

1. Glide forwards on R. ft.

and Close L ft. behind R.

before with L 2. Glide forwards again on R. ft. and pause repeating

Schottische two bars of music 60, This The Highland step requires (Ex. page 185). the Triubhas. It should also be with the side has a lovely variation in Seann compared its of Irish dance and and and the difference between step (Ex. 59 57, pages 178 176), latter's downwards movement noted. upwards and the of the also two bars 61, Another interesting step Strathspey requires (Ex. page 186).

Some Reel steps

2. two bars Swinging step, requiring

in on to it in of L ft., 1. Begbning with R. ft. well stretched front, step place cut backwards. which is immediately (thrust)

on to ft. and R. ft. forwards. 2. Repeat the cut, stepping L cutting

the on to R. ft. and L ft. backwards. 3. Repeat cut, stepping cutting

andstretchLft. R. shin as L ft. through. 4. HoponR.fi. forwards, beating passes

on to ft. and R. ft. backwards. 1. Cut by stepping L cutting

stretch R. ft. L shin as it through. 2. Hop on L ft. and forwards, beating passes ft backwards. these two cutting L 3 and 4. Repeat movements, beginning by

the and Reels this is reduced and mixed with pas- In some Country Dances step

one bar 3. A step requiring

to on R. ft. I and 2. Pos-deJasyte right, beginning with R. ft. in front two of feet, first change 3 and 4. Perform changes finishing and the second with L ft. in front

whole movement to the left. Repeat

are the xd * step. In the Country Dances, the principal steps pas-de-lwyte progressive it is called ta^ When this latter is danced to a Strathspey,

forwards or on R. ft. 1. Step sideways to R. 2. Bring L ft. 184 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

or on R. ft. 3. Step forwards sideways

on R. ft. ft. well in front 4. Hop raising L pointed

and the occurs on the When danced to Reel time, it is called Skip-change-of-step hop last half-beat of a bar.

Arms

Sometimes both arms The arm movements in Highland dances are very graceful shoulder but are not closed above the head. At others, are raised sideways from the level, Sometimes the arms describe a one arm is held aloft, and the other on the hip. circle, if to balance the who often dances on one This and they are always used as dancer, spot makes the footwork very neat.

Dances

are the favourite forms of dance at all Scottish festivities. The Reels and Strathspeys the oldest The Three-Handed Reel for one man and two ladies is possibly form, and

is a derivation of this. The Four- the Country Bumpkin, a very old country dance, dance and the now one handed Reels have given rise to other country forms, Eightsome,

is founded on a much older Red and was some of the most popular of dances, designed for one of the balls at Atholl 85 years ago (Ex. 64, page 189). take of in all The men's solo and group dances always pride place Highland Games sword dance Gillie Callum is one of the most and Competitions. The fascinating, being

its the In it danced over the sword and scabbard lying crossed on ground. popularity is followed the Broad-sword Dance for four men. This is closely by Argyll interesting as it refcuns the men's swords as if were still It is tk clashing of they fighting. performed only by Scottish Regiments. The fling (Ex. 62, page 186) is also very intricate, and

delicate balance and as it is to be on the requires precision, supposed performed "targe" or shield the warrior. Seann Triubhas is a solo version a of The of Strathspey, and has wonderful and because the at it is grace elegance of slow tempo which most of performed. Most of the older dances of Scotland, both solo and group, are in two sections. The one slow and sometimes even and the other and vivacious. This stately, sad, quick gives them an emotional like quality those of more eastern Europeans. The dancers reflect this change by their quick reactions to the diangem rhythm and tune, and by the alteration of their and into an of and dignified upright carriage exciting display leaps capers, sometimes fervent and even an occasional outburst punctuated by cries, by of original As as that is not steps. long spirit curbed, Scottish dance will continue to live and to there is that the dancers will lose the of change, although danger country lilting quality their dances through too much concentration on technique. THE CELTS

EXAMPLE 00

HIGHLAND SCHOTHSCHE

No. I in the Step Strathspey

off Hop L ft, pointing R. ft. to side in air.

2. Hop off L. ft bringing R. toe behind L. calf.

off!, ft. to in air. 3. Hop ft, pointing R. side

I. Glide sideways on R. ft

2. Bring L ft. behind R. ft.

ft 3. Glide sideways on R.

off R. ft. behind R. ankle, 4, Hop lightly ft, bringingL

From "Braes ofTulimet" Strathspey 186* EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

ECAMPIB 6l

STEP NO. 3 OF STRATHSPEY

i. Glide on R. ft. obliquely forwards

2. ft. to R. ankle. Hop off R. ft, bringing L up

3. Step back on L ft

to side. 4. Shake R. leg out

L Glide R. ft. behind L ft.

2. Step sideways on L ft.

3. Pass R. ft. in front of L ft.

off R. ft. 4. Hop ft., bringing L to front of R. shin.

EXAMPLE 62

THE HIGHLAND FLING

Danced in to 4/4 any good Strathspey. This is D. G. MacLennan's version. ist step: ^unltkLcg istbar. i. and R. toe to side on Spring up point floor, raising L arm over head, R. hand on hip. 2. on Hop L ft., bringing R. up behind L cal on 3. L ft., R. ft. forwards so that R. heel rests Hop passing just below L. knee. on 4. Hop L, passing R. ft. again behind Lcal THE CELTS 187

EXAMPLE 62 (cent.)

2nd bar. "Round the with Repeat Leg" L ft., reversing arms on ist beat bar. "Round the with 3rd Repeat Leg" R ft., reversing arms on ist beat bar. "Round the with arms on beat i and 4th Repeat Leg" L ft., reversing making one turn to the complete right on beats 2, 3 and 4.

these with toe to raised and the Repeat 4 bars, starting L pointed side, R. arm L hand on hip.

2nd step: Back-stepping

istbar. i. and toe to sior, i^g L am ^ hip.

2. Spring up and bring R. toe behind L. calf.

3. Spring up and point R toe to side on floor. 4. Spring up and bring R heel in front and under L knee.

2nd bar. and ft. Quickly pass R. behind L calf. 1. on to R. Spring ft., raising both hands above nead. and and and this the 2, i, 4. Repeat circular movement with Land again with tie R.and ft. are dose and to round each L (Legs very appear map other.) these 2 bars with L. Repeat starting ft., R arm raised. Repeat all 4 bars.

Toe and Heel yd step: Step

ist the raised. bar. "Round Leg" with R ft., L arm

2nd bar. I. R. ft. and L. toe in front of R, ft. Spring up landing on placing (jth position).

Both hands on nips.

2. off R. ft. and L. heel in front of R. ft Hop place

feet toe and heel with R. ft. 3. 4. Change and repeat movement 3rd bar. Repeat toe and heel movement with L and R. feet bar. and one turn to the 4th "Round the Leg,*' tig L ft, raising R. arm mating complete

right on beats 2, 3 and 4.

with L. R. arm and hand on Repeat these 4 bars, beginning "Round the Leg" ft, raising L hip.

4th step: Rocking Step

i. toe to side on hand on ist bar. Spring up and point R. floor, raising L arm, R hip. and behind LcalE 2. Spring up bring R toe and R. toe in front and at centre ofL. ft. retained on L 3. Spring up point (Weight ft.)

ft. and shake R. ft forwards. 4. Hop on L obliquely bar. i. to R. and L toe on floor behind R. hecL 2nd Spring on ft, displacing L ft, bringing

2. to R. so that R. toe is in front of L ft Transfer weight on L ft, raising heel, I and 2. 3, 4. Repeat beats ist and 2nd with L ft. 3rd and 4th bars. Repeat bars, starting

these bars. cm be raised for the Repeat 4 (Arms Rocking.) i88 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 62 (cant.) $thstep: Cross-war Step ist bar. "Round the Leg" -with R. ft., L. arm raised, L. hand on hip. 2nd bar. I. Spring up and point R. toe to side. 2. Spring up bringing R. toe behind L. calf and turning body slightly to left. ft. to ft. 3. Without moving L. ft., step across L. on R. 4. "With a slight spring off R. ft, bring L. toe to front of R. (5th position). Change arms.

3rd and 4th bars. Repeat ist and 2nd bars, starting with L. ft. Repeat these 4 bars.

6th step i to Bars 4. Repeat "Round the Leg" as in ist step. Bars 5 and 6. Repeat "Round the Leg" starting with L. ft., twice. Bars 7 and 8. Repeat "Round the Leg'* starting with R. ft. and making two complete turns to the left, R. arm raised.

The dance often opens and concludes with a bow.

EXAMPLE 63 SIMPLE PAS-DE-BASQUE OR SETTING

Dance in one place

1. off Spring L. ft. and with a circular movement, spring on to R. ft. sideways, knees turned out.

and Bring L. toe in front of R. toe and take weight of body.

2. Beat ball of ft. R. on the spot. and Pause. and 3 4. Repeat, springing offR. ft.

From "Reel ofTulloch" etc THE CELTS 189

EXAMPLE 64 HGHTSOME REEL

Dance for in a to tune. holds his 4 couples standing square, any good red Man partner on his R. hand.

Opening

8 bars. All join hands in a aide and perform 8 chassis side-ways to the left and return to with 8 places chassis to the right

bars. R. hands across and all wheel forwards 4 Women give (still holding partner's hand} with R. hand and back on last bar. 4 progressive steps. Women drop step

hands across and all wheel forwards 4 bars. Men give L (stiH holding partner's hand) 4 All to to face on last bar. progressive steps. returning places own partner

to and left and 4 bars. All set to partners (Ex. 59) with 4 pas-Masaues moving right again

4 bars. Swing with partner, using pas-de-basques.

hand. Take 2 to each 16 bars. Grand chain: begin by giving partner R. progressive steps to her and one to leave her. 1st woman into the centre partner, one greet goes during last 4 bars of music.

8 chassis to left and 8 rks^ to whilst A 8 ban. Rest of dancers join hands and perform right,

ist woman dances suitable reel step in centre.

to and left and with him. B. 4 bars. 1st woman sets to her partner right swings widi man. is her own 4 bars, ist woman repeats this movement 3rd (He opposite partner.) a for 8 bars, ist couple and 3rd man perform hey 3, using progressive steps.

A. A. 8 bars. Group reforms and repeats

with the man on her and the man him with B. i6bars. ist woman repeats B right opposite (Le. and 2nd woman to the 2nd and 4th men). She returns to her own place goes centre.

the 2nd woman followed the other women and all 4 men A and B are now repeated by by

After 12 ban of the Grand Chain, After all have danced in the centre, repeat "Opening." hands and turn once. then bow or to each other. partners join They curtsey ipo EUR.OPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 65

STRIP THE WILLOW

to such as Nannie" or of Usually danced a 9/8 Jig Tune, "Hey my "Drops Brandy" or "Frolidbome In time a dating from the seventeenth century, Paddy." Jig running

of to a is used. step 3 bar in two lines Longways Set for as many as will. Men and women stand facing own partners.

Bars ist other the R. hand one and a half so that 1-4. couple turn each by times, finishing also linked instead of woman faces 2nd man. (Elbows are hands.)

Bars 5-6. ist woman turns 2nd man by L hand.

Bars ist R. hand. She continues 7^8. woman turns her own partner by thus, alternately turning until she reaches the bottom of the set new man and her own partner

ist this the woman's bottom woman his hand man now repeats figure up side, giving L and his partner his R. hand until he reaches the top of the set.

ist turn each other the R. then both down the set couple now by hands, go together, alternately each other and a reach the bottom turn with each turning new partner. When they they other

a fall to the set one and halftimes and back new places at bottom of the

The dance is now repeated by the 2nd couple and continues until all have danced. the are down the set each When couple dancing together, couple moves up one pace so that the set remains in the same always place.

Hey My Nannie

La dc is a circular each Boulangere (fle France) set, couple taking their turn in the centre.

La Vina is a Extrapassado (Portugal) longways set, couples standing racing each other, but men and women in line, The dance down the set standing alternately couple simultaneously, men women and vice versa. As soon as the always turning ist couple reach the bottom of the set start they for each to dance as soon as reach tihe coming up again, couple bcgms they top. CHAPTER XV

The Fmno-Ugrians

\ of a ROUPS people speaking language derived from a common source known as I the Finno-Ugrian are scattered in isokted pockets throughout Europe and VJ Asia. There are the Asiatic group known as the Tuvinians in an area of the Altai Mountains, the various Yakut, Samoyed, and Ostyak tribes of Eastern and North Western the Siberia, Voguls living between the Ural Mountains and the River Ob, and the European groups of Finns, Karelians, Estonians, and Hungarians. The ancestors of all these people were of mixed Hunnish-Turki tribes roaming over the vast Asiatic were in Steppes, who gradually displaced by other Turki and Mongol tribes pushing and from east, south, south-west Yet, despite their varied histories and social develop- ment, by some strange accident they have retained the characteristics of their common language, as well as two distinct musical features, which are reflected in their dance.

The first of these features is their curious habit ofone set ofsingers or dancers imme-

the their as sit diately copying note or step sung or danced by opposite partner they or stand each other in or so tiat the best and dancers opposite song dance, among singers their efforts are all but simultaneous. The second feature is their love of repeating identical notes or music g aTfl as one finds in so of bars of again and g > many passages in constant Sibelius' music. This has a counterpart the repetition of one particular step a the interest because of its throughout dance, step only gaining varying rhythms.

HUNGARY

is in without Among the European Hnno-Ugrian group Hungary quite unique being a kindred any direct communication with the other nations speaking language. Lying at the northern end of the Danube Plain, she is surrounded by Slavs and Austrians (Map 2, But she has never been a as was the case with Czechoslovakia. facing page 52). bufierstate, for seven centuries the controlled this On die contrary, some Magyars completely area, that to ancient rituals and and it was this period of domination helped preserve many 1 the later Turk and Austrian. traditions, despite Hungarians subjugation by to not the Danube and The Hungarians were late-comers Europe, entering valley the until the nfrdi AJX i, penetrating Carpathians century (Map facing page 32). They and once established dominated were an extremely warlike, fast-moving people, they

191 192 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

the culture of the land into which the Skv tribes, and began to assimilate polished they Teutons at and were to had come. At the same time they kept the bay strong enough and refuse to be into the Roman retain an independent attitude incorporated Holy the Catholic church on their conversion to Empire, although paying tribute to Christianity their refusal to bow to the laws of the in the eleventh century. Because of completely had not the same hold in as it had Holy Roman Empire, the Catholic church Hungary issued the had elsewhere, and therefore the severe decrees against dancing by priests little soldiers. Certain effect on the wild and warlike dances of the herdsmen and peculiar, the of the or leader to allow each full member nomadic tribal kws, limiting power King into the of the tribe a certain freedom, had also been incorporated Hungarian Consti- the tution or "Golden Seal" of A.D. 1222, and this helped to preserve ancient customs and rituals. a set-back when the Although the Hungarians suffered temporary Mongols swept their invasion of in these later invaders soon through the country during Europe 1241, their For three more retired, allowing the Magyars to build up strength again. centuries and were able to withstand the until the they dominated the Plains Turks, disastrous a battle of Mohks* field in 1526, when their king was slain, and as result they became as in other countries overrun part of the Ottoman Empire. But, happened by the Turk, many areas were left unoccupied and these continued to be ruled over by Hungarian to the thus a ffiiang paying tribute Ottoman Emperor, inginfennitig continuance of

rituals to be traditions. Moreover, some continued practised among the famous Hussar an regiments composed of Hungarians, which pkyed important role in the armies of other nations. It is the link between soldier that European and dance has kept some dances till alive to-day. The of the soldiers in the Turks out of particular prowess Magyar keeping Europe was noted as as the of the sixteenth early beginning century, when Skv and Teutonic Kings began to recruit Hussars from Hungary to bolster up their own armies, and thus withstand the constant attack of other The method of kings. recruitment was unique and arose out of the love of which has been a Hungarians* dance, always strong feature of their communal life.

and the Huns Many Magyars whom they had subjugated, on settlement under more stabk became herdsmen of and other conditions, swine, cattle, flocks, the land being suitable for such work This necessitated particularly their carrying an axe, crook, or other to themselves from their weapon protect own flocks (by no means the tame, domesticated kind of as well as to animal* to-day), protect their flocks from wilder and robbers. From this habit there the developed many interesting herdsmen's dances with axes or sticks which became a feature of in marketHkys Hungary and neighbouring countries when these men came to seH thek animals. These dancesstifl exist, and in them the men enact the of a boar, or dance with killing partners twirling axes, or sticks, or cross their weapons on the ground and dance over them. Such dances became associated THE FINNQ-UGRIANS 193 with more warlike events when the herdsmen or heyducks became soldiers during the Protestant wars of fifteenth-century liberation in Bohemia and Northern Hungary. So was the wild dance that astounding heyducks' foreigners began to call it the national dance of attention to its Hungary, drawing peculiarly individual extemporization, its warlike nature with the wild flashing swords, leaps, strange crouchings and clashing and above all its insistent out weapons, rhythm stamped with vigour. This favourite was pastime used to ensnare the young Magyar herdsmen of the sixteenth into century foreign service. Tie task was entrusted to Hungarian officers of who with high rank, deputed Sergeants groups of eight to twelve men to tour remote All these men were Hungarian villages. superb dancers, and on arrival they would form a circle and each man his or dance, accurately copying opposite partner, obeying the commands the in the sung by Sergeant standing centre. So strong was the urge to the dance that onlooker join any young man who entered the circle was persuaded to enlist. An of the dance important part was the cunning of the leader, who not only told the man of the wonderful life he would lead as the young an officer, but placed Hussar's shako on his head and buckled a sword round his waist

The overlords' Hungarian preoccupation with military afiairs grew as the Hapsburg to drive the Turks out with the ofthe Emperors gradually began help Hungarian regiments, and with this movement the of the dance popularity recruiting of Verbunkos grew It became more in and to remote where it everywhere. organized form, spread villages, is as the Szekler it now known Legfoyes (Youth's dance); is best danced in the areas which are of it retains its circular now part Romania, Here original form, each man

the with he is in the is standing opposite man whom most harmony, and dance always the begun by best performer. success the in the the The of Austro-Hungarian armies driving Turks from country, caused dissension, however, among the Hungarians themselves. One group, called the as a threat their Euruc, regarded the Austro-Hungarian union to independence, while the landowners, known as the Labanc, felt it was essential The result of this dissension

a tall in the of the the Kurac soldiers that it was was popularity Verbunkos, feeling being a failure of the of used to recruit men for foreign army. The Hungarian War Indepen- dence in 1848 and the Austrian establishment of conscription instead of recruitment killed the but the fervour of the aristocrats was nearly Verbunkos, patriotic Hungarian now aroused, and they immediately turned their attention to a revival of the national to devise ballroom folk arts, with the result that dancing masters began arrangements the derived of the traditional dances. One of these was Czrds, from peasant and outside the inns or Czarda after the week's dances performed by boys girls village work. It is still danced in the theatres, and contains characteristic Hungarian movements.

it is a reflection of the real which to be revived with But pale peasant dances, began fervour after the when her particular 1914-18 war, Hungary gamed independence. it can be and each master The Czardas has tew figures, easily learnt, dancing arranges 194 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

it to real dance is difficult, to the suit his own fancy. But Hungarian extremely except Hungarians themselves.

Improvisation

encountered in dance is the fact with few The principal difficulty Hungarian that,

it is not but is a The best dancer leads exceptions, "set," spontaneous improvisation. the with whom he or she is and the others follow, or each stands opposite person most with each other. This is most notable in such in harmony, and they work couple dances each advance as the KaTlai Kettos, where the couple first sway opposite other, and retire,

embrace and whirl, and then entice each other to further efforts.

deal this is based on the Skv basic ofwhich A great of improvisation simple step most becomes and is dances are composed. But the rhythm extremely complex punctuated chains Tie and volume of this varies consider- by fascinating of stamps. quality stamping In the danced at balls to ably with tie type of dance. Csiirdungolo, given flatten the

earth floor of it is and erratic to the uneven ofthe new barns, heavy owing qtiaKty dancing and seen once never be But in the its space, figures may repeated. Verbunk6s, derivative

Szelder and the a man's set dance of Romanian it is Leg&yes, Borica, origin, lighter, and more because of its militaristic the dancers their neater, regular aspect clip heels thus the and often wear metal or together, complicating rhythm, they heels, spurs, plates on their boots, or sometimes even brass rattles or walnuts. These latter derive from the

time serfs were forbidden to wear as were a of when spurs, they sign aristocratic rank.

The Snap

In the of the and use of the is carriage body arms, Hungarian dance simihr to Polish, for bom are riders and breeders of and have similar peoples great horses, military antece- but its to the music is different music has dents, relationship Hungarian some very distinct features which affect the dance The first of is tremendously. these the Snap, which a curious stress to dance as it does in Scotland. the gives many steps On semiquaver or first note of the bar a is then on the dotted which is preparation made, quaver, always accented, one the vital of the which often strongly performs part step, happens to be a of the heels or a on the as in the Fordulat clipping stamping floor, Bokavero (Holuletz, Ex. or Tetovazo This 25, page 101), (Ex. 68, page 199). feature may have arisen from the curious stress of the for most Magyar language, dances are accompanied by mouth music, and the words often his tell express reelings or the dancer what to do. Or it come from the sound ofhorses' for the and sound may hooves, rhythm ofhorses permeates all dance. The for this movement is so Magyar urge preparatory strong that as in Scotland, the dancers make it at the of most instinctively opening phrases, whether the Snap is there or not But unlike the lift of the the upwards Scots, preparatory movements of the are or into the Hungarians always along ground, and this rives their dance its ciarac- THE FINNO-UGRIANS 195

Elaboration of Step

This preparatory emphasis of the accented note leads to considerable ornamentation of music and Like step. Hungarian embroidery, it is the most elaborate in Europe neat, and concentration on the exact note to precise, dainty, demanding matching of and step those of one's partner. A wonderful example ofornamentation is the number ofvariations made on the Slav basic the dancer his step, clicking heels three, four, or five times as he doses or and his heels in the together; jumping clicking air, dropping with feet apart and then clicking them before rinsing, Another form of interesting ornamentation is that accompanying the Bokazti or

Break at the end of most enchainements in a dance. Its basic form is a simple crossing, and of the heels but it can be elaborated opening, clipping together, by extra pointings of the toe as the feet are and extra and before crossed, jumps clippings the actual feminine

which marks the final is reached. The ornamentation is cadence, clip, particularly difficult because it takes the same time as would the version ofthe usually only simple step (Exs. 66,

67, pages 198, 199).

Tempo Giusto

Bela the famous has noted that the Bart6k, Hungarian composer, despite complicated of relationship movement and music, the structure of his native folk tunes and dances is Phrases are simple. of equal length and therefore the enchainements are of equal length, and often end in a Feminine Cadence. basis for in A typical an enchainement a Verbunkos to bars of music is: 2 to the i to the 2 to the i to the eight steps right, left, right again, left. 2 to the This kind Then more step bring men back to place. of enchainement is in found other types of dance.

Bart6k also points out that although most dances and tunes arc divided into two the slow or Lassu and the or Friss are parts, (also Lassan), quick (also Frishka), they always

in strict or which is modified to accommodate pkyed rhythm Tempo Giusto, only slightly the accentuation at or ends of beginnings complete phrases.

The Steps

It is difficult to the dance. The are generalize about steps of Hungarian following a as the dancers a seen once never but few samples for, improvise, step may appear again. linked are individual a Arm movements, too, when dancers are not together, very As rule arms work in natural complement to me feet, are seldom raised over the head, and ask Kerestezo are only crossed over tiechestwhen hopping backwards, (Ex. 15, page 90) seldom travel far the are Single steps along ground, although great leaps upwards areas can be covered with small The dancer never often made and large many steps. or his so that there is an air of and loses control over himself partner, always finality assurance in everything Joe does* 196 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

Basic The step of most dances is merely

1. Step forwards or sideways on L ft. of the 2. Close R. ft. to L without changing the weight body.

this to the this often becomes like the Repeat movement right; something Cwal of Poland (Ex. 26, page 101).

Emelkedo is a woman's variation of this

1. Step forwards or sideways on L ft.

2. Close R. ft. to L

3. Rise on balls of feet

4. Lower heels.

Fordulat is another variation for men

1. Step forwards or sideways on L. ft 2. in a circle Bring R. leg round from back to front of R. ft.

3. Rise on toes.

4. Fall on heels.

Yet another variation is that in which the dancer steps sideways, on to the ball of the L doses R. ft. to and then the heels ft., L, clips together, three, four, or as many times as he wishes.

is another variation with feet hgo beginning together

1. Bend knees slightly.

2. Step sideways on R. ft Close L ft to knees 3. R., bending slightly.

This can into a develop sliding movement from side to side. Bokazo or Break, which ends enchatnements, has several forms. many The simplest is commenced with the feet together (Ex. 66, page 198). Another Break is similar to a found in interesting step Scotland, Spain and Russia (Ex. 67, page 199). Ac same as in Russia but HarangotBellsteph (Ex. 13, page 89), can also be danced to a when it 3/4 rhythm, is evenly balanced with tie beats.

is a Hegyezo merely pointing of heel and toe

1. on R. ft. Hop pointing L ft. forwards on heel 2. Hop onR.ft.pointingL.fi. forwards on toe.

Repeat hopping on L ft,

Innumerable variations are made of this. THE FINNO-UGRIANS 197

is another name for the usual Ugrts step-hop in which the working leg is always well raised with the toe well pointed downwards on the hop. Dubbenos ForduU is a variation of the basic and is in dances. step found only couple The man holds his arm round die waist. take the trans- right girl's Both two steps, man the to his left arm. both into the air ferring girl They jump clicking their heels and landing with a this strong beat, quickly repeating jump. are for men and consist a CsfyasoU only of swinging of the leg forwards and back- while the with one or both hands. The are with wards, slapping thighs legs changed a large jump upwards whenever the dancer feels inclined.

Titovdzi or the Promenade is found in theatrical dances usually only (Ex. 68, page 199). Fordulat Bokaverf are similar to the Polish Holubetz (Ex. 25, page 101) and can be or with a holubete with in done sideways turning partner. The can be single two steps but are in a series a between, they usually done of three, Mowed by stamp. is a in finds a in the Lejtovagas (Lunge) prominent step male dance and place Czardas

(Ex. 69, 70, pages 200, 201).

Dances, Forms and Patterns

Most Hungarian (knees are still performed in open or dosed circles or longways sets, are not the and of the therefore patterns made, except by twisting turning couples. as but one is seldom Enchamements are based on a simple formula explained above, step than four even in the few set dances. of movement is the repeated more times, Variety principal ?iTn T but these similar characteristics There arc a number ofinteresting wedding dances, show to any Slav traditional dance, the bride showing her skill in embroidery or weaving, and the bridesmaids or mothers showing her the work to be done, and both bridesmaids to groomsmen daflcfog the couple bed by candlelight. but most of these emanate from There are a number of interesting craftsmen's dances, the various Trade Guilds of workmen brought in from Bohemia and other areas to build up the various metal and furriers' industries started in very ancient times by the first inhabited this area. The most of these craftsmen's dances Scythians, who interesting the who use the of their as the are perhaps those of coopers, hoops barrels, English long this other sword dancers use their various instruments. The unique part of and several and the dance ofthe is the Hungarian dances for men women, particularly cooks, balancing of wine. This kind of feat is found elsewhere the and dancing with glasses only among and seems to some ancient link between these Basques and Caucasians, prove peoples. of the common musical The curious link between the Hungarian and Scot by way to that the Scot have feature ofthe Snap is so far impossible explain, except may acquired it from some source. this from his Viking ancestor, who in turn acquired Enno-Ugrian kve retained it with thek own Both races being particularly independent, they exhilaiati^ all that has been done other nations to them. dance characteristics, despite by suppress 198 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 66

BREAK OR BOKAZ6 No. I

Woman's Version

I. A Hop lightly on L ft, pointing R. toe to side or in front. f 2. on R. A Hop lightly ft, pointing L toe to side or in front

*r did heels and hold 3, together position on toes.

4- Pause. THE FINNO-UGRIANS 199

EXAMPLE 67

BREAK OR BOKAZ6, No. 2

*f

J I. on ft. R. toe on floor. Hop L ft, crossing R. over L and resting

2. on L. R. outwards with a circular movement 1 Hop ft, swinging leg

heels a and hold on toes. 3. Cup together with jump position 1 4. Pause.

EXAMPLE 68 T&TOVAZ6 OR PROMENADE

is but the music. Numbers arc (The counting not evenly marked, Mows given

M beats)

1. L knee L toe Step forwards on R. ft., bending upwards, pointed onR-knee.

on R. and immedi- 2. Slide-jump forwards ft, marking step heavily

ately open L leg.

forwards on L. ft. Y 3. Step

forwards on R. ft 4. Step 200 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 69 A CZARDAS

seen in the annual Festival of Dance. A dancing master's arrangement, arms crossed over in front. Man holds woman's R. hand Couple stand side by side, in his R. and her L in bis L

is and Tempo very brisk gets quicker.

on to R. ft, and forwards. ist bar. 2 Ugros, starting by stepping moving

Ba!Uz6 No. 2. 2nd bar. Both perform backwards. 3rd and 4th bars. Repeat bars i and 2, moving slightly

dick heels times, both a half-turn to the 5th bar. Step and together 4 making right.

6th bar. Bofoferf No. 2.

and man in and woman to face yth and 8th bars. Repeat bars 5 6, remaining place turning nlTTL

on both feet twice to Man dances 2 Fordukt pthbar. Woman turns rapidly right her to left, Bokavert opposite

roth bar. Both do BoMz6 No. I.

nth and I2th bars. Repeat bars 9 and 10, moving in opposite direction. Bokavert with each L. arms Bars 13-16. Both perform 8 Fordulat turning other, round each other's waists and R. arms raised at side.

dance as often as Repeat whole required.

Tune Probably a Gipsy Version THE FINNO-UGR.IANS 201

EXAMPLE 70

LEJTOVAGAS OR LUNGE

ation of arms)

Preparation '*

1. on to Spring R. ft, dropping L knee on floor. R. hand is behind hand on head, L hip.

2. on R. and forwards Jump upwards ft., swinging L leg upwards as as high possible.

Take 2 or twice. 3-4. walking steps forwards, stamp

in Repeat opposite direction.

AnOldCzan&Tune

FINLAND

Lithuania (With reference to Estonia, and Latvia)

entered and are known to have settled Tribes of Hnno-Ugrian origin Europe very early B.C. soon mixed with other tribes in Finland and Estonia as early as 500 They arriving

first AJ>. these two countries have from other European areas, and since the century between the and constantly changed hands Poles, Swedes, Hthuanians, Germans, to the Russians. For this reason most of their dances are similar in form and pattern and nineteenth social dances of Poland and Sweden, seventeenth, eighteenth, century most of the ancient and therefore The Swedish Protestant church had suppressed rituals, 202 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

with a more tolerant it was the dances which had been when dancing was looked on eye hand of Gustav's masters, or had been in through the refining King dancing brought that to be Their names the countries by foreign regiments, began practised. very suggest Scotland, and Russia. The of their origin: England, France, Sweden, Poland, steps and many of the tunes are also borrowed, those from Scotland being very popular. and the sea-coasts Yet, in the remote areas of the Kardian lakes and forests, along

is still a few traces of old dances where the ancient language of Suomi (Finland) spoken, of and rituals are to be found. They are not identical with those Hungary, although The climate and situation do not result having a few elements in common. geographical have been eliminated. in the same kinds ofwork and the horse-riding elements completely seems to have with another Moreover in these areas, Finno-Ugrian culture mingled have left traces on their dances. These ancient tribe, whose worship of nature gods many is to are akin to those of Latvia and Lithuania, where the language, Balto-Slav, thought the mother of most be the only relic of the ancient Aryan tongue, European languages. and often are imitative of natural They are always danced to mouth music, very things there are ritual dances with such as seals, bears or swallows, and queer very interesting arm movements. Some of these are like the nature dances of Armenia or even further

a instance the use of the hands and the formation of the Lithuanian east, particular being the Bashkirian Swallow Dance and a similar ancient bird-worshipping dance of women in the Ural Mountains.

The Finns in these remote areas are also good mimes, as are their remote eastern relatives, and in tie more modern social dances, which include dements of courting or flm the are clear and to the There malring of people, gestures always extremely point. is for has the Girl is cer- example TaneK, who only one eye, and from Forssa, who better than she should be. These like so are tainly no dances, many Hungarian dances, performed to the accompaniment of satirical verse, sometimes improvised, and occasion- the dancers break out ally into purely improvised passages of suggestive gestures and movements.

The most important dances of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania are those at but these similar performed weddings, again are to those performed elsewhere, where Skv or other eastern ancestors can be traced.

the oldest Finnish dances one as in the for Among finds, Hungary, slight preparation a which is made to with the occasional step, always correspond appearance of the Snap. This old Finnish dance an gives abrupt quality not found in the more modem dances. These have the or latter, however, acquired absolutely regular rhythm, tempo guisto of the older dances, and whether they be fast or slow tie dancers show a finer tension and keener sense of than tie Swedish of tie same rhythm performers styles of country and social dances. This lends the Finnish dancers a slightly more emotional movement than those of the well-behaved and faces Swedes, althougi may be expressionless, bodies are more relaxed and more to in and respond easily changes direction, step, rhythm. THE FINNO-UGRIANS 203

Musical Notes and Repetition of of Tapping ofFeet

A of Sibdius's music a due to a study gives peculiarly Finnish characteristic, which was derived from his own folk tunes. This is the constant surely repetition of one single It note. that the accented note is followed its echo and This oftenappears by again again. feature is reflected in a few ancient and one set very songs dances, where of singers or dancers a note or dance a which is sing step, immediately copied by another set The is often a of one or both step repeated tapping toe, tiny jumps on feet, and as the per- formers face one another or are behind one this immediately another, gives a curious see-saw effect to their movements. It is particularly noticeable in certain ritual songs the national the the rock accompanied by instrument, kantde, when singers to and fro as This to and fro and they sing. rocking immediate copying of another's example is a feature of some games played by Finnish children.

and Dances, Steps, Forms Patterns

The most common dances of Finland seem to be the now Purpuri, which are exactly what their name a mixture of dances the of countries. suggests, figure induding steps many the do not resemble what their names Although figures always suggest (Polska, Quadrille, Mazurka and like valse in Cossack), steps walking, running, galloping, hopping, 3/4 and also Sweden for and mazurka 2/4 (see step-hop-valse) t polka polka (Ex. 43, page 142),

The Polska Reel a in or is like the step, pivot step 2/4 3/4 (Ex. 4, page 62), just English

of in a where the is slid swinging partners. Gliding hops 3/8 rhythm, hopping foot rather than the floor three whilst the other foot trails after are jumped along times, it, found in some of the animal such as other dances, Sjalaskuttan (Seal's Jump). Two steps can be more dearly defined as being Finnish.

The Polska in is a Change step 3/4 turning step

1. Step on to L ft. towards left. 0f CloseR.ft.toL

2. Step on L. ft to ft in 3. Jump on R. front of L

with ft turn to the with the R. ft Repeat beginning L To right, begin sequence

1. heel is on the last half-beat Step forwards on R. (The step usually anticipated

of the bar by the R. leg being swung backwards.) and Close L ft behind R. ft 2. Step forwards on R. it backwards in order to the and Hop on R. ft, immedktdy tinting L begin hed. next movement by stepping on L 204 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

characteristics In parts of Karelia nearest Russia, certain Russian appear, especially steps borrowed from Cossack Dances. All further information about Finnish dance can be gathered by studying Teutonic, is true of the dances of Scandinavian, and English country dance forms. This also Estonia, with the Latvia, and Lithuania. Only those dances which are still associated ancient their ancient language of these people and danced in remote places retain characteristics, and show the close links with the Hungarians and other finno-Ugrian groups. CHAPTER XVI

The Latins

MMHE Italians, Portuguese, French, Romanians, and small groups of people in I Switzerland a speak language derived from a common Latin source, although are not descended from the JL they same tribal ancestors. That they should do so is of the ofthe proof power Roman Emperors, who ruled large areas ofEurope for nearly four and made Latin the official of their centuries, language provinces. During that derivatives of Latin became period firmly established among the different tribes and were adopted by later barbarian invaders. The use of the Latin tongue by the Roman Catholic church also it further the spread when pagan kings embraced Christianity. The Romans introduced into their a provinces love of spectacle, which was further enhanced as the church the rituals its brought people's dance into own orbit by staging magnificent pageants through the streets. Roman influence is still to be found in the spectacular elements of the rituals that survive in these countries, although these rituals to the really belong common European heritage left by Celtic, Slav, Teutonic, and other tribes. as each However, country has gone through a different historical process since the downfall the it is of Roman Empire, wise to study them individually.

ITALY

It has often been remarked that it is characteristic of the Italian^ as it was of the ancient

Roman leaders, that they assimilate the arts of the people they conquer. This is certainly all to those nations. true of their dances, for over Italy one finds dances similar of other a Latin dialect tribes north The original speakers of were primitive farming Irving invaded the and east of the Tiber, descendants of early Aryan groups who had Italy from north in the ninth century B.C. A fierce warlike people, they began to acquire more the cultured Etruscans in northern who had land by conquering highly living Italy, the first incentive to aim distinctive art forms of Asiatic origin, and gave Romans meir at in battles the who Rome grandeur building. After many against Gauls, captured themselves as rulers of all and in 390 B.C., the Romans began to establish Italy, gradually in of what are extended further, until by AJ>. 98 their Emperor Trajan was possession as far as the now known Spain, Portugal, France, Germany (as Rhine), England (to Ofia's Dyke and Hadrian's Wall), Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, Armenia, Palestine, the African coast Egypt, and large areas of North

205 206 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

the Romans utilized, assimilated, and For the next two hundred and fifty years laws and artistic of the earlier Greek which developed the valuable enterprises Empire, also to some of the rituals of the Greeks and they had subjugated. They helped spread other Eastern for such a classic Slavs, people, having highly developed popular^and the Roman's love of entertainment and drama, were in much demand to provide for

It was from the of these that the Commedia delTArte characters spectacle. plays people were and (who became such a feature of theatrical art in Renaissance Italy) descended,

still in traditional costumes in Italian festival dances and they appear their many processions. these rituals were Under Theodosius (A.D. 379-393), however, pagan rigorously the Christian become the official banned by early church, Christianity having religion after the death of Constantine There was terrible of the Roman Emperors (A.D. 337). at this for Theodosius was also for his which broke suffering time, fighting Empire, finally from Northern and Africa. up under the barbarian invaders entering Ask, Europe, Italy itself was overrun first by the Goths and then by the Lombards.

It is here to cover from this until its impossible Italy's confusing history break-up situation made it re-unification under one king in 1861. Its geographical particularly to invasion after the rise ofthe Roman when susceptible and, Holy Empire, Charlemagne the it was into different sections became Pope's champion (A.D. 800), continually being split the interests merchant and and by of warring kings, princes, political religious parties. Tie rituals reflect these and the ofdance from remaining many events, styles vary province to province according to the influence exerted by other nations.

In Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica can be found certain Eastern elements, brought in first the Vandals the fifth later the by of century A.D., by Arabs, and again re-inforced over the whole of southern when the of these areas. Italy, Kings Spain possessed Here are to be found the stronger rhythmic forms, occasional broken cadences, and sudden halts for a as well as numerous attitudes and and the use of castanets pose, steps belonging to The erotic elements of the dances are more Spain. couple exaggerated, although some solemn versions of the Farandole the earlier rituals, dating from Greek occupation, are still danced. In Central dances are Italy more circumspect, no doubt because of the leavening influence of the church in Rome. In the north-eastern and eastern areas there are similar movements to those found in Central such as the Europe, spunta piedi (tiny on both of the in jumps feet) peasants Marche, where the body rocks from head to toe as in Some dances Yugoslavia, originated in the latter country because some of the Adriatic Islands with a Croatian were in the of the population possession seafaring of Genoa and therefore an republics Venice; interchange of dances was effected. The

are to be found dances akin to those of other Teutonic and Celtic people, particularly the sword dances of which are many kinds, occasionally found elsewhere. Tie influence of the Catholic church has led overwhelming to the exaggeration of the side of these rituals to such an extent that their outer spectacular trappings tend to THE LATINS 207 make all Italian dances look alike. It is also the possible that the climate in the south and extreme of the elsewhere similar lines. poverty villagers have helped to mould them on

The Mian Love ofCantahile

t is most noticeable in in those influenced This is to Italy, except parts by Spain. possibly owing the feet that the Italians are and their or great singers love ofcantabile, "go-as-you-please," to show off the voice and its emotional lead to a in capacity seems to great untidiness the dance. Although to-day few dances are performed to mouth music, the musicians who the dancers on ancient of and or on accompany types pipes, mandolines, guitars, the also to their dances are there- now common accordion, tend display virtuosity. The

in is not matched the most of dancing triplets accurately by simple steps constituting the dances. The dancers often mark only one beat of a 3/8 measure or two beats of their favourite time Even in the where the are reduced to a 6/8 signature. Saltarello, triplets dotted a the his feet It is to quaver and semi-quaver, dancer moves evenly. interesting that the the and note even when mouth music accompanies dance, steps gestures rarely the are often of unknown match words, which onomatopoeic syllables significance,

Courtship Dances

still and arc similar to other Although many ancient chaitM and circles are found

it is the dance that seems to These are and one to the right, couple now predominate. and contain much flirtation and between the These often very fiery bargaining couple. in with the of the medieval erotic dances, originating fertility rites, developed growth northern are to be found ofdances Provencal courts. Throughout Italy examples acquired the from their who followed the of the nobles. by peasants masters, example Provencjil a air and often into In the north, these dances have a dignity and even courtly develop dances for four or more But such dances as the Trescone, elementary figure couples. Monferrina and the Furlana dissolve into the and fiecr Bergamasca, Pavane, gayer central which to the Tarantella of the south Saltarello of Italy, again gives place fiery lie of all these dances have become more with its passionate love-making. implications to their inclusion in and other theatrical exaggerated owing opera enterprises during and nineteenth when nationalistic for a unified the eighteenth centuries, feelings Italy found that the dancers could arose, for the poor peasants by copying professional they ... f. J__ j._...J_J>. ,d_ _!_?..*_ *. AA *1%A ****% TtvtllAVI nfi/H1ft*C to sec

and Patterns Steps, Forms, where movements have the tension and neatness found Except in the mountain areas, Bodies are held all mountain most Italians dance and almost among people, easily lazily. 208 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

and there is a deal the in the traditional Sword loosely good of sway from waist, except and controlled. Unless the dancers are linked in Morris dances which are more rigidly

it hold his hands whilst the chains or circles, is more usual for the boy to upwards, girl's outbursts of and are on her apron or held akimbo. There are occasional vigorous and heel when the impetuous clappings, stampings tappings, particularly boy displays himself before his There are also wonderful of girl. passages impassioned mime, notably in the the most famous mime-actors. But for the most in Sicily, home of some of part the folk 'are There is a deal of purer dances, steps very simple. good skipping, valsing one foot (see Alpine Areas, page 116), pivoting (Ex. 4, page 62), turning by crossing over the other the balls of the and enchainements of and twisting round on feet, walking steps as found in Greece and Yugoslavia.

The is used in the Saltarello in addition to the Ealml principally (Ess. 71, 72) springs a and step-hops of this popular dance, although in Ciociaria it becomes dignified couple or circle dance, performed by uneven numbers of people stepping with feet held dose to the floor, bodies inclined forwards and heads nearly touching. Other used in the are steps by Italians, principally Tarantella,

to each bar of the Higft Hops, taking two steps 6/8, couple usually facing each other

1. on knee and forwards. Stamp R. ft., raising L upwards

2. on R. ft. knee in Hop holding L position, commence ttirning to left, 2. twice turn. i, Hop on R. ft., completing

on ft. and to the Repeat hopping L turning right,

two to each bar of the Long Hops, taking steps 6/8, couple usually back to back, holding each other with their R. arms, L arms stretched out in front-

for as times as wished of Hop many (usually multiples 4), travelling forwards

Repeat hopping on L. ft.

Heel and toe two steps, taking steps to each bar of 6/8

twice on L R. ft. first Hop ft., placing forwards on heel and then on toe, just in front of L toe. Repeat hopping on R. ft.

There is also another in interesting hopping step which the dancer hops on the R. ft. as he the L. ft. forwards and swings diagonally backwards wimtihe body inchned forwards. This movement is occasionally reversed, the swinging foot then moving across the front of the and the hopping foot, body being inclined backwards. As a rule Italian dances are in form and simple pattern. are made for four They up to six enchakements, each of which consists of single steps used in of four. multiples But the to ttatricalize is them tendency making increasingly THE LATINS 209 elaborate. A illustrated delightfully description of a Neapolitan Tarantella of 1830 con- tains no less than eighteen enchainements, each ofwhich melts into the next with the couples and round each facing, backing turning other whilst playing castanets. The famous Bournonville ballet has more than Napoli forty different enchainements containing steps still in southern where the often use performed Italy, peasants improvise and tambourines. The northern dances use similar in to other figure patterns style any Country Dance, often the usual of using setting partners to each other and to the corners.

Other Characteristics

The close interest taken the Catholic in the rituals can seen in by church people's be the dances actual as the of many forming part of the religious ceremonies, such Dance the in or the at the of flagellants Calabria, Sword Dance performed in C^steltermini Festival the ofthe Invention Holy Cross, fighting SwordDancesdepictinddentsinwhichtk Cru- saders fought Moslems, Moors, or Turks, but even in these some theatrical elements have such as the for a slave. appeared, Moresca oflagosta, in which Moors and Turks fight lovely

The deliberate fostering of the folk dance, started by the organization "Dopolavoro"

did to folk it stressed the side of the demon- policy, much damage dance, for spectacular stration. It is to find forms in remote even these now possible original only very villages; uncertain state of the are losing their character because the extreme poverty and country is the to the else driving peasants towns or to emigrate.

EXAMPLE 71 BALANCE

Can be danrrd in 2/4 or in 6/8

to forwards. I. Step forwards oa R. ft, bending body slightly

last kat on R. L ft. at rear and (or oftriplet) Hop ft., picking up bending i still furdier forwards.

2. backwards on Lft., erect 1 i Step recovering position.

on L R. ft. in front i (orlastkatoftripkt) Hop ft., picking up Repeat d lib.

well to and fro. The body always rocks 210 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 72

A SALTARELLO

master's version . Probably a Janrtng

or a The take their Danced by as many couples as will, by solitary pair. partners places

which is over and over with the first long note of the music, repeated again. They stand "with their arms interlaced round each other's shoulders. Man's R. arm is round woman's L. shoulder.

2 to each bar. itibars. in a circle taking steps

other and both with R. 2 fabnds forwards 4 bars. Facing each starting ft, perform (Lc. go

bats. and to own 4 Repeat Idcnd changing movement, returning places.

bars 8 bars. Repeat last 8 once only.

8 his the first beat each whilst bars. Man kneels and daps hands on of bar, woman skips round

She should lift her well him, flirting. legs up.

8 bars. whilst round his R. over his Woman kneels, man skips her, holding arm head and

8 bars. Partners take inside hands with arms held and 8 forwards and 8 high spring steps steps backwards.

8 bars. Partners take R. h*r\As and turn round each other with 16 springs, finishing on the last beat with the man on his R. R, arm raised and hand on kneeling knee, L hip. Woman stands with her toe R. resting on ground behind L ft Her R. arm is raised with elbow turned towards her and hand on She looks at partner L hip. him.

A Saltarello THE LATINS 211

SPAIN

the diverse of dance a lifetime of All To understand quality Spanish requires study.

here is a outline of the influences that have to its that can be given brief many gone

dance is litde more than a for an making. Moreover, Spanish now becoming spectacle who care little for the traditional of their audience, performed by professionals aspect attention to their and their technical work, their mw object being to draw virtuosity to what the believes is the ability display foreigner Spanish temperament. dance with its Nevertheless, three forms of dance can still be defined: the folk

or as it is found in remote the classical dignified simplicity spontaneous gaiety villages; learnt at the schools and seen on the the of the style, dancing stage, utilizing technique ballet and the which is court and later eighteenth century dancers; flamenco, Spanish

All theseforms are first andforemost a matter tion, and sudden bursts ofdramatic energy. absolute control of of the which of rhythmic complications, requiring every part body, head arms and click can thrill with movement Eyes may flash, the toss, flow, fingers to the like or out subtle on castanets, fascinating pistol-shots tap rhythms adding are often broken and enhanced cascadeofsoundbeatenoutbythetoesandheek Rhythms or or silent when the dancers make undulating by dramatic pauses passages, beautifully with their bodies as if their own made dance abrupt movements echoing previously the Arab Such dances arc the result of the enormous influence exercised by patterns. western the eastern who have made dance in and the gipsy, peoples Spanish unique

Europe, inhabitants of lie EdtoJberian* tod tte The original Spain, the southern areas were colonized in 1000 B.C. by the with an eastern people when in B.C. were the Roman Legions 236 Carthaginians, who swept away by conquering their love of five hundred From the Romans the Spaniards gained spectacle. Roughly from the the Vandals later there followed two waves of barbarians entering norih, years Dances and the who brought the Sword (dm A.D. 420) Visigoths (AJ>. 500), possibly the whole of had been incor- found elsewhere in Europe. By AJ>. 750 however, Spain remai^ into the Moslem and the southern areas ofSpam porated Empire, In Andalusia one finds the Eastern traits domination for seven hundred years. strongest dance make with shawl, fin, in both dance and music. The women as they great play their attracricms-^ Moslem mantilla, or skirt to display every or to be in sedusion to entertain her considered as a chattel to be bought and sold, kept of footwork with lord and master. The man's solos are a matter complicated coupled the Moors has come the sinuous of the and From peculiar strange twistings leg body. confined to the western ofmuch music, which often cannot be ordinary phrasing Spanish of now or bar lines. There arc long phrases widely differing time signatures regular is followed the and the dancer often ictates the rhythms and by values and rhythms, 212 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

the dancers themselves are musicians, as in the cast The castanets with which accompany metal and used the Uzbeks, and both are relics of like the Kayrak of plates pebbles by and of Arab invasions to east and west, as are certain arm movements ways performing steps. also be noted where Moorish domination was not so These rhythmic traits can pro- in the ofthe ckdes and chains ktknortto longed, particularly rhythmic qiiaHties many in its national traditions. Its Sardana areas such as Catalonia, which retains a great pride as is the Asturian is a of the solemn ritual chain common to perfect example Europe, as in all areas Danza Prima. It is in the northern areas that male dance is outstanding, armies have where Celtic and Teutonic tribes have settled, or where crusading passed

ID their efforts to drive the infidel from Europe. Between die eleventh and thirteenth centuries, Christian kings entered Spain from the areas of northern and central restored North and as they reconquered large Spain they the to the Catholic church. The the rituals peasants priests rapidly brought people's their love of even allowed certain under surveillance and, realizing passionate dance, in the churches. the a of trained groups to dance To-day Seises, group highly boys, cathedral occurs some- dance several times a year in Seville Dancing nearly every day some saint or on some other festive occasion. Sometimes where in Spain in honour of a but the is and this is little more than solemn procession, usually dancing spectacular

of Castifle had driven the Moslems out of thus By AJD. 1492, the Kings Spain, earning of the this "The of the World" when the gratitude Pope, who designated dynasty Kings

they became enormously wealthy with the discovery and ruthless exploitation of the the sixteenth virtue their wealth these Americas during century. By of Kings dominated a the world for nearly century, during which the Spanish court dance developed; the the of their cultivated the which peasants, following examples masters, couple dance, in Ttian and woman perform as equals. Each incites the other to further efforts, as well as

their love for one another. is expressing Hie finest example perhaps the Jota, with and a fascinating leaps capers, originally mountain dance from Aragon, which seems to have all and spread over Spain now has many different forms. The wealth of attracted of the ballet Spain some great dancers of the eighteenth and their tedhnicalities influenced century Spanish professionals, and later the peasants, to the batterie and other copy dainty stylish dements. This led to the establishment of to which flocked the sons and many dancing schools, daughters of wealthy families the when it during Napoleonic Wars, became fashionable to perform one's own national dances. these schools fell into with the a Although disrepute relegation of Spain to very

the their influence or still secondary place among nations, technique is visible. The and at the same the strangest, time, strongest influence on present-day Spanish dance is that ofthe Driven out of after gipsies. country country by the Mongolian hordes, of them invaded southern in the seventeenth large groups Spain century. Endowed with THE LATINS . 213 enviable of movement and other s music and powers readily acquiring people dance, the latter to their they adapt own methods ofperfcrniance and then udize them as a means of making money. Talcing over die rich heritage of Moorish-influenced Andalusian its and erotic to it their uninhibited dance, they exaggerated rhythmic qualities, adding own freedom of and it their bursts of expression making even more exciting by unexpected or tragic sorrow, fiery enthusiasm, nostalgic melancholy. The couple may improvise for other until tremble in the each they an ecstasy of dance, or perhaps woman with her frilled train like a until the long, parades round dignified peacock moment when or the the of the incited her partner, singer, accompanist, or other members group, have her to a wild tornado of foot-beats or shaking shoulders. The men, too, may vie with

travelled did the the dances and As they through Spain, not only gipsies acquire steps these to suit but of die other provinces, Changing and adding to their own whims, they also influenced the folk dancers themselves. Being often die only musicians available, their favourite and cadences on to the and they imposed broken rhythms peasants' tunes, thus reinforced their inherent eastern traits.

the became the dancers in the numerous cabarets set Many of gipsies professional up to attract the nineteenth and twentieth century tourists, so that when dancing fell the it was the who alive the essence of into disrepute amongst wealthy, gipsy kept many

life. no but their dances as a spontaneous expression of Acknowledging king own, have continued to dance bowing to no poEtical party, they unregulated by church, the tired of his endless court, or state, whilst Spanish peasant, struggle against poverty

is content to let others exert themselves to afford him some and authority, quite pleasure. dance in its form must first seek it in the Those wishing to perform Spanish original or the of the Secd6n Feminina de Fet the remote villages, study repertoire y Jons, organi- research into the folk dance of Their zation which is fostering and doing genuine Spain. to the rest of work has uncovered many valuable dances linking Spain Europe by way wish to of Sword, Morris, Handkerchief and Maypole dances. Those who perform of the music classical dances and dances that are interpretations by Spanish composers and Madrid. But a and better a must go to the schools of Seville only Spaniard, gipsy, a can be so free in and can dance the flamenco, because only gipsy rhythm, feeling forms and cannot be confined to verbal movements. His steps, patterns descriptions, be Lake the dances from which for once danced they may never repeated. Spanish they in their have come, they are endless variety. led to the inclusion here of two different folk dances. The A recent visit to Spain has and charm with a movement Mateixas of Mallorca has an easy grace simple flowing de Alcaniz has all the life of the The author's The Jota vigorous Aragonese. grateful Dolores Pedroso Sturdza and Senorita Maria thank must be given to Senorita y Esparza in these dances. for their great help collecting 214 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

BXAMPIE 73 MATEKAS

are to be A vintage dance from Mallorcathe couple supposed carrying large baskets and at times to and eat the dance dose and the dance pluck figs. They together open

feeing each other.

ist Estribilk of 8 followed a of (a phrase by phrase 7 bars)

the last beat raise and lower heels to On of the bar, both twisting slightly right, hands are on hips.

Bar z. to Again raise and lower Heels completing J-turn right 2. Pause.

to left. 3. Raise and lower heck, twisting slightly

Bar 2. Raise and lower heels completing f-turn to left. 2. Pause.

3 . Repeat movement as at beginning.

Bars Continue this to and left 3-8. movement, twisting slightly right as indicated.

Bars 9, 10, u. Both L as and R. ft. to side as turn to using leg pivot pointed lever, slowly left, finish this the arms are outstretched and bodies facing partner. During slightly inclined to right.

Bars Place R. ft. on floor R. ft. Bend forwards 12-15. opposite partner's bringing both arms down to knee, raise L arm to waist level and curve R. arm over head. Both and straighten dose feet together. Woman now faces forwards and man back- wards. L shoulders towards each other.

ist of 8 bars Copk (3 phrases each)

A. Bar i. Both starting on R. ft.

1. Step sideways on R. ft. 2. Bring L toe behind R.

3. Rock back onto R. ft. Both arms are curved slighdy upwards and sway to The dancers make to left this right J-turn during step.

Bars 2, 3, 4. this valse-like with and Repeat step L, R., L feet, swaying arms from side to side and one turn. turn in completing (Dancers own circle.)

Bar 5. i. Place R. hed out to arms side, sway to right 2. Pause.

3. R. toe to arms Bring up L ft,, sway to left. Bar 6. Repeat bar 5.

Bars7,8. bars i and but do not turn. Repeat 2, Couple's L shoulders are towards each other. THE LATINS 215

EXAMPLE 73 (cont.)

irate tempo

' 9 '10 11 '12 13

B. Bars bars 2 of but make to fkc on ist bar. i, 2, 3, 4. Repeat 1, t 3, 4 A, J-ton only partner

Bar i. little toe in front of arm carved across 5. With a jump bring R. L ft, R. waist, L arm raised over head.

2. Pause,

a raiseR. and forwards. 3. With hop on Lfc leg slightly upwards obliquely

Bar 6. Pas dc IOUTTK.

1. Place R. ft. behind L

2. Step sideways on L & ft to this the arms are rolled round each other. 3. Bring R. L, during gently

Bars 8. bars and 6 arms and 7, Repeat 5 using opposite legs.

C. Bar i. Repeat bar 5 ofB. from take arms round Bar 2. Moving away partner, 3 steps backwards, rolling each other.

Bar 3. i. Jump feet together. 2. Pause.

forwards on L ft. is like a L. arm forwards. 3. Jump (this running step), forward on to R. L stretched out R. arm stretched Bar 4. Jump ft,, leg behind, bodies inclined to downwards towards partner, slighdy .right. 2i6 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 73 (cont.)

Bars to left so that woman fcces forwards 5, 6, 7. Repeat bars i, 2, 3, ofA, making J-turn and man backwards. The arms sway over head during this. arms to Bar 8. i. Place R, heel out to side swaying right 2. Pause.

3-

mdEstrititto 8 (first bars)

Bar i. Repeat bar 8 of C above. Bar 2. i. both feet Jump together. 2. Pause.

to left on R. ft with L. raised. 3. Hop sideways leg (Partners change places.) Bar i. towards R. arm curved across 3. Jump both feet together bending partner, waist, L arm over head.

2. Pause.

to on R. back to L. 3. Hop right ft, original place, raising leg sideways.

Bar As bar i above but with bend towards R. arm over 4. jump partner raising

head and curving L. arm round waist Repeat 3rd beat of bar 2. Bars 5-8. Repeat bars 3 and 4 twice. Bars 9-15. Repeat bars 0-15 of ist Estribillo.

2nd Copla A. Repeat 4 as in ist Copla.

B. Bars 1-8. Man pivots round twice on own axis to his left, and in each bar.

1. Places R. heel out to side.

2. Pause.

R. toe to L ft. He and doses his 3. Brings opens R. arm to the same rhythm. The woman dances twice round the man to her left, using 8 runmrig valse as in ist steps, Copla, swaying arms as before.

C. C of ist followed Estribillo 2nd Repeat Copla, by following Copla.

yd Copla

A. as in ist Repeat 4 Copla.

B. ist bar. i. on L ft and R. ft over Hop place L, turning to left, R. arm across waist, L arm over head.

2. Pause.

3. back on L ft. face each Step (Couple other.) 2nd bar. i. on L ft and R. ft behind to Hop place L, turning right, L. arm across waist, R. arm over head.

2. Pause.

3. Step forward on L. ft THE LATINS 217

ft. to R. arm across L arm over 3rdbar. I. Hop on L bringing R. toe L ft, waist, head and turning towards left

2, Pause.

on L. ft. R. and to 3. Hop immediately raising leg turning right.

4th bar. Pas tie Itowrle as Bar 6 of Section B in ist Copk

these with foot Bars 5-8. Repeat 4 bars, starting opposite

and Esttibillo 2nd but this time in bars 14, 15 the man kneels C. Repeat C following Copk, 13, and the draws herself erect on R. ft, L. toe behind R. ft., slowly on R. knee woman slowly arms as before.

EXAMPLE 74

JOTAS ARAGONESAS DE BAEE (ALCANIZ)

of the the difficulties of cross The An example of one many Jotas, showing rhythms. the hand marks each beat with a and the R. hand couple pky the castanets, L usually dip i a and beat with a but this often varies. mark beat with clip 3 roll, rhythm the stand then During the first 10 bars of the introduction couple waiting. They the man turns the woman under his R. arm run forward for 4 bars and, having arrived, each Hands are then raised toherright Both finish facing other, handsonhips. roughly are held at shoulder level, where they easily.

EstriMo

forwards on ft A. Bar I. i. Step L 2. Hop on L. ft

3. Place R. heel forwards.

on ft Bar 2. i. Step back L 2. HoponLft

3. Place R- toe backwards.

forwards on L ft Bar 3. i. Step 2. HoponLft

3. Place R. heel forwards.

heel forwards. Bar 4. i. Place L on R. toe. 2. Step back back on toe. 3. Step L on R. ft Bars. i. Step forwards 2. Hop on R. ft forwards. 3. Place L. heel 2l8 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

de Baile Jotas Aragoncsas (Alcaniz)

U 12' 11 12 220 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

EXAMPLE 74 (cont!)

i. R. ft. Bar 6. Step back on 2. Hop on R. ft.

3. Place L toe backwards.

i. R. ft. Bar 7. Step on

ft. knee bent and make one turn to the finish 2. Swing L up, complete right,

Bars 8, 9. Pause.

ist Copla

B. Bar i. i. SteponLft. 2. Pause.

3. Beat L heel on R. heel (an easy cabriole).

Bar 2. Pas fa lourrk moving sideways : 1. Place R. ft. behind L

2. on L. ft. Step sideways

3. Close R. ft. to L.

ft. toe with knee turned inwards to side. Bar 3. i. Hop on R. pointing L 2. Pause.

ft. and heel on floor with knee turned 3. Hop on R. place L outwards (move-

ment is trom nip).

Bar 4. Repeat bar 3.

Bars bars with ft. 5-8. Repeat 1-4, starting R

Bars this three times with L. and feet 9-20. Repeat step R., R.

21. Partners Bar both kneel on R. knee resting R. arm aaoss waist, with L arm raised. Man races forwards and woman faces backwards.

Bar 22. Partners reverse this movement, kneeling on L. knee.

Bars Both on raise R. knee and make one turn 23, 24. step L ft., complete to left, finish facing partner.

Bar 25. Pause.

C. the next 8 bars the make one turn During couple complete anti-clockwise, facing each other in a small circle. Their knees are almost touching.

Bar i. i. MonR.fcbrir^L.tx>euptoa

3. Fall on L ft. R. toe side of heel R. resting by L knee well bent up.

Bars 2-7. Repeat this movement 6 times.

Bar 8. Pause. arc each other in Couple facing original place. THE LATINS 221

EXAMPLE 74 (cont.} 2nd Copla

D. Bar i. i. Stamp on L ft. to left.

2. Place R. toe at side of L. with R. knee turned in.

Place R. heel out to and turn R. outwards. 3. slightly right knee

Bar 2. Repeat bar i.

Bars. i. Step back on L ft.

2. on ft. Hop L and swing R. kg with knee wcfl bent up behind L knee. 3. Step back on R. ft.

I. on R. ft. and knee well bent behind R. bee. Bar4. Hop swing L leg with up

2. Step back on L ft.

3. Pause.

Bars bars with on ft. 5-8. Repeat 1-4, starting stamp R.

Bars 9-16. Repeat bars 1-8.

E. Still but feeing partner, tiring opposite feet.

Bar i. i. both feet Jump apart. 2. Pause.

ft and Woman 3. Man hops on L raising R. leg upwards sideways. hops

2. Pas-de-bourrte as in 2 of Bar bar B (ist Copla).

Bar bar man on R. and woman on L ft. 3. Repeat i, hopping ft, lifting L., hopping

and raising R. leg.

turn face man Bar 4. Repeat pas-Mwrrte, making one complete to partner again, turning to his left and woman to her right

Bars 5-20. Repeat bars 1-4, four times.

Bars 21-24. Repeat bars 21-24 of ist Copla.

Estribillo

still man to his woman to her make F, Partners using opposite feet, turning left, right, they circle and fi^ each other. one complete turn in own facing

i. I. both feet Bar Jump on slightly apart

ft. and L. toe in front of R. knee. Woman 2. Man hops on R. swings hops onLft.

ft. and toe behind R. knee. Woman on 3. Man hops on R. swings L hops behind. L. and swings R. toe feet Man on woman on R. Bar 2. Repeat bar i, using opposite hops L,

I and 2 Bars 3-7. Repeat bars alternately.

i. on ft and doses R. to it Woman on R. ft. and doses Bar 8. Man steps L steps Ltoit 222 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

BXAMHJB 74 (cent.) yd Copk

make once G. Duringthe first 4 bars couples

man on L. ft., woman on Bars 1-4. Repeat bar I of D (2nd Copla) 4 rimes, stamping

R.ft finish racing each other.

on L. ft, woman on R. Bar 5. i. Man steps back R. out and well raised; woman 2. Man hops on L ft. swinging leg sideways and out L. hops on her R. swings leg. on his R. ft. Woman back on her L 3. Man steps back steps L. out Woman on L Bar 6. i. Man hops on R. ft. swinging leg sideways. hops 2. back on L. woman on R. Man steps ft.,

on ft. R. out Woman on R. 3. Man hops L swinging leg sideways. hops

i. back on R. woman on L. Bar 7. Man steps ft.,

ft. out Woman on L 2. Man hops on R. swinging L leg sideways. hops doses R. ft. to 3. Man doses L. ft. to R. Woman L

Bar 8. Pause.

man on R. ft. one Bars 9-12. Both repeat bar i ofD (2nd Copla) 4 times, stamping making turn to his woman on L. ft. one turn to her left. complete right, making complete

bars 6 with feet. Bars 13-14. Repeat 5, opposite both on forwards Bars 15-16. Pause and on last beat of bar 16, step L ft., woman facing

and man facing backwards.

i. I. ft. R. and forwards. H. Bar Hop on L raising leg upwards 2. Drop on R. ft

3. Close L. ft. to R.

Ban 2-3. Repeat bar I twice.

i. to L. in front Bar 4. Spring on R. ft, leg pointed 2. to L. in front Spring on ft., R. leg pointed to L. in front 3. Spring on R. ft, leg pointed

Partners now reverse direction, man moving forwards to front and woman to back.

Bars bars twice on then reverse 5-12. Repeat 1-4, starting L ft, direction and start on R. ft

Bar 13. Pause.

Bar i. i. Man on to ft. /. steps L 2. Pause.

L. heel to R. heel to 3. 'Brings (Mob). Woman steps on R. ft and also a makes Mole. The couple both face forwards in this.

Bars 2-7. Partners continue to cabriole from side to side moving to and from each other.

Bars 8-12. Partners bars of ist repeat 21-24 Copla, man kneeling first on R. knee, woman on L After the turn man kneels on L knee and facing partner, she places her Lft.onhisR.knee. THE LATINS 223

PORTUGAL

and dances look alike and racial Although many Portuguese Spanish there are strong connections between the two peoples, both having descended from the same tribal there is a fine distinction to a^<* ancestors, be which is due primarily to the different climatic and and thus geographical conditions, to the different kinds of work performed.

has desert-like where it is difficult to a Spain large, areas, extremely scrape living from the soil. on the other hand is Portugal largely green and fertile, and therefore where the dramatic and a of defiance natural Spaniards display arrogance perhaps spirit towards the phenomena, Portuguese show an easy grace and cheerfulness towards the natural

bestowed on them. There is a gifts greater simplicity of movement, except in the south, where the Moorish elements of this prevail. Perhaps, too, some greater simplicity comes from the tact that is a of fishermen and its Portugal largely country seafaring folk, and fishermen's dances reflect the unruffled manner of a fascinating calm, work which requires endless The of the the of the waits patience. coiling ropes, casting nets, long for the

its sudden catch, hauling in, or the slow hauling of boats and swinging of oars seen in the dances the coasts and on the banks of the are to elusive along Tagus, coupled strangely which must have derived the rhythmic tunes, from particular work process involved, or from the still undefined their ancient ancestors. qualities of Basque In some of the fishermen's dances in the is the northern Provinces remarkable use made of high leaps and turns usually associated with the Basques, which seems further to indicate their influence on Portuguese dance and music.

Another important difference between the dances of Spain and those of Portugal is in the attitude of the people towards the historical events that kve affected them. Being a pffifering nation, the Portuguese show rather strong individual characteristics and a love of and have not submitted so to outside those independence, easily influences, except

their life. of the Catholic church which regulates much of

Until the eleventh century, Portugal went through the same historical process as the Spain, but when the Christian kings began to drive the Moors from Iberian Peninsula, it that the did to throw off Moorish seems Portuguese everything possible influence, the the and flemish and the Catholic under guidance of English Kings priests who

the armies. It is that from this contact with these accompanied crusading likely early two more sober nations the Portuguese kve developed so many dance forms similar to those in The bear some resemblance in that arc performed England. steps, too, they to the music in much the same chassis simple and related way. Running, (Ex. 26, page 101), with a movement a easy pas-de-basques good travelling (Ex. 63, page 188), waltzing, or schottische and of the foot first in front smooth hopping polka step, a. passing right the beats or half-beats of thek favourite of and then behind the left, usually match regular time 3/4 or 2/4 signatures. has been maintained. This contact between England and Portugal always closely The 224. EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

been allies in several or have entered into two are seafaring nations, have wars, friendly their trade and the world. There was a rivalry when both were developing exploring dose association the when particularly during Napoleonic Wars, undoubtedly English forms such as La Virra and Scottish soldiers introduced later country-dance Extrapassado, the Pretinho of the and similar dances of the Northern or (versions Strip Willow), Provinces.

influence of the Provencal Portuguese dance also shows the courtly troubadours, who active the Crusades and reinforced the were particularly during early undoubtedly of and dance which was an of their strong relationship song important aspect performance dances. These often fall into two and is still a vital part ofmany Portuguese parts; during in a and the the verse, the couples walk round solemnly ring holding hands, during but their refrain, which is usually quick, they perform very lively simple steps, dapping or their at each other. one also finds dances hands snapping fingers Occasionally with of similar to those found in other areas influenced very strong aspects courdy mime, by lie Provencal courts.

As in the dances and rituals are bound to the church calendar. Spain, dosely Many of these have the same forms as the Sword and Morris dances of other European nations. There are no solo dances, although there are several couple dances, such as the Fandango, which have emanated from In these the two Spain. partners (sometimes two men) take it in turns to their The first dancer sets the to be display virtuosity. rhythm picked up by the second, who elaborates, if he can, the efforts of the other; and in the case of man

the real folk dance in seems to be Unfortunatdy Portugal disappearing. The Anda- lusian of dance in the south and the forms evolved the are style by gipsies beginning to the older and of folk dancers are displace forms, although groups professional trying to save their the are too heritage people perhaps readily allowing themsdves to be enter- tamed others instead of die old dances for by dancing themsdves; moreover they now in the modem ballroom which character indulge dances, gain by being performed on the great threshing-floors, the traditional ballrooms of the real folk dancers.

ROMANIA

Romania was the furthest north-eastern of province the Roman Empire, from which it derived its Latin It is without tongue (see Map 2, facing page 52). contact with any other nation a similar speaking tongue, and its folk dances, music, and arts are a mixture the activities of the reflecting many national groups which flowed in and out of this area die first of the Christian during 1300 years era. The majority of these dances and rituals are akin to those of the whose culture was neighbouring Slavs, impressed upon the Romanians between the tenth and fourteenth when the centuries, Slavs were being THE LATINS 225

from to driven place place by Goths, Teutons, Magyars, and Bulgars. Within Romania there are also large minority groups with their own distinctive forms of dance. like that Romania's history, of the rest of the Balkan countries, is complex. Its rich

and well-wooded mountain its mineral and oil agricultural plains slopes, precious deposits,

its routes the or across mountain and particularly easy through mouth ofthe Danube lower

have made it a to armies landowners. After slopes, prey advancing and exploiting forming of the Greek the Eurasiatics the and later part Empire, original were overrun by Gauls, colonized the Roman who made Latin the official by Emperor Trajan (A.D. 100"), language

it its a that later of this Province and gave name. This language gained so strong hold it for their conquering Gothic and Skv kings and their armies gradually adopted own Church. This as they were converted to Christianity by the Greek Orthodox helped

the inhabitants into a united for its tolerant attitude to mould of Romania people, more ritual allowed the to the to their ancient towards pagan priests encourage peasants practise dances in honour of their new God; thus dances with similar features belonging to the

rites. This furthered different tribes were amalgamated and became communal process was ruthless behaviour when the whole area was conquered by the Ottoman Emperors, for the the caused a to flee into the where of Turkish Janissaries many group mountains, they continued to rehearse their rites in secret

the was a which Romania The break-up of Ottoman Empire very long process, during was between the various At one time some ofher sadly split warring kings. part territory would be annexed, and at another her boundaries would extend into other areas. In minorities found their inside the boundaries which she this way, many way political by

it is their dances as well as those of the Slavs that one must is known to-day, and study overall of Romanian dance. to get an picture for there are whose dances remain in In Transylvania, example, many Hungarians, each member of the the with whom their original form, group working opposite partner wonderful feats of he is most in harmony, and indulging in improvisation. and the Banat are found Among the German minority of southern Transylvania Teutonic Elsewhere several old, dose-turning dances and more solemn, processionals. there are Albanian, Armenian, Turkish, and Greek dances. dances are those of the Vlach a nomadic The most interesting shepherds, strange with their flocks the wide mountain group ofpeople always travelling through Carpathian litde heed to boundaries. Their methods of ranges and paying political t^rformance and Their wonderful and are similar to those of the Hungarians, Basques, gipsies. leaps and of and turns are contrasted with statuesque stepping complicated changes epaulement, of the or batterie like the The punctuated by deep bending knees, dainty Highlanders. for are rhythms are very complicated they dimtedbythedancertoadnraim^ an on his shrill flute or soft merely creating atmospheric melody shepherd's bagpipe. are in and influence all dances, for are often There many gipsies Romania, they they musicians available and therefore their will on the dancers. But when the only impose 226 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE the Romanians accompany themselves by mouth music, or on the popular accordion, they have the same musical features that are found in Slav and Middle Eastern countries, circle and cfrain or Hora. This and the most popular dance of all is the ancient t usually a ofincredible starts with a slow stately stepping and develops into dance speed, lightness, the whirl and gaiety. Tne circles often break into a couple dance, in which partners round to each full the taking two steps on the heels or the balls of the feet turn, partners holding each other round the waist and leaning backwards away from each other. There are the same three forms of Kolo or Hora as found in Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, which are performed according to the ground they are danced on. But they are far gayer than those of the true Slav countries, except such ritual dances as those of die Calusari, and die ones performed at weddings. CHAPTER XVII

The Basques

T T THO are the and where did If it Basques, they originate? were possible to answer % l\ / these it be to solve some of the questions might possible interesting problems that arise from the of this ancient Y V study people, and their rektionship to the rest of are said to be the most ancient all Europe. They of European races and they a a few speak unique language, only words of which are found elsewhere among the Turki-Tartar tribes of the Caucasus. still They practise many strange rituals and have to similar customs peculiar themselves. At the same time, in their dances are found to those in the southern half of dements Europe and parts of Asia. Four-fifths of them live and the rest above a line below boundary drawn by Spain and France, who have for the of this but the fought ownership territory, people themselves know no division, are united under their and own democratically elected government Were some nomadic in the Middle they tribe, originating East, who gradually spread throughout the southern Mf of Europe, and then were pushed further and further west- other tribes until came to rest where the western the wards by they finally edges of Pyrenees are bounded by the Atlantic Ocean? That they are a mountain people is very evident the of their male are so like from exciting upwards leaping dance, whose steps those these dances to the of other mountain people. Did originally belong Basques, who, as their left their and twists the they passed on way, strange capers queer of body among the as do their or the Georgians, who also "wriggle" they entrechats, Vlach shepherds, who similar did them 'from the Celtic tribes were later to have leaps? Or they acquire who spread through the British Isles into Scotland, since the Basque male solos, Arresku in are like some Scottish such as the Seann Triubhas? particular, extraordinarily solos, about the Arresku and its the is that The strange thing, too, after-dance, Espatadanzta, in construction it is extremely like the Georgian I^zghinka-Lekouri, the male showing before the to and the then off his prowess asking girl dance, couple Hanring together. the male is for he dominates That the Basques were a tribe led by immediately apparent, like that ofthe full of the dance, which is tremendously exciting and, Georgian, significant unlike the the dances are gesture, fire, and spontaneity. But, Georgian, Basque usually his individualistic and "set." Where the Georgian practises "whiffing" guerrilk-Hke swords or short the inarches round with sword antics with great curving knives, Basque in Did the held aloft before linking it with others formal, complicated patterns. Basques linked and hilt Sword or did the on the originate these point Dances, Celts, meeting them the sun, sink into the western form and Basques and with watching ocean, give 3*7 228 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

these and hilt pattern to some wild, sun-worshipping ritual? Or were point dances brought by later Teutonic tribes? The linked Sword Dances are found as a rule where

certain some ofTeutonic have and barbarians, origin, passed, notably France, Spain, Italy. Was the so-called Morris a vital form the Dance, fertility rite, given by Basques, to a who sometimes paused on their journeying and attempted make temporary home? There the themselves into a and young men would form circle, vigorously engender the to all whilst medicine man or magic quicken living things, tie the young men

themselves would whirl their bull-roarers to keep away all evil, as the Morris men still whirl and slings, handkerchievcs, rappers. The deliberate dances to this fighting were surely brought area by the Romans, but did the the of the or did Basques originate worship horse, they acquire this from other eastern nomads who it east and west across the vast spread land mass of Europe and Ask and carried it across to islands not too far from the mainland? "What is the significance of the dance with the Basques' wine-glass, which bears some resemblance to dances in

and the Caucasus? Is it Hungary linked in some way with Skv and Jewish customs of breaking wine-glasses at wedding ceremonies? do the women so in and "Why pky Me part Basque dance, when they perform in the or Dantza Ehorda or the are so Fandango Jota, Arresku, why they quietly sedate? Those solemn women's are also found in the stoppings Caucasus and other areas, where Moslem influence has failed to make the conquered races accept her as a mere chattel If it were to answer these and more to this possible many questions rekting strange and ancient who have retained so people, many traditional customs and dances, and even their characteristic with its short physical type stature, long, triangular-shaped head, forehead, and narrow the secret of bulging jaw, perhaps many European rituals would be discovered. It be to see how the might possible Basques gave way to the Celts or who in turn were TurH-Tartars, overwhelmed by Romans, Teutonic, Skv, or other barbarians, and how further inroads eastern and by north-western Mongols, Finno- and Teutons Ugrians, again the context of the dance. If it were changed possible to off the peel various stratas of dance, as an onion is peeled, removing first the Protestant, then the Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and other Christian as well as Moslem influences, and the then effects ofvarious bans and edicts kid churches and by by feudal, monarchial, imperial, and democratic would we governments, ultimately arrive at some common and simple dance in which all could of and join irrespective race, nation, language? The answer is nation has such yes. Every a dance, some circle based on variations of the basic simple, step-to-the-side and dose. nations have similar Many types of ground and climate. Several nations have dance forms in common. It is only rhythms that dificr. Yet has an instinctive everyone understanding of rhythm, for it lies in the heart-beats of life itself-surely the people of one nation could any participate in the dance rhythms of and find others, thereby a common and a mutual sympathy understanding? Appendix I

list of where of This places types dance are to be found is by no means complete.

Animal Dances

Alpine areas mountain cock mating Basque country cranes, foxes Bulgaria hares

Czechoslovakia gadfly, cock England reindeer

Finland seals, bears, hares

France goats, wolves, sheep Georgia eagle, horses Greece cranes Hungary boars, horses Poland horses

Russia reindeer, horses, foxes, bears Spain cranes

Chains

Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Faroe Isles Finland France Greece Holland Italy Poland Portugal Spain Romania Russia Switzerland Yugoslavia

Circles, Kolos, Khorovods, etc.

Circular formations or figures are found in all countries.

Dances Irish and Scottish Country (i.e. English, style) England Denmark Finland France Germany Holland Norway Sweden

Courtship Dances a shoe etc. Choosing partners with pillow, finger, Austria Czechoslovakia Denmark Holland Russia Scandinavia N. Italy Poland Switzerland

229 FOLK DANCE 23o EUROPEAN

or two and one man-- In threes, either two men and one girl girls

N. Kolos, Poland (Troyak, France (Burgundian Branles) Yugoslav etc.) Scottish and Irish Three-handed Reels Russia (Trepak) Handkerchief Dances

Czechoslovakia Denmark Scandinavia S.Germany

Couple Dances are later in and all other dances of origin. Principally Italy Spain; couple

Dances those the or other erotic element) Fertility (i.e. containing fertility leap

etc. and use of broomstick Alpine 'area Schuhplatder, Brittany Italy: French Provencal La Volta and dances in Dalmatian Eagle Kolo LaVendfe Polish Kujaviak a few Dutch dances Russian dances, Scandinavian, Danish and

1 Sailors Fishermen's Dances (also Dances) Poland France: Mediterranean coast Italy Russia: Barents Sea and Black and White Sea areas Portugal Holland and Russia Sailors' Dances: France, England, Norway,

Dances Gipsy

Czechoslovakia Hungary Romania Russia

Spain Yugoslavia

Guerrilla Dances

Greece Georgia (particularly Macedonia) Yugoslavia

Hunters Dances

Czechoslovakia Hungary Russia Poland

(N.B. These sometimes become Courtship dances, Le. the Georgian Lekouri)

Moon-worshipping Dances

Morris Dances (Morisco or Maresca)

countries France Basque Bngljmj Italy

Portugal Romania Yugoslavia

Processionals

Nearly everywhere. (N.B. Helston Furry Dance, Abbot's Bromley Horned Dance and Breton Piler-Lan.) APPENDIX I 231 tecreational Dances

Everywhere

Czechoslovakia Hungary Russia Yugoslavia

also Ritual Dances (see Circles, Serpentine, Processionals, etc.)

Craxnignon to Easter Hymn: Holland Dancing on fire: Yugoslavia Dancing round bonfires: very widespread Maypole Dancing: Basque countries, Czechoslovakia, England, Finland, Switzerland France, Germany, Portugal, Sweden,

Funeral Dances: Balkans, Greece, Portugal, Spain

etc.: Jack-in-the-green, Austria, England, France, Germany in Czechoslovakia and men Tug-o'-war by girls by nearly everywhere Witches' Ceremonials: Austria and Pyrenees Easter Dances: Seville Cathedral and outside Echternach Cathedral

Dances Serpentine

and all have forms ofthe Farandole. France, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Italy Yugoslavia and the Balkans have other forms.

Dances Sun (i.e. mill-wheel)

Denmark and Switzerland

Sword Dances (various forms) Denmark Austria Sweden Yugoslavia Czechoslovakia England Bulgaria Italy France Germany Holland Spain Scotland Poland Portugal

Tree-Dwellers Dances (with Whifflers)

France Romania Yugoslavia

Dances which actual sword is War (in play practised)

France Greece England Georgia Yugoslavia 232 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

Wedding Dances (in which the bride's work is shown)

Armenia Azerbaijan Czechoslovakia Georgia Hungary Poland Romania Russia Sweden Yugoslavia

Work Dances (in which actual work is indicated)

Armenia: Carpet-weaving, Harvesting, Cowmen, Vintage, Cradle dance Austria: Salt-miners

Bulgaria, Caucasus, and Crimea: Rose-harvesting, Vintage Czechoslovakia: Poppy-harvest, Ploughmen Denmark: Mill-wheel

"Rtiglaptj: Sailors, Bean-setting, Gathering Peascods Finland: Woodcutters, Fishermen, Carters, Cowmen France: Bellringers, Harvesters, Grooms' Dance, Woodcutters, Vintage Hebrides: Weaving Lilt Holland: Harvesting Italy: Vintage Portugal: Harvesting, Fishermen, Ploughing and Sowing Russia: Fishermen, Sailors, Harvesting, Sowing, Cowmen, Woodcutters, Vintage Spain: Vintage, Harvest Switzerland: Cowmen, Mill-wheel Appendix II

is a brief list of The Mowing composers who have introduced, either consciously or their national their unconsciously, own music into original work. Armenia. Balanchivaidze, Ippolitov-Ivanov, Khachaturian, Tigranian. (Sec also Russian Composers.)

Azerbaijan. See above, and also Russian Composers.

Basque Countries. Guridi, Usandezago.

Bulgaria. Vkdigerov (Panchu).

Czechoslovakia. Bartok, Dvorak, Janacek, Smetana.

England. During the Tudor and Stuart periods, and for a short while after the Restoration, their a are names were legion, therefore few contemporary composers only mentioned. Bax, Moeran, Warlock, Vaughan Williams; also Percy Grainger for arrangements of folk tunes.

Finland. Sibelius.

folk at allVincent France. Only one composer appears to have used any idiom D'Indy in his "Symphonic Montagnarde."

Russia. Georgia. See Armenia and

Germany. Beethoven, Brahms, Mozart, Schubert, Schumann.

Hungary. Bartok, Kodaly. See also Brahms and Liszt

Norway. Grieg.

Poland. Chopin, Scharwenka, SzymanowskL

Russia. Balakirev, Dargomirsky, Glinka, Ippolitov-Ivanov, Liadov, Mussorgsky, and Rimsky-Korsakov, Stravinsky, Tchaikovsky, many contemporary composers. Manuel de Turina. Spain. Albeniz, Falla, Granados,

Yugoslavia. Hristic.

333 Appendix III

of Folk Dance and its This short Bibliography gives suggestions for a further study background.

Bart6k,Bela: Hungarian Folk Music. (Trans, by M. D. Calvorcoressi. Oxford University Press, London, 1931.)

Chambers, E. K.: The Mediaeval Stage. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1903.) The Elizabethan Stage. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1923.)

Childe, V. Gordon: Man Makes Himself. (Watts and Co., Ltd., London, 1941.) What Happened in History. (Penguin Books, Ltd., 1942.) Elyot, Sir Thomas The Governour. (Published 153 1 can be seen at the British Museum.)

Farrington, B. : Head and Hand in Ancient Greece. (Watts and Co., Ltd., 1947.)

lewde and lascivious Featherstone, Christopher: A Dialogue against light, dancing. (Published 1582 can be seen at the Bodleian library, Oxford.) Fraser, Sir James O.M.: The Golden Bough. Abridged Edition. (Macmillan and Co., Ltd., London, 1941.)

Graham-Dalyell, Sir John: Musical Memoirs of Scotland. (T. D. Stevenson, Edinburgh.) D.: Culture Grecov, B. The of Kiev RMS. (Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow, 1947.)

Griffith, Wyn: The Welsh. (Penguin Books, Ltd., 1950.)

Harrison, Jane Ellen: Ancient Art and Ritual (Williams and Norgate, Ltd., London, 1931.) Frank: Mind and Music. and Howes, Man, (Seeker Warburg, Ltd., London, 1948.) and others: Huxley, Julian, We Europeans. (Penguin Books, Ltd.) Dances. Bell and Kennedy, Douglas: England's (G. Sons, Ltd., London, 1949.) D. G.: and MacLennan, Highland Traditional Scottish Dances. (Printed by W. T. and for McDougall Co., Edinburgh, the author, 1950.) Countess: in the Folk Martmengo-Cesaresco, Essays Study of Songs. (Everyman's Library, No. Dent and 673, Sons, Ltd., London, 1914.) Mellers, 'Wilfred: Music and Society. (Dennis Dobson, Ltd., London, 1946.) Gilbert O.M.: Five Greek Murray, Stages of Religion. (Watts and Co., Ltd., London, I935-) APPENDIX III 235

: British Dram. Nicbll, Alkdyce (Hanap and Co., Ltd., London, Fourth edition, 1945.) and Miracles. and Mimes, Masques (Harrap Co., Ltd., London, 1931.)

Sean: The Irish. O'Faolain, (Penguin Books, Ltd., 1947.)

The Master. Playford, John: Dandng (Editions of 1651, 1652, 1665, 1670, 1675, 1679, and later editions 1686, published by others, 1690, 1695, 1698, 1701, 1703, 1713, 1716, 1718, 1721, 1728. Can be seen at the British Museum.)

P. S. : Editor of The a Richardson, J. Dancing Times, monthly publication, including

numerous authoritative articles to the from 1910 present day.

Curt: The Rise in the Sachs, ofMusic Ancient World. (Dent and Sons, Ltd., London, 1944-) World the Dance. Allen and History of (George Unwin, Ltd., London, 1938.)

Lewis: Introduction to and Spence, An Mythology. (Harrap Co., Ltd., London, 1921.) and Ritual in and and Myth Dance, Game Rhyme. (Watts Co., Ltd., London, 1947.) and Steinberg, S.K: Historical Tables, $B.C.-A.D.igti. (Macmillan Co., Ltd., London,

I947-)

Studies in Andent Greek VoL L "The Prehistoric Thomson, George: Society. Aegean." and (Lawrence Wishart, Ltd., London, 1949.)

Sodal Green and Trevdyan,G.M.: English History. (Longmans, Co., Ltd., London, 1942.)

towards a Can be seen at Weaver, John: An Essay History of Dandng. (London, 1712. the British Museum.)

Outline and Wells, E G.: The ofHistory. (Cassd Co., Ltd., London, 1925.)

Williams, R.VaughanO.M.: National Music. (Oxford University Press, London, 1934.)

Dances. VisH, Earoly: Hungarian (Simpkin Marshall, Ltd, London, 1937.) Index of Dances

ABBOT'S Bromley homed dance, 22, 161 Court dance, 15, 16, 22, 88, 104, 105, 122, 124, 132, American 212 square dance, 96 146, 150, AMoteon,n6 Courtship dance, 8, 14, 154, 207 21 Animal dance, 7, 8, II, 85 Cowmen's dance, 21 Argyll broad sword, 184 Cramignon, Csiirdongolo, 194 Cushion carpet weaving, n, 19, 57, 59, 60 dance, 15, 105 circle, 59 Cz&dis, 75, 104, 193, 197, (Ex. 69, p. 200) cradle, 59 wfflow, II, 57 DALDANS, 15, 128, 133, 135, (Ex. 42, p- 138) wind, 57 Dance

Arrcsku, 227, 228 of the flagellants, 209 of the seven veils, 57 with a BADGES, la, 15 rifle, 74 Ballo Tondo, 207 Danse Maraichine, 147, (Ex. 45, P- 151) ronde de k Civaia, 19, 148 Bean-setting, 13 n, Dantza Khorda, 228 Danza 212 Boijko,95 Prima, Borica, 194 Derbyshire Morris reel, 143 lib, Boulangere, la, 180 Devojacko kolo, 32, 77, (Ex. p. 82) Dirk 180 Bourree a quaere, 147 dance, Bounces, 20, 147, 148 Do Kola, 105 122 Boyars' dances, 87, 88 Drehtanz, Driekusman, 15 CABHION, 20 Dyasmaly, 59 QiTTTiagnO^) 146 EAGLE kolo, 20 Chain dances, 16, 20, 21, 27, 3L 33, 33, 68, 69, 88, 114, Reel, 143, 184, (Ex. 64, 189) 119, 127, 129, 132, 133, 142, 144, 207, 212, 226 Eightsome p. Espata Dantza, 227

Cherouli, 32, 58 228 Circassian Circle, 19 FANDANGO, 224, Circle- Farandole, 51, 32, 145, 149, (Ex. 51, p. 156), 206 dosed, 20, 22, 33, 85 Fertility dance, 7 dances, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 31, 33, 5*. 68, 86, 88, 108, Figure dance, 88, 96, 132 114, 142, 144, 148, 149, 197, 207, 212, 226 finger double, 20 dance, 15, 105 dap dance, 15 Close turning dance or valse, 22, 121, 147, 225 Come to me, 15 Flamborough Sword dance, 20 Comedy dance, 85 Fling, 184, (Ex. 62, p. 186) Foresters dance, 85 Coraule, 21, 114 Furlana,207 Cotillon, 24, 122, 147 GATHERING Peascods, 166 Bumpkin, 184 Gauerler, 115 dance, 16", 17, 18, 24, 51, 96, 104, 119, 122, 124, 125, Gavotte, 148, (Ex. 47, p. 152) 146, 150, 161, 164, 165, 166, 171, 175, 180, 183, Gillie Callum, 14, 184 184,204 Couple dance, 14-18, 22, 60, 75, 88, 108, 114, 116, 117, 122, 130, 149, 163, 206, 208, 212, 224, 226 Gopak, 32, 58, 84, 86, 112, 141

236 INDEX OF DANCES 237 Guerrilla dance, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 21, (Ex. 7, p. 69) Maypole dance, 5, 213 Guild dances, 12, 135 Mazur (mazurka), 22, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 203 Norwegian, (Ex. 43, p. 142) HAIUNG, 58, 141 McMerrina, 207 Hassapikos (Turkish butcher's dance), 57, 68 Moonshine, 19, 85, 86, Hebridean (Ex. 16, p. 91) Weaving Lilt, n, 19, 27, 181 Morpem Rant, 165 Helston 161 furry dance, 22, Morris dance (moresca, morisco), 13, 20, 24, 144, 149, Herdsmen's dance, 116 161, 163, 165, 166, 207, 209, 213, 224, 228 Heyduck's dance, 193 . Mountain goat dance, 7 Hierig, 115 Mountaineers' dance, 32, 98, 108 Hit and Miss, 166 Hop jig, 176 NEDA Grivny, 19, 77, (Ex. nc, p. 83) Hopping dances, 33, 77, 112 Newcastle, 165 Hora, 19, 73, 226

Horlepijp, 125, (Ex. 36, p. 126) OBEBEK.95,98 Hornpipe, 175 Obertass, 95, 98 Horos, 9, 73, 112 Oxdansen, 132 Horse-rider's dances, 34, 86 Hunter's dance, n PADTJSHKA, 76, 112 Hunting dance, 7, n (Ex. 9, p. 78), Pavane,207 1. 133, 134 Picoulet, 116

Piler-lan, 22, jANOSHKA,Io6,(Ex.3I,p.HO) 148, (Ex. 46, p. 152) Polka, 15, 51, 55, Jig. H3, 174, 175, 176 75, 77, 88, 96, 104, 105, 106, 108, 114, 115, 142, 147, 148 Jota, 212, (Ex. 74, p. 217), 228 PdbPiqufe,i48,(Ex.53,p.l6o) Polonaise, 94, KALAMAJKA, 19, 73, 105 95, 96, 97, (Ex. 19, p. 98) Polska, 132, 203 Kalamatianos, 21, 32, 68, (Ex. 8, p. 70) Pretinho, KallaiKettos, 194 224 Processional dance, Kepurine, 15 21, 22, 33, 51, 69, 88, 95, 108, 115, 122, 225 Khorovod, 19, 73, 85 203 Khorumi, 58, 68, 69 Purpun, dance, 68 Kolo, 8, Pyrrhic 13, 14, 16, 19, 20, 26, 31, 32, 33, 60, 73, 75, 7<5, 85,93,94,95,96,103,105,226 Kolomijkas, 73, 84, 105 QUADHIIIB, 24, 51, 122, 124, 125, 147, 203

Krakoviak, 22, % 95, 96, 97, (Ex. 27, p. 102) Krizachok, 73, 85 RACBENTISA, 112

Kujaviak, 94, 95, 96, 98 Recruiting dance, 14* 77 193 Reel, 22

LADS A Buncham, 13 Celtic, 23- Lancers, 24 four-handed, 188

Landler, 115, 120, 122 Irish, 175 Latovak, 105 Scottish, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184 Laura, 94 three-handed, 14, 184 Reindeer Leaping dance, 33 dance, 161, see also Abbot's Bromley Lekouri, 58, 59, 227

Lezgliinka, 58, 59, 116, 227 RHf Wyth, 171 Llanover Ridee de Reel, 171 Pontivy, 148, (Ex. 48, p. 157) Longways- Ridees, 148, 150 Rinnce dances, 22, 24, 117, 122, 130, 149, 197 Fada, 173 Rinnce Morris, 13 Mor, 173, (Ex. 58, p. 177)

set, 22, 112 Rondes, 19, 143 Lou Panliran, 149 Rufty Tufty, 166 Louby-loo, 116

SAINT Virus' dance, 121 MANX Dirk dance, 74, 142 Salat,i05 went to the Mary garden, 15 Saltarelb, 207, 208, (Bx. 66, p. 210) Mateixas,(Bx.73,p.2i4) Sardana,2i2 23 8 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

Schottuche, 140 Syrtos, see Kalamatianos Schnhplattler. 7, 115, 116 Szekler Legenyes, 193, 194 Seann Triubhas, 32, 182, 183, 184, 227 Scllcnger's Round, 10, 19, 31, 143, idr, 166, (Ex. 56, TANHU,202 p. 170) Tarantella, 207, 209 Serpentine dances (or figures), 21, 27, 32, 51, 77, 149 Teskoto, 68, (Ex. 7. P- <&), 74. ?6 Sec dances, 88 Toumidjaire, la, 20 Seven Springs, 119, (Ex, 35, p. "3) Trembling danc^ 33, 76 Shaking Amc% 33, 77, ua Trenchmore, 173 Shepherd s Trescone,207 dances, 8, 147 Troyak.14 Hey, 166, (Ex. 55, p. 168) Troyanats, 77, (Ex. no, p. 81) Shoemaker's dances, 15 fit Silent danrf VAISH, 15, 22, 51, 75, 77, 96, 104, 105, 106, 108, 114, Sfcobp dance, 132, (Ex. 41, p. 137) 115, 122, 140, 147 SKp jig, 176 Verbunkos, 14, 193, 194, 195 Soldier's Joy, 120 Vinca,la,i5 Sonderho dance, 129, (Ex. 38, p. 130) Vingaker ^apr^j 14 Soyotte, ii. 148, (Bit. 53, p. 158) Vintage dances, n Staines Morris, 166 Virra extrapassado, la, 180, 190, 224 Starobosansko kolo, 74 Volta, la, 17, 147, 1^3 Stepping dances, 33, 77, "* Vranyanka, 76 Stcyxischer, 116 Stonpik,i48 WAR dances, 12-14 Stradispey, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184 Wedding dances, 11, 77, 86, 87, 128, 134, 197, 202 Strip the "Willow, 180, (Ex, 65, p. 190), 224 When I was a young maid, 116 Swallow dance, 202 Woodcutter's dances, u, 85 Sweet Kate, 15, (Ex. 54, p. 167) Work dance, 9-12, 30, 57, 88 Sword dance, 5, 12, 13, 14, 19, 119, 135, 161, 164, 228 ZHDKINO'S 165, 166, 197, 207, 209, 211, 213, 224, 227, Kolo, 33, 7<$, 77, (Ex. 10, p. 80) Index

ACT of Proscription (Scotland), 180 Basket grasp, 23 Adriatic Titian/^ jo6 Basque countries, 8, 227-8 Africa, 6, 14, 25, 33, 125, 206 Basques, 34, 52, 55, 56, 195, 223, 225, 227-8 area, 15, 27, 28, Alpine 33, 113-18 Batterie, 212, 225 Alps, 31, 113, 115, "9. 122 Battering, 175 Alsace, 150 Bedouins, 33 Altai mountains, 101 Belgium, 143, 145 Befl step, (Ex. 13, p. 89), set also Pas de bounce America, 127, 164 Black mountains (Serbia), 33, 43 Americas, 211 Black sea, 34, 5

sea, 83, 119, 120, 132 Casting on; 24 States, 93 Catalonia, 211 Banat Catholic (Romania), 225 Church, 16, 75, 104, 106, 114, 120, 121, 124, Barents Sea, n 127, 145, 192, 206, 209, 212, 223, 228 Fishermen, 36 Catholicism, 173

Basic step, 2, 33, 68, 86, 112, 228 Catholics, 179 Trsghmlra, 59, (Ex. 3, p. 62) Caucasians, 56, 197 Slav, 28, 73, 75, 77, 8<$, 88, 94, 97, 106, 107, 108, Caucasus, 8, 9, 26, 47, 48, 55-65, 85, 86, 227, 228 133, 148, 194, 195 CcQidhe, 96, 148 240 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

Celts (or Celtic tribes), 24,25, 119,143-90,212,227,228 Eisteddfods, 171 Cham, jgff Hey

Chains of Ttirds, (Ex. I, p. 52), 119, 128 Austrian, 116, 117 112 Champagne (Fiance), n, 148 Bulgar,

Chassi (Cwal or gallop), 7, 27, 51, 95. 9^. 97. (Ex. 26, Celtic, 144 106 p. 101), 133, 182, 196, 223 Czech, 105, Christianity, 56, 103, 104, in, 114, 120, 121, 145, 161, English, 165 171,173.179,192,205,206,225 French, 147, 148, 149 Christians, 13, 127 German, 122 Civil wars, 102 Greek, 67

'Cobbler's step, 85 Hungarian, 195, 196, 197 Commonwealth (Cromwellian), 162, 163 Man, 208, 209 Congress of Vienna, 15 Norwegian, 140 Cornwall, 8, 145, 161 Polish, 95,96 Corsica, 206 Russian, 88

Cossack, 7, 3

Czechostovakia, n, 15, 18, 26, 37, 40, 45, 47, 72, 73, FAII of Constantinople, in

83, 103-11, 191 Falling fourth, (Ex. I. p. 52), 85, 86, 106

Czechs, 31, 39, 103-11, 129 FaH-out step, 134 Faroe Islands, 21, 127, 129 DAL step, (Ex. 39, p. 135) Feis.172 Dalmatia, 13, 20 Feniinine cadence, 88, 95, 9<5, 99, (Ex, 20, Dance p. 99), songs, 54, 76, 85, 105, 115, 141, 144, 148, 166 148, 195 Danes, 13 Fertility leap, n, 14, 20, 28, 98, 115, 147, 163 Danish invasion, 173 Festivals, 52, 67, 145, 206, 212 Danube, 103, in, 115, 129, 161, 191, 225 Carnival, 117 Danubian Plains, 31, 33, 34, 72, 191, 192 Holy week, 72 Dauphine* (France), 150, 180 Invention of the Holy Cross, 209 Denmark, 15, 31, 39, 41, 120, 127, 128-31 Lent.5 Developpi en avant (crane step), 7, (Eat. 17, p. 92) Mayday, 5, 163 Dnieper, 34, 127 Saints' Days, 84, 145 Dniester, 34 Feudalr- Don, ii, 34 Lords, 16, 104 Dorian mode, 164 Princes, 105 Dorians, 66 system, 56, 104, 105, 146 Double ring grasp, 23 Kfth,i28 Drudds, 10, 161 144, of or Figure eight step Strathspey step, 181, 182 Drumming, 175 Figure' step, 134 DGbbenosFordul6,i97 Rnknd, 132, 201-4 Dumka,73 finno-Ugrians (or tribes), 11, 25, 36, 83, in, 127, 132, 161, 181, 191-204, 228

5. 7, 52, 57, 1 72, 84, 127, 191, 201-4 Bern , 37, 54, 205 Flamenco, 211, 213 INDEX 24?

Fordulat,io6 Hobby-horse, 8, 22, 112 bokavorf, 194, 197, see also Cabriole Holland, 15, 41, 45, 48, 124-6, 127, 128, 129, 132 Fourth, 85 Holobetz,5K Cabriole France, 7, 13, 15, 16, 17, 25, 27, 30, 31, 33, 36, 39, 40, Holuticka, 108 41, 45, 120, 124, 143, 144-60, 166, 180, 202, 205, Holy- 227,228 RomanEmpire, 94, 104, 120, 121, 124, 127, 192, 206 Franks (Prankish Kingdom), 124, 145, 206 wars, 69 French- Honour, 27 court, 17 Hop step, 134 red 128 step, Hopping Friss 195 (Frisbira), backwards, 88, (Ex. 15, p. 90) Furiant,io6 step, 134 Hopsa,i29,(Ex.37,p.i3o) GALLOP, see Chasse* Hornpipe step. 125, (Ex. 36, p. 126), 129 Gaul, 145, 161 Hungarian- Gauls, 145, 205, 225

Georgia, 7, 27, 34, 47, 55-65 War ofIndependence, 193 Georgians, 26, 34, 39, 55-65, 95, 227 Hungarians, 26, 31, 29, 181, 191-201, 225 Germany, 15, 18, 30, 34, 120-3, 124, 127, 129, 132, Hungary, 5, ir, 12, 18, 26, 27, 33, 34, 35, 36, 40, 43, - 145, 205 47, 73, 75, 83, 104, 108, 176, 182, 191-201, 228 Gipsy, 4, 35, an, 212, 123, 224, 225

Huns, 34, 192 Gill's Hurre* step (Old Man's step), 129 Dyasmaly,(Ex.2,p.2i),59,62 Hussites, 104, 121 Gopak,86,(Ex.i8,p.93) Gliding hops, 203 ICELAND, 127 Goat's leap, 7, 60, (Ex. 6, p. 65) n Chieb, see Goat's leap Goths, 66, 206, 225 tie de France, 20, 146, 190 Gottknd step, 134 Ma, 25, 29 Grand chain, see Hey Industrialization, 18, 104, 130, 163 Greece, 8, 21, 26, 27, 31, 38, 41, 45, 47, 66^71, 73, Ingo, 196 149, 205, 208

Greek- Ireland, 16, 17, 143, 161,171, 172-8

Empire, 66, in, 206, 225 Irish, 171, 172-8, 182

Orthodox Church, 16, 43, 56, 67, 75, 84, 103, in, Italian court, 17

225, 228 Italians, 27, 207-10 206 Greeks, 30, 34, 54, 66^71, Italy, 13, 15, 18, 33, 40, 4*, 73, 75, 124, 145,205-10,228 Greenland, 10, 127

Green-man, 6 5, 6, 161

Hujp-poussette, 24 limping Jack (stride-knee-bend), 134 Hambo-Polska (Swedish Hambo), 135, (Ex. 40, p. 136) iiCK-in-the-Green,iites, 120, 127, 145, 161, 171 Hanseatic League, 127

Harang, see Bell step or Pas-de-bourree KJuum, n, 203 Hebrides, n, 180 Lakes, 202

Heel and toe step, 208 Karelians, 85, 191 0*70*96 Kelto-Iberians, 211 Herzegovina, 73, 74, 75 Kerestezo,(Ex.i5,p.9o),i95 see Goat's Hey (grand chain), 24 Kermatt, leap double, 24 Khanate of the Golden Horde, 84, see also Mongols for three, 24 and Tartars for four, 24 Kogudk,o8 Polish, 96 High- cuts,^ Lancashire, 13, 45, 125,166 hops, 208 Languedoc (France), 150 No. Highland schottische step (or Strathspey step i), Lapps, 127 183, (Ex. 60, p. 185) Lassu(Lassan),i95) 242 EUROPEAN FOLK DANCE

Latins, 52, 205-26 Ostrogoths, 75 Latvia, 201-4 Ostyaks, 85, 191

Lejtovagas, 197, (Ex. 70, p. 201) Oticrvy, 107, (Ex. 28, p. 108) Limousin (France), 149 Lithuania, 15, 201-4 Emperors, 75, 192, 225 Lock or rose, 12, 165, 166 Empire, 66, 75, 192, 225 Loire River, 146 Lombards, 266 PALESTINE, 205 208 Long hops, Papal Wars, 121 Lorraine (France), 150 Pas- Luther, 120, 121 balaye; 97, (Ex. 23, p. 100) de basque, 27, 51, 112 Azerbaijan, 60, (Ex. 5, p. 64) MACEDONIA, 47, 73, 76 Portuguese, 223 3, 5, 8, ", n, 13, 20, 36, 42, 149, 228 Magic, Russian, 86, (Ex. 14, p. 90) 52, 75, 103, 121, 191-201, 225 Magyars, Scottish, 181, 183, (Ex. 63, p. 188) Marathon race, 21 Yugoslav, (Ex. 10, p. 80) Masque, 23, 102 see also de bounce, 27, 51, Bell step Maypole, 6, 161 French, 149, 155, (Ex. 49, P- I5S). (Ex. 50, p. 156) Mazowse (Poland), 94 de chat, 7, see also Goat's leap dechcval,7 Alpine area, 117, (Ex. 33, p. 118) march4 97, (Ex. 22, p. 99) (Ex. 43, Norway, p. 142) sauttfs, 148, 149 Mediterranean areas, 25, 29 sissone, 97, (Ex. 21, p. 99) Middle East, 25, 54, 59, 60, 83, 143. 227 Peninsular war, 180 Mill-wheel, 10, 130, see also Sun ritual Pentatonic scale, 85, 144 MohaVs field (Battle of}, 192 Persia, 54 Mongolia, 32, 33 Persians, 56 Mongols, 34, 37, 56, 84, 93, ipi, 192, 228 Pilgrim step, 122, 128, 129 Montenegro, 73, 77 Pivot, ii, 26, 59, (Ex. 4, p. 62), 87, 122, 203, 208 Moors, 13, 209, 211, 223 Poitu (France), 147, 148 Morality Plays, 12, 17, 162 Poland, 15, 18, 26, 29, 33, 34, 37, 40, 47, 72, 73, 93- Moravia (Czechoslovakia), 103, 104 Moslem- 103, 105, 132, 147, 176, 196, 201, 202 Poles, 93-103, 132, 201 chorch (faith or influence), 42, III, 228 Polka- empire, 56, 211 116 Moslems, 212 Austrian, Czech, 27, 100, 107 Mouth music, 52, 59, 75, 202, 207 Danish, 129 NAPOLEONIC Dutch, 125 armies, 114 Finnish, 203 wars, 212, 224 French, 148, (Ex. 53, p. 160) 122 Netherlands, 41, 124 German, bed 203 Normandy (France), 127, 146 step, see Promenade Normans, 162, 173 Irish, North Sea, 127 Polish, 96, 103

Northern Plains (Yugoslavia), 33, 75 Portuguese, 225 see Northumberland, 166 Scottish, Progressive step or Common schot- Norway, 127, 140-2 nsche Nusler,6 Swiss, 116 Tremblante, 108 OB, River, 191 Welsh, 171

Oboroti, (Ex. 24, p. 100), 197 Yugoslav, 79 Obratzani, 97 Polka mazurka- Obrocak,i07 Alpine area, (Ex. 34, p. 118) Octave, (Ex. i, p. 52), 115, 147 Danish, 129

Ostgota step, 134 Swedish, 133 INDEX

see Polb-without-a-hop, (Ex. 30, p. 109) Rising step, Rise and grind

Czech, 37 Rituals or rites, 3-6, 9, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 30,

Danish, 129 34, 36*, 52, 57, 60, 66, 67, 83, 85, 87, 93, 104, 105, Dutch, 125 in, 112, 113, 114, 117, "9, 129, 140, 141, 144, German, 122 145, 161, 162, 173, 179, 192, 201, 202, 205, 206, Swedish, 132 209, 212, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228

Polska- Bonfire, 10, 161

change step, 203 Death, and resurrection, 6, 13 reel step, 203 Fertility, 5, 7, 13, 14, 20, 22, 76, 77, 105, 108, 128, Portugal, n, 27, 180, 190, 205, 223-$ 207,228 Poussette (swing), 24 Harvesting, II Pripet Marshes (Poland), 34, 72 Horse-worshipping, 8 Prfiunnf, 107 Initiation, 6, 21 Pntuka*vany, 106 Lake-dwellers, 114 Progressive or common schottische, 183 Moon, 10, 77 Promenade Sowing, ii Spring, 57 Irish, 197, (Ex. 68, p. 199) 81111,10,12,25,130,144,228 Russian, 86, 87, 88, (Ex. 12, p. 98) Tree-worshipping, 5, 6 Protestant church (or influence), 18, 104, 106, 114, Turki tribal, 13 119, 120, 12i, 173, 228 Protestants, 115, 140, 192, 201 Catholic church, 13, 38, 93, 104, 127, 130, 162, 205 Provencal Courts, 14, 17, 150, 207, 224 Empire, 39, 66, *7, 72, m, 144, 145. 205, 225 Provence (Prance), 13, 113, 145, 147, 148, 149. 150 Romania, 8, 26, 27, 3L 33, 34 37, 193, 224-6 Puritans, 121 Romans, 13, 56, 127, 205, 211, 228 Rue de Pyrenees, 14, 31, 33, 144. 149, 150, 227 vache, 7, 149 Rusalii,6, 8 QUADBILLB, 24, 51, 122, 124, 147, 203 Russia, 5, n, 22, 25, 26, 28, 33, 34, 37, 39, 40, 4L 7*. 73, 83-93, 94. 103, 105, 112, 120, 127, 132, 144, RASPA,La,77 196, 202, 204 201 Reel grasp, 23 Russians, 31, 5

Scottish, 17, 176, 179, 180, 184 Scandinavia, 15, 21, 27, 29, 36, 37, 120, 127^42 161 Renaissance, 40, 206 Scandinavian peninsula, 41, 119, 140, Schottische Restoration of Monarchy (England), 164 step, Alpine area, 117, (Ex. 33, p. 118), Revivalist movement, 171 203, 223, see also Progressive step Revolution Scissors, 85 Cromwellian, 17 Scotland, 18, 27, 39, 43, 127, 128, 142, 143, 161, 174,

French (1789), 17 176,178-90,194,196,202,227 197 Irish revolutionary movement, 173 Scots, 17, 26, 37, 98, 171, 172, 178-90, 194, Rheinlander, 116, (Ex. 32, p. 117) Scythians, 83, 104, 197 Second beat, Rhine, 121, 145, 205 94, 95 Seconds, 181, 182, 194, 197, 202

Rhone, 146 Seises, 13 Serbia, 42, 73, 75, 76 Rhythm, 4, 5, 9, 13, 27, 29, 34, 54, 55, 59, <*7, 73, 74, Set, 24, 143, 163, 164, 165 75, 7

Sidestep, 175 Two-handed mill, 24

Sidinpv 24. Two hands hold, 23 of Siege Alkmaar, 124 Two men's jump from France, (Ex. 44, p. 150) Sjakskuttan (seal's jump), 203 Two-step valse, 122 Slavs, 7, 24, 25, 26, 70-112, 121, 129, 147, 165, 191, Twc-4hrees, 175, (Ex. 57, p. 176)

206,224,225.228 Tyrol (Austria), 40, 113, 118 Slovakia (Czechoslovakia), 12, 36, 103, 104 . Tyroler Hopsa, 129, (Ex. 37, p. 130) Slovenia (Yugoslavia), 75 202 Snap, z8i, 182, 194, 197, UGR<5s, 197 Spain, 8, 13, if**?. 29, 35, 45, 55, 124, 143, 196, 205, Ukraine, n, 29, 32, 36, 37, 40, 43, 83, 84, % 95, 103, 206, 228 211-22, 223, 227, 108, 112 25, 27, 32, Steppes, 34 Ural mountains, 72, 83, 191, 202 Asiatic, 38, 72, 191 Uzbeks, 212 Strathspey step No. z, see Highland Schottische No. Strathspey step 3, 181, (Ex. 61, p. 186) VAISB- or Strathspey step figure-of-eight step, 182 Alpine area, 116 Czech, 106 Sweden, 10, 15, 18, 48, 127, 132-40, 201, 202 Danish, 129, 133 Swing, 24 Dutch, see German Finnish, 203 Swiss, 113-18 German, 122 league, 113, 114 Italian, 208 Switzerland, 41, 45, 48, 113-18, 205 Polish, 94 Vandals, 206, 211 TABTABS, 55, 84, 93 Vendee, la (France), 149 Tatra mountains, 14, 32, 39, 93, 98 202 Venetians, 69 Tempo Giustp, 195, Vikings, 13, 34, 83, 127, 142, 144, 161, 180, 181, 182, Temps de Poisson, 17 197 T&ovizo, 194, 197, (Ex. 68, p. 199) Vingaker step, 134 Teutonic knights, 84, 93, 94 211 Teutons or Visigoths, Teutonic tribes, 105, 119^2, 147, 161, Vistula, 94 165,192,212,225,228 Vlach shepherds, 225, 227 Voguls, 191 Tiber, River, '228 Volga, 34, in Tipping, various forms, 175 Vrtak, 106, 108, (Ex. 29, p. 109)

Torrid zone, 29

Trade guilds, 12, 17, 20, 197 WALES, 161, 171-2 Transylvania (Romania), 225 Westphalia, 15 Whiffler Treaty (whiffling), 9, 227 White of Adrianople, 67 sea, 72 of Westphalia, 132 Wibyaniy, 95, 97 Triplet, 156, 207 Tune of occupation, 174 YAKUTS, 7, 22, 191 Turkey, 54, 73 133, 205 Yodel, 115 Tuda or Turki-Tartar tribes, 8, 25, 55, 56, 72, 83, in, Yorkshire, 166 142, 191, 227, 228 Yugoslavia, 8, 18, 19, 20, 21, 28, 31, 32, 33, 37, 40, Turkistan, 33 4i, 43, 72, 73-83, 103, 105, 106, H2, 130, 149, Turks, 13, 39, 56, 57, 74, 75, in, 112, 191, 192, 193, 205, 206, 208, 226 209 Tuvinians, 191 ZAZNACHANIA, 97

Printed in Great Briton