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Multicultural identity processes

1,2 1 3

Ying-yi Hong , Siran Zhan , Michael W Morris and 4

Vero´ nica Benet-Martı´nez

The study of multicultural identity has gained prominence in eral cultural traditions. It is precisely this that defines my

recent decades and will be even more urgent as the mobility of identity. Would I exist more authentically if I cut off a

individuals and social groups becomes the ‘new normal’. This part of myself?

paper reviews the state-of-the-art theoretical advancements

and empirical discoveries of multicultural identity processes at (Amin Maalouf, 2000, p. 1)

the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and collective (e.g.,

organizational, societal) levels. First, biculturalism has more

Since 1990, the worldwide count of immigrants and

benefits for individuals’ psychological and sociocultural

expatriates by birth or citizenship has grown by 75 percent

adjustment than monoculturalism. Bicultural individuals’ racial

[1]. On top of migration, international tourism has in-

essentialist beliefs and Bicultural Identity Integration affect

creased from 25 million to 1133 million in 2014 [2]. Global

cultural frame switching, racial categorization, and creativity.

internet usage has grown from 14 million to 2.93 billion

Second, identity denial and identity-based discrimination by

between 1993 and 2014 [3]. These aspects of globaliza-

other people or groups threaten multicultural individuals’

tion have heightened intercultural exposure and the

psychological health and performance. Third, multiculturalism

diversity of societies.

and interculturalism policies are associated with different

conceptions of and attitudes toward diversity, and have distinct

As an adaptation to this globalization, Amin Maalouf’s

outcomes for multicultural individuals and societies.

identification with multiple cultures is shared by an ev-

Addresses

1 er-wider fraction of humankind. To understand the forma-

Nanyang Business School, Nanyang Technological University,

tion and maintenance of multicultural identity, researchers

50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798, Singapore

2

Beijing Normal University, 19 Xinjiekou Outer St, Haidian, Beijing study influential factors at multiple levels: intrapersonal,

100875, China interpersonal, and collective. In this paper, we provide a

3

Columbia University, 718 Uris Hall, 3022 Broadway, New York, NY

review of the latest scholarship on these multi-level pro-

10027, USA

4 cesses. Specifically, the research addresses (a) how indi-

ICREA at Pompeu Fabra University, Ramon Trias Fargas 25-27, 08005

Barcelona, Spain viduals navigate and manage multicultural identities at the

intrapersonal level, (b) how exclusion and discrimination at

Corresponding author: Hong, Ying-yi ([email protected])

the interpersonal level affect multicultural identity forma-

tion and negotiation, and (c) how organizations’ and socie-

ties’ diversity policies also affect such processes.

Current Opinion in Psychology 2016, 8:49–53

This review comes from a themed issue on Culture

Edited by Michele J Gelfand and Yoshihisa Kashima

Intrapersonal processes

For a complete overview see the Issue and the Editorial Early models of acculturation assumed that high identifi-

cation with one culture (e.g., host culture) implied low

Available online 9th October 2015

identification with other cultures (e.g., heritage culture).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.09.020

Recent conceptual advancement recognizes that high

2352-250X/# 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

identification with one culture does not entail low iden-

tification with all other cultures [4]; multiple strong

identifications are not only possible but also beneficial

[5,6]. For instance, a meta-analysis of 83 studies shows

that biculturalism, that is, attachment to and competency

in two cultures, is associated with both positive psycho-

logical (e.g., self-esteem, lack of depression) and socio-

How many times, since I left Lebanon in 1976 to live in cultural (e.g., career success, lack of delinquency)

France, have people asked me, with the best intentions in adjustment, but not with health [7]. This link between

the world, whether I felt ‘‘more French’’ or ‘‘more Leba- biculturalism and adjustment was stronger than the asso-

nese’’? And I always give the same answer: ‘‘Both!’’ I say ciation between monoculturalism (exclusive orientation

that not in the interests of fairness or balance, but because toward either the dominant or heritage/ethnic cultures)

any other answer would be a lie. What makes me myself and adjustment. The positive relationship between

rather anyone else is the very fact that I am poised biculturalism and adjustment may be due to a variety

between two countries, two or three languages and sev- of factors internal (e.g., bilingual competence, having

www.sciencedirect.com Current Opinion in Psychology 2016, 8:49–53

50 Culture

social support networks in two cultures) and external American (compared to those with higher BII-distance)



(e.g., non-discriminatory policies) to the acculturating [22]. Saad et al. [23 ] found that Chinese-Americans with

individual (see review [8] for related research on immi- low BII-distance had better creative performance in a

grant acculturation). bicultural contexts (where both Chinese and American

symbols were present) but not in a monocultural context

New insights have also been gained about ‘marginals’ [9], (where either Chinese or American symbols were pres-

multicultural individuals who have low identification with ent). Tadmor et al. [13] found that low BII-distance

all their cultures [10]. Recent evidence contradicts the individuals exhibited higher cognitive complexity and

traditional view that these individuals are maladjusted ultimately creativity.

[11]; instead, these culturally ‘marginal’ individuals are



found to be well adapted and highly successful [13,14], as Identity conflict is anxiety provoking [21 ]. However,

demonstrated by their superior creativity [13], intercul- surprisingly, a high level of BII-conflict (perceiving high

tural communication skills [14], and likelihood of being in tension between two cultures) is associated with some

upper management positions [15]. Based on these new positive cognitive outcomes. For example, Tadmor et al.

insights, Arasaratnam [16] proposed an alternative defini- [12] and Benet-Martinez et al. found that biculturals who

tion of multicultural identity as ‘the condition of persons experience identity conflict exhibit greater cognitive

who have formed an identity that is not affiliated with one complexity. Similarly, Thomas et al. [24] found that

particular culture but instead a blend of multiple cultures biculturals perceiving greater identity conflict have

and contexts’, themes that are developed in recent theory higher cultural metacognition — self-awareness of their



on polyculturalism [17 ]. That said, the same identity cultural assumptions and inferences.

structure that may signal independence in business

executives may signal alienation in the underclass, thus Biculturals’ level of identity conflict also moderates how

future research from a broader strata of economic groups they respond to cultural primes through frame switching

is necessary. [5]. High BII-conflict individuals shift their biases to

contrast with norms of the primed culture rather than



Research has revealed both positive and negative con- to assimilate with it. Mok and Morris [25 ,26,27] com-

sequences of priming international students with symbols pared Asian-American with conflicted cultural identities

of their home versus host culture. On the one hand, to those with compatible cultural identities. Conflicted



Zhang et al. [18 ] found that immigrants from mainland Asian-Americans exhibited a contrastive or contrarian

China speak English less fluently when exposed to Asian response — more Western biases (on measures such as

than Caucasian faces or when exposed to Chinese rather focal/holistic attention, need for uniqueness, and individ-

than American images. Visual primes of the home culture ualism) after Chinese priming and more East Asian biases

activate structures of their native language that interfere after American cultural priming. One explanation is that

with second language processing. On the other hand, the conflicted biculturals feel dis-identified with their cul-

same primes can have a positive emotional effect; Fu tures, motivated to dissociate themselves from each cul-

et al. [19] found that home-culture primes soothe inter- ture [4]. An alternative explanation is the motivation to



national students’ relational insecurities that hinder their protect the non-cued cultural identity [25 ,26,27]. Recent



cultural adjustment. Similarly, Hong et al. [20 ] found that studies using subliminal priming indicate this response

subliminally exposing international students to home occurs implicitly rather than through conscious impres-



cultural cues would increase subjective well-being in that sion management [25 ]. Although this response of con-

it buffers perceived discrimination, and acculturation flicted biculturals may prevent them from meshing with

stress. These studies have broadened the range of con- cultural contexts, it is useful in protecting them from

sequences explored in cultural priming research. groupthink when working in groups from their two cul-

tures [28]. This finding implies that bicultural individuals

Bicultural individuals differ in the extent to which they with conflicted identities can contribute to avoiding de-

integrate their two cultural identities or Bicultural Identity cision biases.

Integration (BII) [6]. Specifically, BII captures two dimen-

sions of dual cultural identity: distance (degree to which Because culture and race/ethnicity are often conflated,

two cultures are perceived as dissociated) and conflict how bicultural individuals conceptualize the nature of

(amount of perceived tension between two cultures). race and ethnicity should also affect how they manage

their identities. In particular, two lay theories of race have

Recent research indicates that a low level of BII-distance been identified — racial essentialism refers to a belief in

(perceiving two cultures as overlapping) is beneficial. For race as fixed biological essence that determines a person’s

instance, immigrants with lower BII-distance experience traits and ability, whereas social constructivism refers to a



less anxiety [21 ]. Latino biculturals with lower BII- belief in racial categories as malleable (see review, [29]).

distance perceived their personalities as more similar to Asian Americans (ethnic minorities) who believe in racial

a typical Latino and also more similar to a typical Anglo- essentialism identified less with American (host) culture

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