Cultural Nationalism Alongside Official State Building
CEU eTD Collection 2009 MasterofArts Budapest, Second Reader:ProfessorMarshaSiefert Supervisor: Professo CentralEuropean University Inpartial fulfillment of therequirementsfor thedegreeof Hungary History Submitted Anca Department to Mandru TheRomanianCult CulturalNationalism alongsideOfficial State-Building: r ConstantinIordachi ural League inthe InterwarPeriod By
CEU eTD Collection may notbemade withoutthewr form apartofanysuchcopiesmade. Furtherco in theCentralEuropeanLibrary.Details may be or part,may bemade onlyin accordance withth Copyright inthetextofthisthesisrestswithAuthor.Copies itten permission oftheAuthor. i pies made inaccordance withsuchinstructions e instructions given bytheAuthorandlodged obtainedfrom thelibrarian.Thispagemust byanyprocess, eitherinfull CEU eTD Collection discourse. ensured itsvisibilitybu Romania. TheLeague’s identification withitsle cultural unification ofthevarious The Leagueengagedinculturalpracticesaimed coexisted and complemented theofficialprojects program andactivityshowsthatthecultural and readjusteditsprogram to nationalism hassurvived thefulfillmentofits nationalism anditscharacteristics. Thethesisfinds that intheRomanian casecultural to questiongenerallyheldassumptionsaboutthedevelopment andenduranceofcultural This thesis usesthe case study of theRomanian Cultural League inthe interwar period t atthesame time consigneditto
the contextofinterwarpe traditions characteristic totheprovinces making upinterwar Abstract goals bythecreationofGreaterRomania in1918 ii at amoral regenerationofthecommunity anda ader, thehistorianandpo nationalism advocatedbytheorganization aimed acohesive atcreating national culture. a traditionalistnicheofthepublic riod. AsurveyoftheLeague’s litician Nicolae Iorga, CEU eTD Collection Bibliography...... 74 Conclusion: TheRelevanceofCulturalNationalism...... 52 Chapter IV:PracticesofCulturalNationalism...... 31 CulturalNationalism...... Chapter III:Programmatic 16 Chapter II:SettingupaCulturalOrganization...... 8 ...... Chapter I:Theoretical Framework: LocatingCulturalNationalism ...... Introduction .Dlma fClua ainls ...... 70 ...... 4. Dilemmas ofCulturalNationalism 3. AlternativeEducation:TheSummer 62 ...... 2. StagingCultural Nationalism: Theatre,Music,FolkDances 52 ...... 1. InHonorofthePast 5. FurtherChallenges: Old Romanians and 44 4. TheLeagueandtheNational Question...... 39 ...... 3. CulturalNationalismandtheState 35 ...... 2. CulturalNationalismandMorality 31 ...... 1. MysticalOrganicism: CultureandNation 28 ...... 4. FinancingCulturalNationalism 26 3. SustainingtheNetworkafterWar...... 2. TheBeginnings:Establis 1. TheSocialComposition oftheLeague: .Pbiain n te ntaie...... 60 c. PublicationsandOtherInitiatives...... 57 ...... b. Conferences 52 ...... a. Celebrations igteOgnzto...... 23 hing theOrganization...... Table ofContents Cussa aei eMne...... 66 CoursesatValeniideMunte...... h eeteClua ainlss ...... 18 ...... Who Werethe CulturalNationalists? New Romanians inGr iii ae oai ...... 49 ...... eater Romania ...... 1 ...... 78 ......
CEU eTD Collection interwar period.While readjustingitsgoalstoth the LeaguesurvivedcreationofGreater the RomanianCulturalLeague.Anorganizatio in thepastbecome decorative. that wouldmobilize their adherents, cultural as arestillnecessary,theybecomecommemorations nationalism seemingly losesitsveryreason it considers legitimately itsown.Onceallthese desiderata arefulfilled, however,cultural organization or,alternatively,the libraries and museums thrivewh Nationalist celebrations,publica cultural nationalism oncethegoa complementary topoliticalnationalism evidence enoughtoconvincesome theoriststoview importance of culture in nationalist mobilization. Indeedtheprevalence of culturalinitiatives is Whether modernists,perennialistsorprimordi 1 History and 1987), Unwin, and Allen (London: The Dynamics of Cultural Nationalism: The Gaelic Revival and the Creation of the of JohnIrish State Creation Hutchinson, the Revival and The Gaelic Nationalism: Cultural of The Dynamics 45, no.3 (1999): 392. 392. (1999): no.3 45, It istheaimofthisthesis Nationalism, whileapolitical
Introduction “Re- Interpreting Cultural Nationalism.” Cultural Interpreting “Re- toquestionthisassumption tions, conferencesandprivatelyorganizedreadingrooms, en theparticularethnicgroup lacksanautonomous political nation-state harbors irredentist aspirations towardsterritories l ofanation-stateisachiev ideology,cannotbeseparatedfrom culturalpractices. 1 . Whatever thevalidity ofth Romania andcontinuedits of being.While historybooks,monuments and 1 sociations whose contribution has been notable n endorsingaprogram ofculturalnationalism, alists, theoristsofnationalism agreeonthe the responsibilityofth e interwarcontext,thesocietycontinuedto culturalnationalism by focusingonthecase-studyof Australian Journal of Politics and and Politics Journal of Australian ed issubjec is claim, therelevanceof activitythroughoutthe e state.Lackingagoal as separatefrom and t toquestion.
CEU eTD Collection policies aimed atassimilating Romanians from following thewar,engagedinpoliticsof competition from otheractors. Foremost among these was theRomanian state itself which, state. While thegoal of cultural unity wasno the interwar period the Leaguehadtoadapt ideology aswellitsverycharacter. Greater Romania. Thesetransformations facedthe unexpectedly sawitsgoal achievedwiththee into Romania. Aftermorethantwodecades the Romanians inTransylvania andultimately, if publications borderingonirreden cultural nationalism, theLeague’sobjectiveswere inherently political.In statutes, speeches and for theCulturalUnityof allRomanians Romania founded inBucharest of anation-state. associations and the ability ofthekind ofna postwar initiatives,the thesis characterized itbeforethewar. profess aprogram ofculturalnationalism ande Previously an irredentist or In 1890Romanian fromTransylvania émigrés willaddresstheque Liga pentruunitateaculturalaatuturorromanilor Byshowingthecontinuitybe tism, theLeague systematically argued fortheautonomy of ganization agitatingfor the ri ). While endorsing, asitsna tionalism theyembrace toadapttheconditions to functioning withinth culturalunification,implementing educational 2 nd oftheFirst World Warandthecreationof of militancy ofvaryingintensity,the League the newprovincesofTransylvania,Bessarabia less ofadesideratum, theLeaguenowfaced lessoutspoken, for theregion’s incorporation ngage inthesame kindofactivitieswhich League withthechallengeofreadjustingits andpatriotsfromtheOldKingdomof stion ofthelifespansuchprivate tween theLeague’s prewar and ghts ofRomanians abroad,in me suggested, aprogram of e framework ofanation- ( The League CEU eTD Collection 3 2 attended. Since1896itpublishedaweeklynewspaper, League organizedmeetings, conferences,andma 1893 theLeaguealready hadforty-onelocalbran following itsestablishment,theLeague’sactivity was noteworthy.Starti also thecontributionofprominent universityprofessorsa was appealingenoughtoensuretheparticipationof In these attempts,theLeague wasreasonably and abroadconcerningtheMagyarizationpoliciesof asforraisingawarenessintheOldKingdom Hungary financiallyandbyothermeans,aswell the Leaguewasofficiallyestablished asa the newlyacquiredprovinces. unification, theplaceofminorities inGreaterRomania andthestatusofRomanians from and itmade itselfheardindebatesoverhighlyc In acentralizedandincreasingly undemocratic organizations like theLeague illustrate adiffere characterize interwarRomania. Nevertheless, conditions ofpoliticalturmoil, when compared withthe broader planned state-led“culturaloffensive” and Bukovina,aswellGreater (Ithaca: Cornell Univer Ibid., 29. 29. Ibid., Irina Livezeanu, Cultural Politics inGreater Romania: Regionalism, Na The latterinparticularhadbeentheLeague sity Press, 1995).
socialinstability andfreque scope of state intervention. Thisiseven more thecasein Romania’s large minorities 3 , theactivities ofaprivate medium forassistingRomaniansfrom Austria- 3 successful. The causeoftheRomanians abroad nt dimension of theRo system, privateassociationsdidhaveavoice, even if marginal inimpact,theactivity of rches whereoccasionallythousandsofpeople ontroversial issues like thepaceof cultural ’s concern from its in ’s concernfrom its ches. Inadditiontoannualcongresses,the apublicfrom avarietyofsocialstrata,but theHungarianauthorities inTransylvania. Liga Romana nd politicians.Inthefirstdecade tion-Building and Ethnic Struggle 2 . Inthecontextofaconscious, nt changesofregime which organization inevitablyfade (The Romanian League), manian nation-building. ception. Backin1890, ng inBucharest,by CEU eTD Collection Romania andabroadayearlater.In1914 theLea war, itsmembership soared,reachingover20000active members in1912and 103branchesin charges ofmonopolizingtheLeague and ideology werecompletelysubordinated to Iorga’s name.Hisinfluencewassooverwhelming, Iorga’s assassinationbytheIronGuard in1940,theCulturalLeague wasassociatedwith already aprominent historian,to membership, theLeague’sactivitydeclined, also Following theeffervescenceofMemorandu extent towhich theHungarianauthorities asked theRomanian government tooutlawit. their families, popularizedthecauseinOld nationalities policy.TheLeaguepr presenting theemperor FrancisJosephwitha when Romanian leaders from Transylvaniawere language periodicals,schoolsandlibraries. in Transylvaniafinancially,e theLeagueassi through acountry-widenetworkofsubscriptions, historical datesanderectedmonuments ofRoma Also seekingtopromote nationalsolidarity,th either withapronouncedpolitical later to be turnedinto a magazine. Irregularl Its revival,startingin1908,coincidedwith The Leaguereached itsmaximum ofvisibi ither byhelpingindivi thepositionofsecretaryth character orsimply onsubjects ovided legalandfinancialassi , Iorga’sinfluencewasdefin y, theLeaguepublishedbr memorandum complaining againsttheHungarian 4 Kingdom andabroad stirredagitationtothe e Leagueorganizedcelebrationsof important duetodissensionswithintheleadership. gue also operated a symbolic change of name, gue alsooperatedasymbolic changeofname, thehistorian’sown.Nevertheless,despite m moment, however,anddespitegrowing nian historicalfigures trialed and thensentenced toprison after lity during theMemorandum Trial of1894, in fact,thatattimes, theLeague’sprogram the ascensionofNicolaeIorga,bythen duals, orthrough e League.From thenon,until sted theRomanian movement stance tothe defendants and itely beneficial.Beforethe related tonati ochures andpamphlets, . Morepragmatically, financing Romanian- onal history. CEU eTD Collection Romania in1930,thestatetook problem they representedveryserious question of nationalminorities.Asminorities were toremain faithful toitsprogram of autonomy. Inthesecircumstances, theLeaguehadto increasingly alienatedTransylvanian Romanians whoinitiallyhadhopesforsome sortof period, however,theoverlyharshcentraliz existence itcollaboratedcloselywith theRoma leaders oftheRomanian nationalmovement inTr undertaken inthenewprovinces.The CulturalL to compete, andsometimes, counteract,thestat Transylvanian border,ashadpreviouslybeenth without havingtoemploystratagems like the newconditions,Leaguecouldpursueitsactivitiesunhinderedbyforeigninterferences, as wellthe targets oftheseactivitie courses organizedathisinitiati meetings and celebrations. OwingtoIorga,theLea the same. It continuedtopublishperiodicals and continued itsactivityintheinterwar period. Unity ofallRomanians becoming The newpoliticalcontext alsofacedtheLe The creationofGreaterRomani Under Iorga’sleadership,theLeaguesurviv Liga pentruunitateapoliti ). ve atthesummer universityinValeniideMunte.Thecontext, s were,however,essentiallydifferent. cal atuturor romanilor a broughtbothbenefitsandcha culturalunificationandnationalsolidarity. 5 e case.Ontheotherhand,Leaguenowhad ing policiesoftheRomanian government made upto29percent ofthepopulation and brochurestoorganizeconferences, e’s aggressivecampaign ofRomanianization TheLeague’sactivitie smuggling patrioticbrochuresacrossthe ansylvania andthroughout itsfirstdecadesof nian PartyofTransylvania. Intheinterwar eague had traditionally beenalliedwiththe gue became increasingly associatedwiththe ed thecreationofGreaterRomania in1919 ague withthechallenge ofaddressing the bringtogetherthec ( The LeagueforthePolitical llenges totheLeague.In s remained essentially ontesting parts,ifit ly. Inconsequence, CEU eTD Collection 1968); Razvan Paraianu, “National Culture as a Plot against Modernity.” Modernity.” asaPlot Culture against “National Razvan Paraianu, 1968); University Press, 1974). 6 5 4 especially on itsroleintheMemorandum trial played byIorga.Otherarticlesandstudiesme examination of theLeague after the turnof th its presentationoftheLeague’scontribu the mark ofcommunist historiography.While st information andlinkstoprimarymaterial, iswrittenfrom an analyzed againstthebackgroundof the League’s broader program of cultural nationalism. Inaddition, the latter doctrine willbe projects involvingminorities andRomanians fro minorities differed extensively from thestate’s. Assuch,thisthesis willexamine theLeague’s did notextendtoJews.However,hisandbyextension,theLeague’s,attitudetowards cultures freely minorities”, bywhichheunderstood theHungariansandGermans, todevelop theirown ambivalent, unliketheRomanian so didtheLeague, ifinalessaggressivefashion.While Iorga’ Culturala” siunireaTransilvanieicuRomania available surveyofitsactivitypriorto1918 has notbeenpreviouslyexamined intheEng discourses. William Oldson, Oldson, William VasileCurticapeanu, Gh. Marinescu and Vasile Netea. The scholarly literature ontheCultural League 4 . Likeinthecaseofmost The Historical and Nationalistic Thought of Nicolae Iorga Miscareaculturala romaneasca pentru Unirea din 1918 “Liga Culturala” si unirea Transilvaniei cu Romania cu Transilvaniei si Culturala” unirea “Liga
government hedidacknowledge Romania’s manifold interwar Romanian intellectuals of thetime, Iorga’s tolerance tion totheMemorandum movement, thebook’s is Gheorghe Marinescu’sandVasileNetea’s 6 lish orRomanian-language literature.Theonly 6 e century is superficialandminimizes therole . BiographiesandstudiesonIorgaoccasionally 5 ntion theLeagueonlysporadically,focusing , which,althoughvaluableinterms offactual rong initspre-1900sectionandespecially m thenew provincesand locate them within is generally scarce. Itsinterwaractivity Studia Hebraica s attitude towards minorities was uncritical perspective and bears uncritical perspectiveandbears (Bucuresti: Editura Stiintifica, (Bucuresti: Editura therightof politicaland (Boulder, Colorado: Columbia . (Iasi: Junimea, 1978). 1978). Junimea, . (Iasi: 4 4 (2004). the “national
intellectual “Liga CEU eTD Collection
nationalism willconclude thischapter. causes ofitsenduringsuccess.Finally,thelimits the League,namely thesummercoursesorganized League’s othermanifold initiatives.Itwillanal organized bytheLeagueandlookatuseofth at theactivities of theLeague “national culture”. the challenges ofintegratingtheRomanians a collaboration withtheauthorities. In addition institutions andonthecontrast betweentheL advocate hewas.Specialemphasis willbe doctrine and thewayitrelated to the early twentieth century relation between cultureandmoral League’s understandingof“cultu cultural societyofthiskindmanaged tofinanceitself. faced increatingandpreserving acountry-wide will describe thesetting upofthesociety, so diverse interestsandoverwhelming productivit 7 m Nagy-Talavera, Iorga of Nicolae Thought Nationalistic and See Barbu Theodorescu, Theodorescu, SeeBarbu ention hisactivitywithintheLeague ention The third chapter willlook more closelyat th The firstchapter willprovide anoverview of Nicolae Iorga: A Biography Iorga: Nicolae Nicolae Iorga
’s as such.Itwillexamine thecelebrationsandconferences ral nationalism” anditsprogrammatic goals,as wellasthe (Bucuresti: Editura 1968), Tineretului, William Editura (Bucuresti: Oldson, ity. Itwilldo soespecially (Iasi, Oxford, Portland: The Center for Romanian Studies, 1998). (Boulder, Colorado: Columbia University Press, 1974) and Nicholas Nicholas and Press, University Colorado: Columbia 1974) (Boulder, 7 . However,understandableinthelightofIorga’s the chapter willexamine th nd theminorities from thenewprovincesin y, theLeagueistreatedmargi 7 eague’s anti-state discourse andtheoccasional yze separatelyaprojectcloselyassociated with cial background of itsmembers, thechallenges placed ontheLeague’srelationwithstate network of sectionsand thewaysinwhicha eatre, music andfolkdances,aswellatthe ofsuchactivities and dilemmas ofcultural byValeniideMunteandinquireintothe e practices of cultural nationalism andthus theLeague’shistory The secondchapterwillexamine the samanatorist by examining Iorga’s interwar e League’s answer to and organization.It nally. trend whose main The Historical CEU eTD Collection most modernist theories of nationalism. While Ernest Gellner’s League’s lifespan,doesnotmeet theprerequisite incipient phaseandastilllargeproportionof characteristics ofRomania itself organization’s goalsandideology, almost half acentury of major political cha theory seemsobvious.However,th Nationalism LocatingCultural Chapter I:TheoreticalFramework: 9 8 nation-building project.Cultureitself,thevery leaves littleroom for therole of private asso or hasonlyrecently beenintroduced. Atthesame life of thenation” approach havepointedout,thelatterpresupposes society ofthetime scarcelymeets thesecondi mass publiceducationandindustrializationisle of littleuse.Gellner’s powerful argument tracing nationalism asessentially modern iscertainly to beretained, hisstructural theory isotherwise Routledge, 2005), 2005), 96. Routledge, understandingtheories of nationalism of Ernest Ernest Gellner, Anthony D. Smith, “The genealogy of nations: an ethno-symbolic approach” in The characteristics oftheorganizationandits For anorganizationwhichboast Nations and Nationalism and Nations 9
andisthusinapplicable inareaswheregeneral enfranchisement islacking
, edited by Atsuko Ichijo and Gordana Uzelac (Abingdon, Oxon ; N.Y. : . Essentiallyanagrariancount (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003). 2003). Blackwell, (Oxford: inevitablylimits thischoice. e peculiarcharacterandhistor ed itsnationalist credential ciations complementing orchallengingtheofficial 8 tions. Moreover,asopponentsofthemodernist nges, demanding equallyradicalshiftsinthe reason ofbeingassociationsliketheLeague, illiterate population,Romania, formostofthe s postulatedbymajor theoriesofnationalism. the adventof nationalism totheemergenceof “mass participationinthesocialand political time, focusingonthestate,Gellner’s theory ss rewardinginthiscase,astheRomanian setting limit infact theapplication of Equallyconstrainingarethe y oftheLeague,whichcovers ry, with anindustryin When is the nation?: towards an an towards is nation?: When the s thechoiceofnationalism 8 viewofnationsand CEU eTD Collection 1983). 1983). way tochanneltheparticipationof the emergence ofthepracticecommemorations, fe between civicandethnictypesofnationalism the “inventionoftradition” 14 13 12 11 10 for Andersonarethemedium ofnationalism. Bu responsible withdisseminatingandmaking accessi associations inmore detail,heassignsthem dilemmas. WhileAndersonaddressesthequesti focusing exclusivelyonstate-dire Gellner’s theory, “the rhetorical ammunitionof nationalist activists” outside thesphereofstate, becoming public,officialandstate-directedcultu standardized “highculture”di bears littlerelevance to Gellner. Inasmuch ashe Theuseoftheotherhighlyinfluentialm Anderson’s practices, Hobsbawm’s theoryisincomplete successful institutionalization or, onthecontrary, thelimited appealof suchcommemorative private projects. Assuch, whileinsightful init University Press, 1992). Eric Hobsbawm, Eric Hobsbawm andTerence Ranger, of Culture,” Cultivation the and “Nationalism Leersen, Joep Benedict Anderson, Hobsbawm andRanger,263. A similar understandingofcultu 14 interpretation of nationsandnationalism ascultural artifacts, poses similar Nations and nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality myth, :programme, 1780 since nationalism and Nations Imagined Communities Imagined 11 , more relevant inthis casethan
sseminated throughthemass system ofeducation.Onlywhen culture remains, inthe formulation of alater criticism of The Invention of tradition of Invention The cted initiatives, Hobsbawmdisreg (London, New York: Verso, 1995). Verso, 1995). York: New (London, masses inthepoliticallife of thenation ral practicesemerges from and therefore inapplicable inthiscase. 12 a limited role. Accordingly, theintelligentsiais 9 . Intheformer work,Hobsbawm onthe focuses t whiletheemphasisinAnderson’saccountof s analysis ofthefactors contributing tothe re becomes “national culture”. Otherwise, if stivals, paradesandmonuments asamodern refers toculture, Gellner is interested inthe ble the specificvernacularlanguageswhich on ofprofessionalinte Nations and Nationalism and Nations odernist theory,springingfrom Benedict ( Cambridge :Cambridge University Press, hislaterstudyonthedichotomy ards thepresence ofsimilar 10 Eric Hobsbawm’s workon ( . Cambridge :Cambridge 12 (4) 2006: 560. 560. 2006: (4) 12 llectuals andtheir 13 . LikeGellner, CEU eTD Collection York: Palgrave, 2000), 154-155. 154-155. 2000), Palgrave, York: Anthony D.Smith’s Consequently,alternatives to modernist theories of nationalism constitutemore fertile ground inwhat theroleof no suggestionofthepossibilityforofficial andpopularnationalism tocoexist. room fordebateandconflictbetweenthevariousagentsofits In anycase,inAnderson’sacc 20 19 18 17 16 15 communities” nations are“formsofcultural culture especially appropriate combined “historical, cultura While controversial in itsow acknowledging thatnationsaremodern, arguethat perennialism, whichpostulate the intelligentsia toimagining thenation, ismore fruitful. Unlikeprimordialism or interpretation isreductionist,some historicalexamplespointingtotheoppositetakingplace nationalisms, beingpromptedbythelatter theformer mechanisms oftheseprocesses.Andersondoe nationalism ison invention andimagination, li Anthony D. Smith, Anthony inUmut of critique SeeBreuilly’s Anderson Ozkirimli, Ibid., 110. Ibid., 99 Ibid., Ibid. When is the nation?: towards an understanding of theories of of nationalism theories of an understanding towards isthe nation?: When 19 . Asonecritichasargued, . The Ethnic Origins of Nations of Origins Ethnic The 17 ethno-symbolist theory,amoresubsta because unlikemodernist theories, cultureandprivateassociationsis
l andsociological character” ount thisphenomenon appearsas n right,ethno-symbolism remains relevantbecauseofits theantiquityofnations forethno-symbolists, likefornationaliststhemselves, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996). 20 . 10 s distinguishbetween Theories of nationalism: a critical introduction critical a nationalism: Theories of ttle attention isdedicated tothe internal they emerge outofpr 15 . Ascriticshaveemphasized, this 18 ntial analysisofthecontribution it focusesmainly onthefield of concerned. Inthissense,applying . Forthecaseinquestion,itis , 89. propagation.Similarly, thereis , ethno-symbolism,whereas a linearprocess,leavingno
“official” and“popular” e-modern ethnicties. ( New New 16 . CEU eTD Collection nationalism fails. Likeinthecaseof theCulturalLeague,cultural nationalism comesforward Consequently, culturalnationalism isarecurrent favor ofculturalnationalism asseparatefrom role increatingaunitaryimag in particular, committed tothe study of the past 21 nationalism ismost apt project contemplated bytheassociation, voluntary associationsandthest overlooks the caseofthecompetition betweentheagendaofvariousintelligentsia groups and different intellectualgroupscommittedtosh divergent understandingsofthe nation canbe alengthyoneoftrialanderror available memories ofthepast. Thus theprocess ofreaching acomprehensive vision ofthe emergence of rivalintellectual scholar istheexpressionofa memory ofthecommunity andreinforcesits the workof historicist intellectuals whose creative gives duecredittothe religious authoritywitharationalonewhichderi relevant aswell.According to Smith, the riseof Hutchinson, Hutchinson, The culturalcharacterof thenationbeingdom As theveryname oftheLeaguesuggests,fornatureparticularnationalist The Dynamics of Cultural Nationalism: The The Gaelic Nationalism: The Dynamics of Cultural 21 importance of recurrentmyths,tradi . FollowingSmith, Hutchinsoncontends
e ofthenation.However,Hutchi ate-led nation-buildingeffort. factions, whichproceedtoselectdifferentmyths from the particular interpretation of thepast, Smith allows for the past. However,whiletheideaofinherentcontestbetween and conflictand competition betweengroups with 11 the secular intellectuals replaces the traditional aping thenationisvalid,Smith’s argument use ofJohnHutchinson’stheorycultural andcomplementary to political nationalism. cohesion. But asthework ofanyhistoricist movement, emerging attimes whenpolitical ves itslegitimacy fromtheuseofscience.He and the revival of the society play adistinct return to thepastreconstructs the historical inant, thepropagators ofculture become Revival and the Creation of the of Irish State Creation the and Revival tions andbeliefsrehabilitates nson goesfurtherandarguesin thatintellectuals, historians . CEU eTD Collection Europe,” in 24 23 22 reject traditionalism andmodernism alike, seeking toreconcile them inafeasible project of the reactionary. Infact, by envisaging themselves as“ nationalism asaregressivemovement, Hutchinson unlikepr in dangerofmoraldecay.However, comes in. significance ofHutchinson’scharacte accomplishment ofpoliticalgoals orindependent statehood. Consequently,hereis wherethe nation-building butcanremain prom commentators havepointedout,cu and thedissemination ofthegroup’slanguage,historyandtraditions national movements ischaracterized bytheemergence of activists devoted totheinquiry into anticipate political transformations. Accordin political processes, asGellner cultural manifestations arenotasimple rhetorical,propagandistic a advanced byMiroslavHroch.Inhisthree-phase categories. when astatebentonmoderniza Miroslav Hroch, “From National Movement to the Fully-formed Nation: The Nation-building Process in Hutchinson, Hutchinson, Leersen, 563. According toHutchinson,culturalnationalis This viewdevelops and atthe same time challengesanother influential theory, that Mapping the Nation, The Dynamics of Cultural Nationalism: The The Gaelic Nationalism: The Dynamics of Cultural ed. Gopal Balakrishnan (Verso: London, New York, 1996), 81. 81. 1996), York, New London, (Verso: Balakrishnan ed. Gopal
would haveit,butaredevelopm tion andreformchallengesesta ltural agitationis notrestrict rization of cultural nationalism asa inent, emerging in“successive” 12 gly, Hroch’sPhaseAinthedevelopment of s theoryofnationalism, Hrochhasarguedthat evious theoreticians whoperceived cultural insists thatitspurposesareregenerative,not m perceivesthenation moral innovators” Revival and the Creation of the of Irish State Creation the and Revival ents intheirownright which ed totheincipientphasesof blished identities andsocial 22 . However,assubsequent 23 24 stages, even afterthe ddition tosocialand , recurrent cultural nationalists as anorganicbeing movement movement , 30 . CEU eTD Collection however, ofparticularrelevan ones without becoming instit assumption byshowinghowprivateculturalinitiativesandagendascan coexistalong official state andturnedofficial.However,thecase Hutchinson, culturalnationalism is communitarian versus state-led, tothe challenges of modernization nationalism competes withpolitical nation cultural program, theobjectives ofsuch m schools, agricultural co-opera network oflanguagesocieties,dramatic gr equally typicallyorganize themselves inpriv nation. Consequentlytheintegrativecharacter ofculturalnationalismexplainswhythe 28 27 26 25 League, whichhadthesame misgivings about Hutchinson’s formulation leavesroom precisely movement remains inmostcasesa“minority enthusiasm” John Press, (Cambridge: Hutchinson Polity 93. John 2001), Ibid., 17. 17. Ibid., 17. Ibid., John Hutchinson, “Nations and Culture” in 40. Ibid., Later elaborations onthe re The typicaladvocatesofculturalnationalism nations cannegotiatecontingencies” conflicts that generate anexplora ethnic traditionswiththeirdifferentvisionsof homogeneity necessary foracommon cultures, but notas is generally “State modernization isanimportant utionalized. tives andpoliticalparties”
ce inthiscase.Inatextfr doomed tofail,asitsprogram isperiodicallyadoptedbythe lationship betweencultural nationalism andthestate are, Understanding Nationalism oups, publishing houses, lending libraries, summer oups, publishinghouses,lendinglibraries,summer 13 alism inprovidingcontrastingsolutions, ovements are inherentlypolitical. Cultural ate culturalsocieties, for thekindofprivat of theCultural League willquestion this the state’sabilitytoundertakecultural are historians,philologistsandartistswho om 2001,Hutchinsonarguedthat 26 tion ofdifferentstrategiesbywhich 25 . However,whileendorsingastrictly 28 . assumed increatingthecultural
factor in the formation of national factor intheformation ofnational , edited by Montserrat Guibernau and citizenship. Itignitescompeting community, andrecurring e organizations like the establishinga“loose 27 . Accordingto
CEU eTD Collection Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, 1900-1948 Lands, Bohemian inthe Children for Battle Tara Zahra, Also 2. 2006), Press, University Mass. :Harvard not dissatisfaction withtheparticular politics of culturalnationalism toitsintegrative character, most reportsof theCultural Leaguereflect sufficiently accountforitsimpact andreception nationalism canreasonablyexplaintheLeague’s League’s projectsaswellofits culture, evenifintertwinedwithpolitics, a 31 30 29 view, the manycorrectives usedwhen employing the term “identity”, whether instating its questioning thevalidityofconcep national identities,Brubaker ch to thoseofSmith andHutchins behind thisviewbelongstoR nationalism elsewherehave qualifiedas“national indifference” areas, describethemood ofthepopulationin cause ingeneral.Time andagaintheLeague’s process, innowayreducibletopolitics” approaches isthattheyare“concernedtoconceptualizecultureasarelativelyautonomous authorities. Asscholarsofnationalism have unification ofitsterritory andaimed tocomplement orattimes replacetheinitiativesof PieterJudson, Jonathan Hearn, Rogers Brubaker, While A.DSmith’s ethno-symbolist approach While most scholarshavelongarguedinfa Guardians of the Nation: Activists onthe Language Frontiers of Imperial Austria Rethinking Nationalism: A Critical Introduction ACritical Nationalism: Rethinking Ethnicity without groups
ogers Brubakerwhose insights,ev on, shouldbeneverthelessretained allenged eventhemost acknow program ofculturalnationalism. ts like“identity”and“ethnic
(Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Un 29 , Thisframework, assert underscored, the main quality ofethno-symbolist (Ithaca: CornellUniver llows foramoreaccurate 14 of theLeague,butapat . While Hutchinsonassignsthelimited success propagandists, especially origins, ideologyand terms reminiscent ofwhathistorians vor ofafluidunderstandingethnicand Kidnapped Souls:National Indifference and the (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 182. 182. 2006), Macmillan, Palgrave York: (New andHutchinson’stheoryofcultural group” altogether.InBrubaker’s iversity Press, 2004). Press, iversity 2004). ledged modernisttheoriesby sity Press, 2008). en ifscarcelycomplementary 30 31 .The theoreticalframework . ing aseparatedomain for hy towardsthe national interpretationofthe practice, they do not practice, theydonot thosesentinrural (Cambridge, CEU eTD Collection be kepthold ofwhenanalyzi explanation oftheemergence anddevelopment to thedifficulty of imposing The challenges encountered by theLeague’sactiv words, shouldbeinte reevaluates theunderstandingofkeyterms lik 33 32 tool ingeneral constructed, flexible ormulti-layered character, Ibid., 17 Ibid., 33. Ibid.,
. 32 . Mostimportantly forstudentsofnati rpreted notas“things ng theLeague’sreception,appeal their
perspective on themasses atla in the world”, butas“perspectives 15 e “ethnicity”and“nationhood”,which,inhis of nationalism,Brubaker’ssuggestionsshould speak againstitslegiti ists inpopularizing thenational cause testify onalism, Brubaker’stheoryconsequently and uncertainmobilization. rge. Whileproblematic asan macy asaconceptual on theworld” 33 . CEU eTD Collection Together, theycanamend boththewayinwhich Competition withdifferent trends, fashions and visionsof thenation’s future canbeanother. doctrine becomes identified withthe oneofthe would besuperficial.Likein significant nuances without which theassessment of aparticular kind of cultural nationalism Many variablescome playinshapingthech into however, incomplete withoutaproper contextu nationalists everywhere. official nationalism areconsidered keyfeatures character, thefocuson moral regenerationan cultural nationalism from political nationali analytic categoryinitself alsobelieveinaun from state-initiatedones. Theorists ofnati that itsculturalprogram wasabovepoliticsand Cultural Leaguepursuedacrucial moral solidarity thatno official or state-dire fundamentally differentfrom politicalonesand contribution tothenationalcause.Theirprogram ofculturalenlightenment thought was
The interpretation of both practitioners a Proponents of cultural nationalism thought of themselves ashavingaunique Proponents ofculturalnationalism thought Chapter II:SettingupaCulturalOrganization the League’scase, thepresence goal forthefutureofRomanian nation. Healsobelieved onalism whoregardculturalnationalism asan 16 sm. Theemphasisonculture, theintegrative cted initiative couldinstill. Iorga believed the d theadversarial relationwiththe State and ique setofcharacteristicswhichdifferentiate alization ofeachcase its culturalactiv whichcanreflectthe was believed to buildculturalaffinitiesanda aracter ofsuchamoveme the designersofsuchmovements themselves movement heleadscanbeonesuchfactor. nd theoreticians of cultural nationalism is, of adominant personalitywhose ities independent and different ities independentanddifferent experiences ofcultural cultural nationalism. nt andgivebirthto CEU eTD Collection 34 traditionalists development. Whether scholarsdividethinke had beenthe stage ofprolific debates onRomania’s national identityand therightpath for its influenced theimpact of theculturalnationa financial collapseandrestarting itsactivities. organization. Bymid 1930s,however,theLeague couple ofyears.Iorga’sotherpriorities,as prime-minister in1931-32,alsoaffected the channel itsactivity. TheDepression hitthe Lea challenges oftheintegration while thecreationofGreaterRomania deprivedtheLeagueofitsmain reasonofbeing,the By mid 1920s,astheinternal situation stabiliz niche ofcommemorative practices beginning oftheinterw Austria-Hungary hadasignificantechoinpolitical possibly sponsoropenly.Duringthewar,ac League allowedittoengageinirredentists activities whichtheRoma evolution providesample this.Before prooffor analysts. imagined their cultural nationalism andthe way inwhichitwassubsequently interpreted by Keith Keith Hitchins, Political andeconomic contextaside,th For thenationalist activity itself, the historical context iscrucialand theLeague’s 34 Rumania, 1866-1947 Rumania, , Westernizers, pro-Orie ar period,theLeaguebenefitedfro
thenewprovincesprovidednewavenuesforLeagueto (New York:Oxford UniversityPress, 1994),292. and educationalprojectswhich ntals orindigenists lism advocatedbytheLeague.Interwar Romania 17 ed, theLeague’svisibilitydeclined.However, tive lobbyinfavorofenteringthewaragainst gue severely andits activity stagnated for a thewar,independent characterofthe rs bylabelssuchasEuropeanistsand wasagainontherise,recoveringfrom the e culturalandintellectualatmosphere circles.Immediately afterwards,atthe m theinitialdisarraytooccupya 35 , orevenarguethatsuch the Statedidnotyettakeon. nian statecouldnot CEU eTD Collection History of the Imaginary and New Europe College, 2001), 111. 111. College, 2001), Europe and New Imaginary the of History Interwar Romania,” in 111. 1995), Studies, Area and International for Center and National Ideology in Interwar Eastern Europe and howtheywouldactasamovement. however, influencedwhocultura would havebeenunthinkableforanassociationofculturalnationalism. Circumstances, focusing on aprogram of“Romanization ofco increased presence ofan anti-Semitic discourse, general. Followingtheradica propounding adistinctprogram, isnotimmune to both theimpact oftheLeague’sdiscourseandits multiplicity ofdiscourseswasoverwhelming. As Theculturalnationalism predicatedbyth samanatorist Nationalists? 1. TheSocialCompositionoftheLeague:WhoWereCultural 37 36 35 from thealienatingworldofcapitalisttownsand Samanatorism taking itsname fromthejournal categorizations simplify theotherwisebl Rumania, 1866- 1947 1866- seeKeith Hitchins, trend Rumania, the of Irina Livezeanu, “After the Great and “NationalIdeology Verdery, Katherine For the main study on trend whosemain proponentwasIorga wasanagrarian current aiming attheem Nation and National Ideology: Past, Prospects Past, Present and Ideology: National and Nation samanatorism Union: Generational Tensions, Intell lization oftheRomanian public seeZ. Ornea, l nationalistswouldbe,howth National Character in Character Romania”, in in Interwar National Samanatorul
urred andoverlappingboundariesbetweenthem , ed., byBanac Ivo and Katherine Verdery (New Haven: Yale Samanatorismul , 67-71. , 67-71. 18 mmerce”. Inothercircumstances, suchaturn corrupt politics.Unlike the League drastically readjusted itsgoals by expected, such strongcompetition influenced verycharacter.Culturalnationalism,evenif ( e League cannotbeseparatedfrom the theevolutionofpublicdiscoursein 37 The Sow . Emerging attheturn ofthecentury and ancipation ofthepeasantandhisrescue (Bucuresti: Minerva, 1971). For an overview overview an For 1971). Minerva, (Bucuresti: ectuals, Modernism andEthnicityin er) whichappearedin1901, sphereinthe1930sand eir priorities would look like eir prioritieswouldlooklike (Bucharest: The Center for the other advocates of the other advocatesofthe National Character 36 , the
CEU eTD Collection hasty modernization, Iorgawasan UnderIorga,inchargeofthenewspape the form ofitsglorification.Li help butrecognizethatitwilleventually betakenoverbythetown was doomed tochangeinamodernizing world. the ruralworldasunspoile the necessarytransformations acountrylikeRo Moreover, changeshouldnotovercome tradition,wh only beslowandgradual,wit 40 39 38 longer appealing. extent asavehiclefortheprolongationof the restofhislife.Consequen poporanism was alreadynolongerrelevant, lack ofpracticalfocusprevented peasantry anditsprotectionfrom thealienatingin samanatorism ensure that inthese conditions the peasant proponents ofthistrend“believedthatthep economic projectsbutthroughamoral andcultural peasantry, however,the Hitchins, 71. SeeChapter 2 for amore detailed analysis of Iorga’s organicism anditssources. Hitchins, 67. . Iorga’soutlook,ontheotherha thusamounted toboththeemulation of samanatorists
tly, the League’sprogram itself can hout disruptingstructureswhich d embodiments ofthistraditi ke previouscriticsofwhatth samanatorism being replacedbymore pragmatic agrariancurrentslike adeptoforganicevolution aimed tohelp theruralworldnottroughsocialand samanatorism easant didnotsomuch lacklandas‘light’” nd, canbesaidtoremain a 19 will preserveitspurityandmoral values.His mania must undergo.Iorgasawthepeasantand from provingenduringasatrend.By1910it r since1904,concernwith While idealizing thevill fluence oftheoutsideworld.Itsidealism and revolution.AsKeith ich shouldretainaleadingroleinspiteof the traditionalvaluespersonified inthe atatime whenthetrenditselfwasno on. Eventhepeasantryhowever, ey consideredtobeRomania’s 39 . InIorga’s viewchange can took centuriestotakeshape. be interpreted toacertain 40 . Hisconcernwasto Hitchins pointedout, samanatorist age, Iorgacouldnot thepeasantrytook 38 onefor . CEU eTD Collection the League successful. Reportsfrom 1910and1912record many 44 43 42 41 the same extent.Most likely Iorga’s ownpo established underIorga’sleadership, theLeague like theactivityofLeagueits League benefitedfrom theallegianceofwell-k sections oftheLeagueinvillages were themostlikelyto fulfilloneoftheLeague’smain desiderata,namely thefoundingof hand withpragmatic concerns.In occasionally alsostruck asensitivechord Nevertheless, aslettersfrom members attest, through bookdonationsundoubtedlyconstitutedanincentive inpoorandremote ruralareas. appeals toteachersandpriests tojointhecauseofLeague villages”, namely teachersandpriests. Before disseminating its program, theLeague relied especially on theso-called “intellectuality of the national cause andatthesame time preserveth those close totheruralworld,whocouldhelpeducatepeasants, “awaken”themtothe Assuch,whenbecoming secretaryofth organization’s activity alsoonthe rural world. Me Munte: Tipografia Societatii “Neamul Romanesc”, 1912). 1912). “Neamul Romanesc”, Societatii Tipografia Munte: Central deComitetul publicate siinformatii Rapoarte Culturale. Ligii al Constanta din Congresul
Ibid, 14. Ibid, Ibid. Pentru Congresul Ligii Culturale 1910 Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru Pentru Congresul Ligii Culturale 1910 Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru Higher echelonsoftheeducational establishm
42 . ThefactthattheLeague wasoftenwillingto helptheirschools financially or
elf, declinedaftertheturnof (Valenii deMunte: Tipografia Neamul Romanesc, 1910), . anycase,this workedintheLeague’sbenefit,asteachers 44 . 43 . Feelingsofgenuinepatr 20 the League’spropagandaforRomanianabroad the warLeague’sbrochures usedtoinclude nown universityprofessors sition inthe academic worldattractedfew e League,Iorgaunderstandablyfocusedthe failed toattractmembers oftheacademia to mbers oftheLeague werelikely toinclude e traditional characterofthevillage.For ent provedless responsive.Ifinitiallythe cases ofteachersfrom ruralareasjoining thecentury.After1906,whenre- 41 . Inthistheyweremoderately iotism thuswenthandin , their cont . (Valenii de de . (Valenii Pentru ribution, CEU eTD Collection (Valenii de Munte: Societ de Tipografia (Valenii 5/1919-1925, 21. 21. 5/1919-1925, remained aconstantsourceofmembers fortheLeague. While neverreaching thenumbers ofteachers of theLeague.Thiswascasearmymember categories symbolically associatedwith traditio especially intherural worldbutat thesame the casein1922and1924 members andoccasionallyinvitedthem topreside overthecongressesof theLeague, likewas organized conferencesonreligioussubjects,made important also contributedfinancially.Foritspart,theLeague that professorsseldom attendthe little supportamong fellowprofessors 49 48 47 46 45 the Church brochures featuredlettersofs the lowerranks,League enjoyedthesup outlook isolatedhim frommost ofhiscolleagues Academy until 1811.NeitherwasIorgaanamiable ascension triggered envies andsuspicions an sympathies. While university professor sinc Nicholas Nagy-Talavera, Fileno. romanilor, atuturor Nationale Arhivele Istorice Liga Unitatea pentru (ANIC)Fond Culturala Centrale Pentru Congresul Ligii Culturale 1910, 1910, Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru Pentru Congresul din Constanta al Ligii Culturale. Pentru Congresul Ligii Culturale 1910 Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru The priesthood wasamore compliant category. In thiscase, apartfrom theallegiance of 47 . Apartfrom stimulating thepriesthood tojointhe League,theleaderssometimes Nicolae Iorga:A Biography 48 . ThealliancewiththeChurchenhancedLeague’scredibility upport from metropolitan bishopsor
atii “Neamul Romanesc”, 1912), 106. 106. 1912), Romanesc”, atii “Neamul League’s meeting andconferences , 23. 31. . SectionsinotheruniversitytownslikeIasicomplained Rapoarte siinformatii public 21 , 134. , 134. e 1893attheageoftwenty-four,hisrapid time addedtoitstraditionalist character. Other nalism andmoralityconst d hewas denied entrance in theRomanian port ofthehigherhierarchy.TheLeague’s s, towhichtheLeagueissued similar calls. 45 and priests, officersandarmy employees diditsbesttostrengthenthisconnection.It . Hisorganization’sappealthereforefound personality. Thedictatorial andegocentric figures oftheChurchhonorary otherhighrepresentativesof 46 ate de ComitetulCentral . ituted targetaudiences . 49 . CEU eTD Collection results. later, theLeague wouldtryagai measures onlytestifies tothed which wasessentiallyavoluntaryor unanswered, evenifaccepteditwould havemeant of thestudentsattheirmeetings initiative failed in most cases, 1900s, theplanwasforeverysectionto years. TheLeague,nevertheless, groups attheLeague’sfoundingin1891,their 55 54 53 52 51 50 militaries and workers Bucharest section oftheLeague,suggest thatthe more permeable. TheLeague’sregistriesfrom 1929and1930,recordinga included students,itnevergained Instruction in1923toaskallstudentsjointheLeague exerted thesame influence.Inadesperatemove Iorga, whose impact over Nicholas Nagy-Talavera, 67. Ibid., 20. Ibid., ANIC Fond Liga pentru Unitatea Culturala a tuturor romanilor, File no.25/ 1929-1930. ANIC File Ligaatuturor 1929-1930. Culturala romanilor, Fond no.25/ Unitatea pentru Seechapter 3 for an examination of theconferences 44. 5/1919-1925, File no. romanilor, tuturor a Culturala Unitatea Liga pentru ANIC Fond 54 Students constituted atargetgroup with adiffere At theverytime theLeaguefa While theLeaguewasneveraltogetherre 55 Nicolae Iorga:A Biography . Thepresence ofthelatterowed students attheturn of thecentury has been impressive
at thetime some section could stillclaim substantialparticipation ecline andconfusionexperienced afterthe war.Almost adecade 51 nevergaveupthehopeofin n tolure students, if in a lessaggressive way,with similar . Afterthewar,however,students became almost alostcause. the mass adherenceithopedfor. ganization. Thefactth iled topenetratethestudent found anadditionalstudentsub-section designed especially for stud 22 , 149. , 149. , theLeague requestedth majority of aspirants we presence declinedconstantlythroughoutthe pulsive totheyouthanditsmembers always an abdicationfromtheLeague’sprinciples, nt history. While oneof themost active at theLeagueturned to theLeague’s increasedemphasis 53 . While therequest remained corporating them. Intheearly s, othersocialgroupswere ents andtheirimpact. re clerks, artisans and artisans clerks, re ll requeststojointhe e Ministry of Public e MinistryofPublic tosuchextreme 50 52 . While the , nolonger CEU eTD Collection listed almost onlydoctors,lawyersandengineers registries from 1942-1945,thelast in theinterwar period the Leagueseemed tohave housewives andpensioners,whorepresente 61 60 59 58 57 56 especially since not allthesections were number wouldraiseto102,withover20000activemembers on theLeague’sprewarhistory,ayearlater Bucharest 2. TheBeginnings:Establi without challenges. interwar period.Theestablishment andmaintena neo-samanatorist proved theLeague’s most truthfulagents.While propaganda hasbeentheprovince lower middle classesfrom urbancenters.Fr on thecommunistthreatanditspropagandainfactories 130. Z. Ornea, 1942-1945. 76/ File no. Ibid., 1929-1930. File no.25/ Ibid., Ibid., File no. 49/1931-1935, 88. Gh, Marinescu and Vasile Netea, ANIC Ligaa tuturor File Fond Culturala romanilor, Unitatea no. pentru 1981. 2/ That aside,theLeague’sstrongholdwasformo In 1891,whenitwasfounded,theLeagueha 60 Traditionalism si modernitate . AccordingtoMarinescuandNetea,th revivals provedfutile
“Liga Culturala” si unirea Transilvaniei cu Romania (Iasi:Junimea, 1978), in deceniul al Eminescu, treilea(Bucuresti: 1980), Editura 216. years whentheLeaguefuncti shing theOrganization and therural areasandvillag 59 , theLeaguecontinueditslegacythroughout d significantsegments ofitssupporters actually activeandnotallregisteredmembers 23 the Leaguehad21localsections.By1913 om thebeginningfocusofLeague’s samanatorism nce ofsuchanorganizationwasnot,however, 58 penetratedtheliberalprofessionsaswell.The . e authorsoftheonl st ofitsexistencetheruralworldand st 56 d 591members andwasrestrictedto . TheLeaguewaspopularalsoamong 61 waslongextinctandattempts at . While thedataisquestionable, oned, evenifonlyintheory, e teachersandpriestshave y availablemonograph 57 . Later on . Later CEU eTD Collection economic nationalism overtheculturalone the League’sprogram wascont sections recordcompetition withsocietiesbasedin communities andrefused toallow otherorganizations to takethe stage. Reports from local or avisibility similar tothe Inthistheyoftencompeted extent succeededincreatingac 64 63 62 society boycottedthemeetings oftheLeague leadership interwar period,withtheideaoffederali an umbrella organizationforcha contemplated more ambitious goals. the fateoftheir“brothers” abroad. OnceIorga tradition. The League’s merit wasto attempt toch active. Societies like concerned. Othersocieties,especiallyintheterritoriesout appeal oftheLeague’spatriotic message wouldsuggest. This, however,provedmore difficultthanth participated initsactivities, thefact remained Ibid., 64. 64. Ibid., 62. 5/1919-1925, File no. romanilor, tuturor a Culturala Unitatea Liga pentru ANIC Fond Pentru Congresul Ligii Culturale 1910, 1910, Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru At itsinception,theLeaguedidnotbreaknewgroundinwh 62 . Whilethiswasneveraccomplished, theLeagueendeavored andtoaconsiderable Astra ,
Carpatii (The Carpathians) League’s, neverthelesswerestr ountry-wide network ofsections. nneling culturalprojects.Assuch,itoftenflirted,eveninthe ested, therivallocalsociet 80. with otherassociationswhich, Ifnotveryexplicit 63 64 . Inthesame yearinMehedinti,thelocal cultural 24 thatthe Leagueexperiencedarapid ascension. . e abovementioned author was entrusted withitsleadership, the League zation ofallcultural annel the interest of the Romanians inside for thetowns.Inonecase ly, the Leagueinfactaimed tobecome or side theOldKingdom werelong y advocatingtheprimacy of ongly anchored in theirlocal Transilvania without aspiringtoanetwork at nationalist associations underits , inSinaia1910 s’ emphasis onthe enjoyed along activity was CEU eTD Collection to lookdownontheLeagueandrega town”, whichmade “thegreatmajority ofthe 68 67 66 65 enterprises andespeciallyforthenationalcause” Turnu-Magurele denounced“thecondemnable i public” claimed theywould“have accomplished more if understand theimportance ofthesacrificeforourideal” branch reported that“things The brochureofthe1912congressincludesrele Morethananythingelse,theLeaguehad population. Reportafterreportcompla the League’srealnetwork istherefore difficult. members. Consequentlysections used toappearanddisappear subscriptions duesandsome deliberatelyabstaine not actuallyaffordorwhoserent Inthefirstdecades most sectionsstruggled of them toacquiretheirow was Pentru Congresul din Constanta R Ligii Constanta al Culturale. din Congresul Pentru Ibid., 101. 40. Ibid., 35. Ibid., 66 . InConstanta,theindifference wasblamed onthe“cosmopolitan character of the
go slowly,sincepeoplecannot n headquarters,many sectionsme took upalltheir incomes. Most sections failed tocollect all ins aboutthestagnationandlack ofinterestthepublic. rd it at best with indifference” apoarte si informatii publicate de Comitetul Central Comitetul de publicate siinformatii apoarte 25 Romanian elements, engagedinpettystruggles, ndifference shownbyourpublicforidealistic 68
[they]didn’tmeet theindifferenceof d from their doingsooutoffearlosing with logisticaldifficulties.Thegoalofmost vant examplesofthiskind.TheCampina to confronttheprevailingapathyof 65 . TheLeague’s members inCaracal overnight andanassessment of rise above thematerial and eting inlocationstheycould 67 . Finally,theLeague in , 33. CEU eTD Collection subsections the ruralworld.By1924goalwasforeach reach itsaudience. TheLeagueconsequently established more ambitious goals forpenetrating While theLeague’s leadershipacquiescedtoth the unificationwasachieved,League’s prog 3. SustainingtheNetworkafterWar 72 71 70 69 eloquent sampleofthedecline DuringtheDepression themembership unders assess theLeague’stotal membership, theregi ratio changedagainto53outof128 is 111to35.In1930asmany as54s sections butmentions existed onpaperalone.Forexample thebrochu practice many nolonger answeredtheconvocati couple ofyearslater.Whiletheofficialnumber reach one year. Like beforethewar,oftensect new sectionswerefounded,many wereephemeral.Thelifespan ofsome sectionsdidnoteven si rapoarte. Ibid., File no.30/1929, 97. ANIC Liga a tuturor File 58. Fond Culturala romanilor, Unitatea no. pentru 1919-1925, 5/ 14. 1930, 39/ File no. Ibid., Congresul Ligii Culturale: tinut la Focsani in zilele de duminica, 13 si luni, 14 septembrie 1931, dari de seama After thewarchallenges facedbytheL Throughout theinterwarperiod (ValeniideMunte: Datina Romaneasca, 1931). 69 . While thenumber wasunrealistic, that 36are inactive
in membership (seeTable1). 72 . ections outof116werenolongeractive many sectionswerethuses 70 . Ayear later the ratio of active toinactive sections 26 is reality,itneverthele many ruralbranches ions disintegrated onlytobereestablished a ons ofthecentralcommittee andmostlikely ram understandablylostmuch ofitsappeal. re ofLeague’scongressfrom 1928lists96 stries oftheBucharestsectionprovidean of sectionsincreasedalmost everyyear,in eague multiplied.Oncethepolitical goalof tandably declined.While itisdifficultto urbansectiontoestablish tenrural tablished. Whileeach year weresetup. ss soughtnewwaysto 71 . In1931the CEU eTD Collection productive urbanandruralsectionsitcanbere their members. However,from thegeneralreports whichemphasize theactivity of themost longer containlistsofthesections,orreports FollowingtheDepression,League seem to at leastfinancially.Thebrochur to jointheLeague, evenif insmall numbers. What thisfiguresfailtoreveal,however, isthat the listsbecauseoffailure membership from 1930to1931,infactthat Numbers alone,however,canbemisleading. While 75 74 73 erasing theirdebtiftheyagreetorejoin reverse thedownturn,Leaguewouldapproach Ibid., 128. 26. Ibid., 49/1931-1935. File no. romanilor, tuturor a Culturala Unitatea Liga pentru ANIC Fond Table1:MembershipoftheBucharestsectionLeague to paytheannualcontribution 1934 1933 1932 1931 Members 1930 Year
es ofthecongressesfromthesecondhalf1930sno and payonlythesubscriptionforcurrentyear 350 594 655 1300 Not available 27 asonably speculatedthattheLeague’snetwork eveninthesetroubled period almost 800members wereerasedfrom individualsectionsspecifyingthenumber of theformer members withthepromise of haverecovered,if thetablesuggestsasharpdeclinein 74 . In1934,inadesperateattempt to years peoplecontinued not numerically, then 73
75 . CEU eTD Collection 4. FinancingCulturalNationalism 77 76 means tosupplement itsincome. Fundraisingballs retain members. of decline,likeduringtheDepression,feeswereoftencance collected intheirentire The fees werenotonlysmall, many members benefiting from discounts,butalsoseldom financing, thesubscriptionfees,didnotcoverth main difficultiesfacedby theLeague throughout th from IlieArdelean,thesecretaryofBuchar activity, whichindeedapparently that theLeaguehasneverbeenmore thriving League’s financialsituation.In membership. Thelackofinformation concerning remained relatively stable even ifallsections nationalism itself butalsoforan for thehistoryofLeague, enjoyed asurplusinitsbudget.Thestoryofthe League’s financialodysseyisrelevantnotonly For thefirsttime sincetheendofwar, de Munte: Datina Romaneasca, 1938),14. ANIC FondLiga pentruUnitatea Culturala tuturor a romanilor,File no. 49/1931-1935, 118. Congresul Ligii Culturale: tinut la Botosani in zilele de 29 si 30 iunie 1938, seama sirapoarte dari de iunie 1938, zilelede29 si 30 in la Botosani tinut Ligii Culturale: Congresul “Without money,nothingcanbedone” In theabsence of substantial ty. Infact,astheoverv
1938generalM.C.Schina,the intensified in thesecondhalfof revenue from inside,theLeagueturnedtovariousother understanding ofthech were probably inevitably affected byadecline in the Leaguewasnotonly iew oftheLeague’shistorysuggested,inperiods 28 77 76 e expensesrequiredbytheLeague’sactivities. . Thestatement, datingfrom 1933andcoming est section of theLea . Whathehadinmind membership iscompensated byreportsofthe andlotteriesweream e years. TheLeague’smost stablesourceof League’s administrator claimed thedecade, but itsfinances. lled completely inorderto allenges facedbycultural gue, reflects one of the gue, reflectsoneofthe ong themostfrequent. no longerindebtbut was nottheLeague’s (Valenii (Valenii CEU eTD Collection additional revenue The long-termcontractallowedtheLeaguefirst to as partsofthebuildingwerefi supposed tosustainitselfandevenbecome aso and theRomanian culture” dreamt ofthepalaceasnotonlyLeague’s century nationalists who relishedinthebuilding ofnationalmuseums andstateoperas,Iorga in theinterwar period.For Iorga,however,th twenty years,wasadisproportiona scale ofthePalace(today theBulandraTheaterinBucharest),whosebuildingtook almost Allthefundswentintobuilding of ambition butanunrealisticprojectforafinanc 81 80 79 78 State subventions sustainedtheLeaguein will address thequestion of therelationship between the League and the State inmoredetail, Urbana (TheUrbanBank)andCasadeDepoziteDepositsHouse) 1920 theLeague obtainedaloanfrom Marmor plan nevercame tofruition.Assuch,theLeaguetu recovered especially afterthewar,whenLeague’ssavingsweretakentoMoscowandnever Apart from these,however,theLeaguedepende At times, theLeague’scalendar ANIC Fond Liga pentru Unitatea Culturala ANIC Liga a tuturor File 10. Fond Culturala romanilor, Unitatea no. pentru 1919-1925, 5/ ANIC Fond Liga pentru Unitatea Culturala a tuturor romanilor, File no.39/1930. ANIC File Ligaatuturor Culturala romanilor, Fond no.39/1930. Unitatea pentru Nicolae Iorga, 13. Ibid., 78 . WhiletheLeague hopedtheNationalBa O viataO deomcum asafost a 81 . 80 . Morepragmatically, theconstr
nalized theywererentedto included advertisements tosuppor te headquartersforasocietywhic (Bucuresti: Minerva, 1981), vol. 3, 55. 55. 3, vol. 1981), Minerva, (Bucuresti: is wasagoalbeyondquestioning.Likenineteenth 29 ially-challenged society house, butthe “houseoftheRomanian people urce ofincome fortheLeague.Indeedassoon d onloansandsubventions.Thiswasthecase osch Bank,followedbyothersfrom Banca times offinancialdistress.WhileChapter3 the League’sPalace, one ofIorga’smain repaypartsofitsloansandthentoearnan rned tovariousbanksinsearchforloans.In nk wouldcompensate fortheloss, the Romanian Railways Company. uction oncebegan,thePalace was t thecostsof h lostmuch ofitsvisibility 79 like theLeague’s.The . its publication. CEU eTD Collection surplus the Leaguewasnotonlynolongerindebt 1938 claims concerningtheLeague’s made itsdiscourseseem hypocritical.Asasurv remarkable. claimed to be abovepartypoliticsandagainstth clear politicalagenda undermined thecredibility retain control overthetheater Theater,donatedhissh shareholder ofthePopular 84 83 82 the bankerAristideBlank,laterprominen subventions, Iorga’spoliticalconnectionsensure donations, byreimbursement or suffices tosaythattheauthor ANIC Liga a tuturor File 40. Fond Culturala romanilor, Unitatea no. pentru 1919-1925, 5/ Hitchins, Congresul Ligii Culturale: tinut la Botosani in zilele de 29 si 30 iunie 1938, dari de seama si rapoarte, seama sirapoarte, dari de iunie 1938, zilelede29 si 30 in la Botosani tinut Ligii Culturale: Congresul 84 . Giventheidealistic cultural nationalism Rumania 1866-1947 , 386.
83 . However,thiskindofsupport ities savedtheLeagueincrit by takinguptheLeague’sloans.Apartfrom official prosperitywerenotjustem t member ofkingCarolII’scamarilla 30 but itsbudgetactuallyrecordedasignificant d otherkindsofsponsor ival tactic,however,it e financialoligarchy,th oftheLeague.Atatime whentheLeague ares totheLeague,whichwasthusable embracedbytheLeaguethiswasindeed from privateindividualswitha ical moments ei pty propaganda.Bythatyear, provedeffective.The ship. Assuch,in1922 is kindofassociation ther through 82 18-19. 18-19. , main CEU eTD Collection Editura Minerva, 1978), 26. 26. 1978), Minerva, Editura organic development whileacquiringan Junimea culturalandpoliticalgroup,Iorga’sdiscoursewouldretainth culture andnation.Originatingintheconser nationalism haditsrootsinth nationalist movements. Springingfrom Iorga’s nationalism”, whichindividualizedtheLeaguea 1. Mystical Organicism:CultureandNation Chapter III:ProgrammaticCulturalNationalism 86 85 at home. fashions towhichtheRomanian intelligentsia institutions whoseinaugurationheconsideredpr emature, aswelltothe Western moresand would haveit.UndoubtedlyMa Western standards adoption of Western institutions and behaviors ina society whichwas far from reaching of “formswithoutsubstance” 113. IoanStanomir, TituMaiorescu, “O cercetare criticaasupra poezi The League’sprojectsandactivitiesderi The originalJunimist perspective,whichtook Spiritul conservator de la Barbu Catargiu la Nicolae Iorga la Nicolae Catargiu la de Barbu conservator Spiritul 86 . Thetheory,however, wasmoreambi
, emphasizedthedangersofth e historian’s peculiar underst iorescu understoodthe“forms increasingly nationalisticandpopulistbent ei romane de la 1867,” in Titu Maiorescu, Maiorescu, inTitu ei la romane de 1867,” 31 got accustomed abroadandcontinuedtopractice vative canoninauguratedinRomaniabythe thought, theLeague’sprogrammatic cultural nd separateditfrom boththestateandother ved from aself-styledprogramof“cultural coherent form inTitu guous thansubsequentconservatives anding oftherelationbetween (Bucuresti: Curtea Veche, 2008), 2008), Curtea Veche, (Bucuresti: e indiscriminate anduntimely ” torefertheliberal e latter’semphasison Maiorescu’stheory Opere I 85 (Bucuresti: (Bucuresti: . CEU eTD Collection 9. 31:2 (1997),164. (1997),164. 31:2 according to predetermined principles Romanian society isnolongerina this assumption isquestionable. Whereas Maio repudiating anypreviousachievements ofthenation that thefirstmanifestations ofmodernRomanian culturestartedaslate1860,thus against theimpositionofWestern forms intheabsenceof 92 91 90 89 88 87 mysterious formations, whichcannotbeharmed” however, wentbeyondthatofmost nationalists. the nation,progressingthroughagesandmy Eminescu, hadnodoubtsastowherethissubsta excesses associated withJunimea butnever amainst Maiorescu, withwhomhewa original state allowingsocial experiments that Junimea nevertheless historiography interpretedthis TituMaiorescu, “O cercetare criticaasupra poezi Zigu Ornea, Titu Maiorescu, in polemice,” “Observari Maiorescu, Titu Roumen Daskalov,“Ideas Nicolae Iorga, Stanomir, 113. It is,however,lessclearwhatheunderstoodby“substance”.WhileWestern Nations, inIorga’sview,wereorganic,ju Iorga’s outlookcouldhardlyhavebeenmo 91 . Whileappropriatingthedisc Junimea si Junimismul Ce dureaza: about, andReactions to, Mode conferinta constructed its theory as if this wa
as referringtothe “innate” ch (Bucuresti: Eminescu, 1978), (Bucuresti: 1978), 204. Eminescu, s temperamentally opposed,butMihaiEminescu, thepoet la la Liga 88
tabula rasa , Z.Ornea,theexegete ofJu Culturala ourse against“forms without 89 ei romane de la 1867,” in Titu Maiorescu, Maiorescu, inTitu ei la romane de 1867,” . Ineffect,itcanbear stically embodied initsculture. 32
nce wastobefound.For din ream Junimist because ofhisnationalistic rnization intheBalkans.” 92 Opere I, st likeindividuals.Io rescu himself notedwithregretthatthe Accordingtohim, nationswere“divine, conditionthatwouldallowitsmolding Brasov 90 . Amystical conceptofthenationandits re different. In this his model was not re different.Inthishismodelwasnot . 141.
octombrie any any s stilltrue andRomania wasin an aracter oftheRomanian people substance. Heexpresslyargued gued thatMaiorescuwarned 1939 nimea, insightfully notes Eastern European Quarterly substance”,Iorga,like (ValeniideM rga’s organicoutlook, Iorga the answer was Iorga theanswerwas Opere I unte, 1940), , 26. 87 ,
CEU eTD Collection hatred against anynation”, eachnations Later on,inmid 1930s,hewouldsti soul” According toIorga,languagewas“thehighest shaped anddependedonlanguage,thefirstfo authenticity” inseparable from theideasitexpressed. quest toensure the“glory andstrength” of th nations tofightfortheirgreatness.Inthisse destiny m 98 97 96 95 94 93 extent towhich theyreflect therealities of th the peasant world.The in the present transformed throughgenerations,bearingthemark of thepastbutalsoth controlled by themystical power, workintheir service do nothave tobe“ready orright” inorder tofulfill their goals. Instead, circumstances, de Munte: Datina Romaneasca, 1937),5. 9. Ibid. Nicolae Iorga, A.D. Smith, 17 Ibid, Nicolae Iorga, Congresul Ligii Culturale tinut la Iasi in zilele de 27, 28 si 29 iunie 1937. Dari de seama sirapoarte deseama Dari si in zilelede 27, iunie 28 1937. la Iasi 29 tinut Ligii Culturale Congresul 96 . Language,seenasinexorablylinkedwith For Iorg Like thenationalism describedbyAnthonyD. ade Iorgaarguethat ade Myths and Memories ofthe Nation 98 Cultura nationala si politica nationala si politica nationala Cultura Lupta pentru limba romaneasca . ForIorga, theauthentic Romanian cultu 97 a the reservoir of thenation’s strengt . ForIorgalanguagewasnotasimp samanatorist
a “supernaturalpower”governsth ll claim, thistypereferringto trendpostulated thatliterary works arevaluable tothe having the right todeveloporganica (Bucuresti: Minerva, institute de institute arte grafice sieditura, 1906), Minerva, 16 (Bucuresti: (Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 1999), 67. nse, Iorgadidnotblame theHungarians,whose (Valenii deMunte: Tipografia Neamul Romanesc, 1908), 33 e ruralworld. While most literary critics regard eir nationwasjustaslegitimate asanyother andmost complete embodiment ofanation’s remost expressionof anation’sspirituality. h wasitsculture, whichinitsownturn was nationality,wasalsoalivingorganism, re wasthetraditionalone,embedded in Smith, Iorga’salsohadthe“cultof le toolforcommunicationbutwas 93 . Thecondition,however,isfor theJews,thatheharbors“no e existenceofnations,which e potentialforchange lly 95 . (Valenii 94 . CEU eTD Collection the pastisnation’sonly“fortune” theirroots.TimeThrough culture,peopleshouldrediscover a Romanian culture hasachievedadefinite form manifests itselfbyputtingtheinterestsof way toaninstinctualtypeofmoral cohesion, thinking. AccordingtoIorga,whenacultureach prerequisite forthecreationof“national solid between culturesisconditionedbyeachnation Romanians canunderstandandappreciateothercu further development ofculture. Inaddition,on was alsobore theimprint controversial. While arguingthateachRomani nevertheless notaltogetheradversetochange. Inthissense, Iorga’sdiscourse wasattimes faithfully reflects Iorga’s beliefs. 105 104 103 102 101 100 99 differences andpolitical affiliations literary 13. Z. Ornea, Nicolae Iorga, “Solidaritatea nationala”, Ibid. Nicolae Iorga, 62. Oldson, culturi” adevaratei “Conditiile Nicolae Iorga, Congresul Ligii Culturale tinut la Iasi in zilele de 27, 28 si 29 iunie 1937. Dari de seama sirapoarte deseama Dari si in zilelede 27, iunie 28 1937. la Iasi 29 tinut Ligii Culturale Congresul Knowledge ofthenationalculture,understoodasamystical forceinitself,wasthe While thetraditional,ruralandpatriarcha As William Oldsonpointed out, Iorga’s understanding ofculturewasteleological samanatorism Samanatorismul Pe ce se poate sprijini popor un sprijini Pe cesepoate as anaesthetic failure , 278. , 278. of successivegenerations
105 Neamul romanesc . Thedegreetowhichanati 103 Neamul romanesc (Valenii de Munte: Tipografia de Munte: (Valenii . Inturn, thisrediscovery itself wouldlead tothe nation aboveanyothera 34 , nolongernecessitatingchangeoralteration. 99 being inconstantcontactwith itsown an cancontributetothenationalculturewhich understood as“nationalsolidarity”.Thelatter itsmessage was influential for atime and arity”, alsoanimportant conceptinIorga’s ly bybeing familiar withtheirownculture ieves acertainstagein l culturewasparamount forIorga,hewas , January 26, 1935 26, , January 100 ltures. ForIorga,mutualcomprehension , Iorgawouldalternativelyalsoinsistthat , July 17, 1937. 1937. 17, , July nd againIorgaemphasized that . Soc. Neamul Romanesc,Soc. Neamul 1910), on canachievethiskindof nd bydisregardingsocial itsevolutionitgives 104 , 4. . 101 102
. CEU eTD Collection achieved bythenationalcultureitself decade ofthecenturythatth the nationalculturecandemandpolitical different represented primarily bythepeasantry,remains in Consequently, itisefficientaslongth sense of nationalsolidarity. Inthis, morality should coagulate.Amid divestedinterestsand borders betweenprovincesandbypolitical the Leagueperceiveditselfasinstituti League’s interpretation of culturalunification andthemeans toachieveit.Fromitsinception, regular objectiveoftheLeague.Inpart,concern preoccupation withensuringstandards ofdecency constant concern with mora 2. CulturalNationalismandMorality 108 107 106 emerging from the“nationallife”of difference between “nationalcu national solidarity hasramificati Discursuri parlamentare 1907-1917 1907-1917 parlamentare Nicolae Iorga, Discursuri Nicolae Iorga, “Avem nevoie de o organizatie sanatoas Nicolae Iorga, “Ideile abst Nicolae Iorga, Characteristic of theLeague andof cultural nationalism moregenerally, isalso a Cultura nationala si politica nationala si politica nationala Cultura racte sistatulorganic”,
lity. Springingfrom Iorga’s e emancipationofthepeasantswasdemanded bythestage ons inthe politicalfield.Accord lture” and“national politics” 108 . (Bucuresti: Editura politica, 1981), (Bucuresti: Editura 297. on aroundwhichtheRomanian nation,dividedby Neamul romanesc e organiclinkbetweenthestateandnation, came paramount. AsHutchinson hademphasized, 35 prevailing apathy,theLea , 8. , 8. a, de o natiune unita, de o natiune multumita..” in in multumita..” natiune o de unita, natiune o a, de people and reflecting itscharacteristics social differenceswi for moralityisanatural continuation of the tact. Different phasesinthedevelopmenttact. Different of actions.Assuch,Iorgaarguedinthefirst intheRomanian publicspaceremains a , April 3, 1935. 1935. 3, , April 106 samanatorist . Thestateitself isorganic, ing toIorga,therecanbeno thin theOld Kingdom, gue settobuildanew convictions,the 107 . CEU eTD Collection pornography the time anacknowledgedpoet, example, forovertwodecadesIorga directed hi errors ofjudgment, discardingartistsandwrit modernism andsymbolism, perceived asdecadent. Understandably,Iorga thusmade flagrant obscure writersanddenigrated cause, andtheindiscriminate glorificationof literary tastewasnotoriouslyconservative.In main field, culture. Inthelatter, the League’s the League’s interest inmoralityaffected notth classes” 112 111 110 109 with thequestionofconcubinage Among themany subjects coveredbytheLeague’s pragmatic sense as well.Itsalliance withvilla “the lackofamoral bondthat obvious inthefirstdecadeafter regenerate acommunityindisarray. Inthe Le cultural nationalistssaw themse (Valenii de Munte: Societ de Tipografia (Valenii Z. Ornea, ANIC Liga87. a tuturor Fond Culturala romanilor, Unitatea File no.30/1928, pentru 30. Hutchinson, Pentru Congresul din Constanta al LigiiCulturale. Apart from itsidealistic perception, theL 110 . Anii treizeci. Extrema dreapta romaneaca 112 . Otherprominent figureslikeBrancusi
atii “Neamul Romanesc”, 1912), 106. 106. 1912), Romanesc”, atii “Neamul the war.AtLeague’scongr lves as“moral innovators” and themeans topreventit valuable ones. Themain targets of hiscriticism were would linkthedifferentprovin but toIorgatheincarnati Rapoarte siinformatii public . (Bucuresti: Est, 2008), 520-527. 520-527. Est, 2008), . (Bucuresti: 36 thepeasantandnation,Iorgapromoted ers thatwouldbecome partofthecanon.For s criticism againstTudorArghezi,today andat e privatelives of thecitizensbut League’s his subordinationofliteraturetothenational initiatives wereatbest questionable. Iorga’s ague’s case, thedisarray became especially ge priestsandteachersmade thispossible. eague acted asaguardianof morality in a conferences, in1912one or TristanTzarawerethesubjectof 111 109 . Moreoftenthannot,however, . Theirworkwassupposedto ess in1928,Iorgadeploredthe on of moral abjectionand ces andthedifferentsocial ate de ComitetulCentral dealtparticularly . CEU eTD Collection idea itself, originating inphilosophi “orthodox mysticism” asnotonlyun of thejournal essence oftheRomanian soulintheOrthodoxreligion. InreactiontoNichiforCrainic,founder himself, Iorgaroseagainstthe“orthodoxism” teachings of“gandirists”and“trairists”.While thesupporteroftraditio condemnation ofthe“unhealthymysticism” 116 115 114 113 more radicalandunrealistic.Th seemed outofplace.Paradoxically,atthesame anachronistic. Intheinterwarperiod thedaysofsamanatorism time passedby,however,itsvoice character ofaparticular League’s case determined itsessentially tradit case suggeststhatadditionalfact traditionalism andmodernism by Hutchinson whichassumed thatcultural nationalism isgenerally an attempt toreconcile essentially conservative.Inthissense,thereis however, while reticent tothis kindof extr unrelenting scorn de Munte: Datina Romaneasca, 1937),4. 1936) Hutchinson, 33. 33. Hutchinson, Z. Ornea, Nicolae Iorga, Congresul Ligii Culturale tinut la Iasi in zilele de 27, 28 si 29 iunie 1937. Dari de seama sirapoarte deseama Dari si in zilelede 27, iunie 28 1937. la Iasi 29 tinut Ligii Culturale Congresul The Leaguethusimitated Iorga’sidiosyncrasi Traditionalism si modernitate Lupta mea contra prostiei: conferinta la Liga Culturala Gandirea andthemain advocateof“orthodoxism”, Iorgadenouncedthe 113 . Ontheotherhand,Iorga’s concern cultural nationalism.
116 e 1928congressoftheLeaguew ors, liketheoverwhelming influe . While notquestioning the validity of themodel itself, this in deceniul al treilea, 557. representative fortheRomanian nation,butasanimported cal circlesinGermanyandAustria in thematter, justlikeIo 114 asignificantvariationfromthemodel advanced 37 ionalist outlook, caninfluence significantly the time, demands became theLeague’s moreand emes, Iorga’sculturalnationalism remained prevalentinthe1930swritingsand prevalent atthetime, es withconsistencyandperseverance.As with morality alsounderpinned his (Valeniide Munte:Datina Romaneasca, werelongoveranditsechoes nce ofaleader,whichinthe itnessed thetraditionalrally rga’s, became increasingly whichidentifiedthe nal, Christianculture 115 . Undoubtedly, (Valenii CEU eTD Collection his views. met hisapproval.Undoubtedly,however, theorigin when Iorga’s interests rested primarily inpolitic achieving this purging of theRomanian cultural 1934 memo, however,remains reveali decadent books. Intense propagandawoul sue theculprits.Finally,otherteams wouldas the uncoveringofpurveyorsimmoralworks, organize “interventionteams” proposed fortranslationinRomanianmora planned toform teams ofreferents,fluent in understanding ofthewayLeagueintendedto 120 119 118 117 establish itsownbookstores,whereonly“heal the Leaguetempered itszeal, struggles” also stating theLeague’s ambition tobecome a“kindof ministry for these ideas and reiterates the League’scommitment tothefi the Bucharestsection,however,revealsmore against pornographiclite Ibid., 138. 136. 1929-1935, ,Fileno.49/ Ibid., ANIC Ligaa tuturor File Fond Culturala romanilor, Unitatea no. pentru 30/1928. Congresul Ligii Culturale tinut la Iasi in in zilelede la Iasi tinut Ligii Culturale Congresul This time, however, insteadofvaguecommitme 118 . rature anditscorruptingeffectontheyouth
whichwouldsupervisepublishe thistime announcingatitsa ng ofhowfarsomeme ofthe d complement thesepracticalactions ght against modernism andpornographic literature, 27, 28 si 29 iunie 1937. Dari de seama si rapoarte, acoupleoflanguages, 38 drastic plans.DatedMarch7,1934,thememo thy” literaturewassupposedtobesold l inadequacies.Inaddition,theLeaguewould s, itisuncertainwhethertheplanwouldhave k theassistance ofthePoliceinburning the lawyers appointedbytheLeaguewouldthen space. Designed byalocalsection, atatime implement itsgoals.Assuch,theLeague s oftheLeague’scenso nts, thememo allowsforamore precise nnual congressitsintentionto rs andbooksellers.Following mbers werewillingtogoin whichwouldcheckbooks 117 . Aninternalmemo of rious agendaliein 119 . By1937, 120 10 . . The CEU eTD Collection affecting the life of thenation: in the ability of theState toaccomplish the task 3. CulturalNationalismandtheState 122 121 qualitatively betterthanthe UnderstandablytheLeague’s,andespecially Even beforethewarLeagueenvisaged its whether interms ofcultureornationalpropaganda. than not the activitiesoftheLeague compleme Romanian statewouldbemore than thismodelallows.While often tense, however, likeinthecase once reconsolidated, the statetakes uptheattributions of cultural nationalism. Practice, nationalism emerges intimes whenthestateunder cultural nationalism andthestat his studyonculturalnationalism inIrelanda Iorga’s statement, datingfrom 1913,seems toco iunie 1913 Hutchinson, 43. Hutchinson, Nicolae Iorga, The League’s interest insafeguarding standard (Valenii de Munte, Tipografia Soc. “Neamul Romanesc”, 1913), 26, my translation. mySoc. “Neamul26, Romanesc”, 1913), Munte, Tipografia de translation. (Valenii Doua apeluri catre rominii din Regat si cuvantarea tinuta la intrunirea Ligei Culturale de la 9
spiritually” but replacesit;doesnotserveit case itdoesnotworkthisway.TheSt circumstances, thesocietycreates, c But thesociety does notexist yet,outside theState.Innormal “Who shouldaddress,inRomania, th
of theCulturalLeague,revealsa
state’s. Speakingatthe191 accurately describedasoneof 121
e isnecessarilyadversarial 39 the relationship between theLeague andthe . The same was true for more crucial problems problems crucial more for true was same . The nfirm theconclusionreachedbyHutchinsonin ccording towhichtherelationshipbetween nted theofficialproj goes throughperiodicalcrises.Alternatively, actionsasnotonlydifferent,butalso Iorga’s, rhetoric, wouldseldom admit this. s of morality alsosprang from itsdistrust , butdominatesit,destroyingit ontrols, corrects the State.Inour relationship alotmore ambiguous e national question? The society? Thesociety? e nationalquestion? ate does not represent thesociety 4 commemoration ofthe1848 complementarity. Moreoften 122 . Accordingly, cultural ects oftheauthorities, CEU eTD Collection moral order” following thephilosopherConstantinRadul InIorga’sview,however,andintunewith was guiltyof alotmore thanfailure toinstill feelings of national solidarity. After thewar, achieving aspiritual re-a promoted bythe Leaguehadthemeritofreally Apparently, incontrast withtheartificial, st 127 126 125 124 123 Initsmore moderatemoments, however,th which thestate,givenmany socialandpoliti completion initiated, thefrequentchangesofministers an Party interests andthe“rottenbureaucracy” c Accordingly, thestatewascorr accused the stateof“politicianism” orthepr directed fromabove: revolution, Iorgacontrastedthecommemoration organizedbytheLeaguewithsterileones translation. translation. conferinte la radio tinut la Targoviste in zilele de duminica 3 si luni 4 iunie 1928. Dari de seama si rapoarte Nicolae Iorga, “Liga Culturala, cea fost, ce ANIC Ligaatuturor Culturala romanilor, Fond File no.30/1928, Unitatea pentru Constantin Radulescu-Motru, Ibid., 9-10. Nicolae Iorga, La 126 127 . Allthesepreventedthestatefrom beco whichtheLeagueenvisioned. (Bucuresti: Minerva, 1996), 65. 1996), Minerva, (Bucuresti: comemorarea
resources intheserviceofcountry” anything inanyone’ssoulandfail and theauthorities’celebrations,anot from theofficialdom andIdon’tsee “I thinkwehaveenoughcommemorati wakening ofthepeople Cultura romana si romana politicianismul Cultura
zilei
upt, dominated byeithertheold de 3
Maiu este, lace foloseste” in Nicolae Iorga, (Bucuresti: Editura Ligei Culturale, 1914), 8,my 1914), Culturale, Ligei Editura (Bucuresti: 1848
escu-Motru, whofirstcoined theterm
40 d thehighturnoverofofficespreventedtheir 124 connectingthepresent w rictly formal official celebrations, theones onsequently suffocatedanyproject.Evenif cal challenges ofthein actice of politicsfor thesake ofpolitics. . e Leaguesawitselfasaccomplishingatask a prevailingdiscourseofthetime, thestate ming the“greatpredicatorandpatronof (Bucuresti: Libraria Socec, 1904). 1904). Socec, Libraria (Bucuresti: to stimulate people her onethatwouldfailtochange why we would add, to the state’s why wewouldadd,tothestate’s 123 ons whichcome fromthestate,
oligarchy orthenewlyrich. Congresul Ligii Culturale LigiiCongresul Culturale Sfaturi peintunerec: terwar period,wasyet (Bucuresti, 1928), 6. 1928), (Bucuresti, ith thepastandthus to putalltheir 125 , Iorga CEU eTD Collection instances aremany. In1924theLeaguereceived benefited from important subventionsinkey charge ofactionspertai charge ofhigherlevelseducationandpriv administration, nationaldefenseandprimary educa year later still, heargued thatthe statecould onlyfulfill itsrole bylimiting itself to 132 131 130 129 128 the State its activitywithoutsubventions,Io contradictory. Eveninthesame speech,followi admit it,dependedfinanciallyonthestate.Iorg be able to do sofinancially; until then itis our duty” front of the League’smembers, Iorgaclaimed that latter would becapabletoachieve thedesired radicalism. Thistime, theLeaguewassupposed but difficulttask” unable toachieveit,theconclusi rest onaunifiedculture” unable toundertake.In1928Iorgacomplained th tinut la Targoviste in zilele de duminica 3 si luni 4 iunie 1928. Dari de seama si rapoarte ANIC Fond Liga pentru Unitatea Culturala a tuturor romanilor, File no.35/1929, 130 130 ANIC File Ligaatuturor Culturala romanilor, Fond no.35/1929, Unitatea pentru Ibid., File no.39/1930, 6. 30. ANIC File Ligaatuturor Culturala romanilor, Fond no.34/1929, Unitatea pentru Ibid. ANIC Ligaa tuturor Culturala romanilor, Fond File no.30/1928, Unitatea pentru Iorga’s inconsistencies derived from thefact 132 . The fact was that, while self-sustaining to a considerable degree, the League 129 . Onlyayearlater,however,Iorg ning tothe cultural sphere 128 . Asthestate,sunkincorruptio
on wasthat“only freeassociationscan undertake this beautiful rga complains aboutthe“thedi 41 cultural unity. Talkingabout cultural projects in ate associationsliketheLeagueshouldbein ng hisboastingthattheLeaguehadperformed only tosupplantthestat moments ofitsactivity.Examples ofsuch 131 from theBucharestto “the statewilltakecare of these when itwill at the“newunifiedRomanian statedoesnot a’s owndiscourseinth tion. Otherwise,municipalities shouldbein . 130 thattheLeague, despite its reticence to . Iorga’s attitude was hardly constant. A a wouldplaydownhisprevious n andbureaucraticpractices,is fficultly squeezedmercy” of Congresul Ligii Culturale LigiiCongresul Culturale wn hallthedonationof e temporarily, untilthe (Bucuresti, 1928), 5. 1928), (Bucuresti, is respect ishighly CEU eTD Collection French whichwouldrefute“tenden A yearlatertheLeaguerece books offeredasprizesforstudentsatthe relationship withCasascoalelor(TheSchools’ initiatives ortoparticipateinstate-sponsored ones.Consequently,theLeaguehadalong rhetoric, wasnotreticentto Railways TheLeague’scollaborationwithotherstate- most ofthe1930sLeaguerepaiditsloans “written Romanian propaganda”abroadandstateditswillingness tocontribute inany way cause. In1921,theLeaguerequestedMinistry Society) de Depuneri(TheDepositsHouse)andSoci of Financestookoverthepayments 140 139 138 137 136 135 134 133 postal taxes when travelingatitscongresses various ministries contributedtothebuildingitself the sitewherefuturepalaceofLeaguewouldbebuilt Ibid., 32. 32. Ibid., 43. File no.5/1919-1925, Ibid., 90 ANIC File Ligaatuturor Culturala romanilor, Fond no.39/1930, Unitatea pentru 42 Ibid., 20. ANIC File Ligaa tuturor Culturala romanilor, Fond no.5/1919-1925, Unitatea pentru 130. ,Fileno.35/1929, Ibid., 55. File no.5/1919-1925, Ibid., Congresul Ligii Culturale tinut la Iasi in zilele de 27, 28 si 29 iunie 1937. Dari de seama sirapoarte deseama Dari si in zilelede 27, iunie 28 1937. la Iasi 29 tinut Ligii Culturale Congresul 135 138 . Equallyrelevantwasthecooperationwith . Thelatter,since1921,grante 140 . Apartfrom administrative arrangemen
ived asubventionforpublishing seek thecollaboration of the authorities for itsown cultural 139 tious allegations” . Alsosince1921theLeague fortwoimportant loans,cont d afiftypercentdiscountfortheLeague’smembers 42 by rentingparts ofitspalacetothe Romanian end oftheschoolyearandwasafterwards House). Accordingly,the etatea CreditulUrba 134 owned institutions was no less fruitful. For owned institutionswasnolessfruitful.For againstRomania ofForeignAffairstobeentrustedwith . Moreimportantly, thestateinlobbyingfornational ts, theLeague, inspiteofIorga’s 133 and distributingabrochurein racted bytheLeagueatCasa . Subventionsobtainedfrom wasexemptedfrompaying 137 n (TheUrbanCredit . in 1937theMinistry League selectedthe , 14. , 14. 136 . CEU eTD Collection discussed in chapter 3. a parallelsphere,whichcomplement Moreover, itsactionsseldom came oppositionto in Nevertheless, theLeaguewouldnothavesurviv politics, itresentedinterferencewiththeaut League certainlylongedforcomplete indepe undoubtedly considerablycloserthantheLeag TherelationbetweentheLeague and brochure of thenewconstitution personal dictatorship,theLeaguewasofficially in power.Alternatively,whenhispupilCarolII proved tobeafailure,Iorgavehemently denounced the League’sattitudewas either criticalor supp political affiliations. Following Iorga’s fluctuating relationship withthepolitical establishment, celebrations, itoccasionallytookpartinorgani 144 143 142 141 and thefactthatitsproponentsof state. Nevertheless, cultural nationalism canseldom becompletelydissociated from politics of theCultural League as acase rem Seethe case of the summer ANIC File Ligaatuturor 1938, Culturala romanilor, 41-48. Fond no.66/ Unitatea pentru Seechapter 3 for the example 61. Ibid., unerated fromthestatebudget Iorga’s ownambitions andinvolvementonth The League’srelationshipwiththestat courses at Valenii deMunte, designed as of the Aviation Day in 1928. in 1928. Day Aviation the of
143 studyoftherelationshipbetweenculturalnationalism andthe ten alsoplaypolitical roles confirms this.Exceptfor isolated 141 . ed theprojectsofstate . Moreover,despitetheLeague’scondemnation ofofficial horities andthe partyinterests theyrepresented. 43 zing them togetherwithstatei ndence fromthestate.Claiming tobeabove ortive. Attimes when hi entrusted withprinting and disseminating the ue would have liked to acknowledge. The ue wouldhavelikedtoacknowledge.The ed withoutthefinancialsupportofstate. e cannotbedissociatedfromIorga’sown officialones.Moreoften,theyamountedto the statewasthereforeambiguous and returned tothethroneandestablishedhis the“politicianism” corruptionofthose and e politicalscenecanquestionthevalidity an alternative to formal education, toformal analternative education, 144 . s ownshort-livedparty nstitutions 142 . CEU eTD Collection religious divisionspermeating thesociety characteristic of culturalnationalism ingeneral, understanding ofculturalnationa state wastoaddressthenati Especially before thewarbutalsoafterwardsth 4. TheLeagueandtheNationalQuestion 146 145 the Leaguedeplored Transylvanian Romanians’ divisionintheOrth differences, politicalallegiancesorreligiou endorsing aprogram ofculturalnationalism coexistalongthestateandcomplement itsactivity. opposition tothestate, canhardly endurewithout come poorly equippedforpartypolitics.Theircult unimpressive. Theadvocatesofculturalnation cases, however, the performance ofcultural translation 30. Hutchinson, Pentru Congresul Ligii Culturale 1910 Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru . field, butnottoantagonizein confessions, whichhavetherightto accident ofseparating theRomanian “the hideousanddestructiveenm
onal question.TheLeague’sna lism. Intheintegrativemode (Valenii de Munte: Tipografia Neamul Romanesc, 1910), 18, my 18, 1910), Romanesc, Neamul Munte: Tipografia de (Valenii 145 . Thenationalquestionshouldstandaboveclass s distinctions.Backin1910,referringtothe 44 e main venuefor theLeague tocomplement the odox andUniate(Greek the Leagueprotestedagainstsocial,politicalor alism focusdisproportionatelyoncultureand ural nationalism, however, nationalists whileinofficeisgenerally the benefitofforeigners.” it. More likely,in practiceassociations compete in theRomanian cultural ity springingfrom religious the s across themountain intwo whichHutchinsondefinedas tional goalsmirrored Iorga’s -Catholic) confessions, even ifattimes in 146
CEU eTD Collection League’s sloganadvocated Intheinterwar period, theintegrativ reconfigured toinclude theRomanians from and succeeded ininfluencing theforeignpolicyofstate the beginningofwar,since, of Transylvania’sunificationwithRomania. Whileclaiming toendorseRomania’s neutralityat Throughout thefirst decade ofthe the “righthand”which,oncefreed,would was noquestionabout which regionshouldreceivepr focused onRomanians abroadandespeciallyTr 151 150 149 148 147 tolerance betweenthenewcategoriesofRomanian address inmoredetailthespecificprojects minorities, cultural collaborati in times of crises Romanians from outsi Prior tothe war,dissensions amplified theda Tipografiei “Neamul romanesc”, Romaneasca, 1914), 4. ANIC Fond Liga pentru Unitatea Culturala a tuturor romanilor, File no.30/1928, ANIC Liga88. a tuturor Fond Culturala romanilor, Unitatea File no.30/1928, pentru Marinescu and Netea, 263. Politica Ligei Politica Culturale 1915 ziua de 15 februarie in la Bucuresti tinute Ligeiculturale Intrunirea 14 Decemb Bucuresti Ligei Culturale. Politica 149 , theLeagueneverthelesscontinuedto , 17. , 17. historical mission initsentirety” Transylvania, butwithafree Transylvan overwhelmed by foreigners,wewillnotaccomplish thetakeover of “One thingIcantellyouforsure:withBessarabia,laggingbehind, de theOldKingdom 1915), 35, my translation. 35, my translation. 1915), “cultural unitybetweenRomanian
on with neighboringcountries” intheLeague’sview,na century theLeaguemilitated more rie 1914. Raportul secretarului general secretarului Raportul rie 1914. epaqieteohrrgos help acquiretheotherregions: 147 the newprovincesandminorities. In1928the 45 nger ofdenationalizati designedtopromote mutualawarenessand . Atthetime, theLeague’s projects naturally e characteroftheLeague’sprogram was ansylvania. ForIorgaandtheLeague,there citizens. However,atthevery time when iority. In Iorga’swords, Transylvania was 148
150 lobbyinfavorofenteringthewar tion shouldrallybehindtheCrown . 151 (Valenii de Munte: deAtelierele Munte: (Valenii ia wewill be able tofulfill our . Thefollowingchapterwill s, culturalcooperationwith orlessexplicitlyinfavor on whichjeopardizedthe . (Bucuresti: Tipografia Tipografia . (Bucuresti: CEU eTD Collection plans. Thiswasthecasewith Romanian administration hadoften beeninept, of displeasurewiththem,ashedidmino cultivated andintelligen Szeklers inparticularranked According toIorga, 154 153 152 should beappreciatedfor andemulated in The nationalitiesIorgahadinmind werethe was high reports, especiallyinthosefrom townsinMo denunciations offoreignerswithintheOldKingdom appeared implicitly the League’s, discourseminorities on ha Inthe1930s,followinggeneralradicaliza did notremain immune tothexenophobictenden denationalization resurfacedas the Leaguedesignedcoursesandconferen 57. Comitetul Central de publicate informatii ANIC Fond Liga pentru Unitatea Culturala a tuturor romanilor, File no. 35/1929, 129. 129. 35/1929, File no. romanilor, tuturor a Culturala Unitatea Liga pentru ANIC Fond ANIC 88. Ligaatuturor My translation. Culturala romanilor, Fond File no.30/1928, Unitatea pentru Pentru Congresul Ligii Culturale 1910 Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru 152 . Afterthewar,however,League’s citizens.” people ofdifferentlanguagesand understand andwelcome withpleasu “We, theRomanians, arenolongeraloneinourcountry.Afatewemust t. Inspiteofthishowever,byth
the Szeklerswho,Iorgaclaimed, approachedhim afterthewarin oneofitschiefconcerns. highly inIorga’sview,whoconsideredthemhard-working, 153
. (Valenii de Munte: Tipografia So Tipografia de Munte: . (Valenii , 98, Pentru Congresul din Constanta al Ligii Culturale. Rapoarte si theircontribution Hungarians andtheTransylvanianSzeklers,who ldova wheretheproportionofJewishPopulation 46 rities ingeneral.While acknowledgingthatthe ces encouragingsolidarity,thedangerof Iorgaaccused theminor cies ravagingthepublicsphere.Iorga’s,and ve always beenambivalent. Before thewar, tion ofdiscourseinRomania, theLeague cultures asneighborsandfellow e endofthe1930sIorgafoundreasons official discourse re andhumanity hadgivenus cietatii “Neamul Romanesc”, 1912), 1912), Romanesc”, cietatii “Neamul sporadicallyintheLeague’s to universalculture changed radically. ities ofrevisionist 154 . The CEU eTD Collection anti-revisionist propagandaagainstHungari “mocked” theRomanian nation members’ view,theLeaguewasincompetiti decades afterthe wartheLeague exhibitedth constant reassuringofthedesireforunderstand Theunderlyingproblembehind thishyste periodically throughoutthehistoryof modernRomania, theproblem became particularly acute was indangerofbeing“Ukrainianized” in thepredominantlyas inBukovina,where Szeklercountiesaswell Especially inthe1930s,Leaguewarnedcons Fear ofdenationalization remained acentralco asserting thatRomania hasbeen“verytolerant,verynoble,justandmerciful” 161 160 159 158 157 156 155 Bessarabia andthe1937congressdemanded the were stilladanger,rather “Transylvanian fortress”wherethey plotted againsttheRomanianstate order to“introducetheminth Ibid, 6. 6. Ibid, my 30 ANIC File Ligaatuturor Culturala romanilor, Fond translation. 34/1929, Unitatea pentru Ibid. ANIC FondLiga pentruUnitatea Culturala tuturor a romanilor,File no. 49/1931-1935, 182. 28. Ibid., Ibid.,File no.34/1933, 30. Congresul Ligii Culturale tinut la Iasi in zilele de 27, 28 si 29 iunie 1937. Dari de seama sirapoarte deseama Dari si in zilelede 27, iunie 28 1937. la Iasi 29 tinut Ligii Culturale Congresul Hungarians weresuspectedof
duty.” Romanians, wholedastraybypartyin come toBucharestbutstayathome andstrengthenth “The othersarefew,butrichera thanapotential ally: 159
e Romanianconsciousness”but
158 . In spiteof the League’s doingthesame, ans agitatingforthechangingofborders 160 47 . Similar fearswereexpressed concerning on withtheschoolsofminorities, which ing andgoodrelationswe “reromanization” oftowns inMoldova e same ‘besieged fortress’ complex. Inthe ncern oftheLeaguein tantly againstthedang ria wastheJewishquestion.Resurfacing nd morecultivated […]theothersdon’t in theircase,Iorgahypocritically integrative discourse, minorities terests, abdicate from theirfirst by mid 1930sretreatedintheir the Romanian population 155 er ofdenationalization . theinterwarperiod. nt handinwith eir position, unlike eir position,unlike , 4. 157 161 156 . Two . . His CEU eTD Collection varying intensity,beingmostviru possibility ofdialoguewith Semitism inthetwentiethcentury” may beexaggerated definitely ananti-Semite, althoughtheclaim that 167 166 165 164 163 162 likely, itsimpreciseandidealisticgoalsallo to remain strictly cultural andemerges innew case suggests,incasesof realorperceived danger forthenation, cultural nationalismcancease ourselves, forourselves”expressedth benefit ofpropagandainfavorRomanian merchants Romanian commerce. Sincethenon, theLeague would abandonitsstrictlyculturalinitiatives domination oftheeconomic League lifeofMoldovantowns.Consequently,from1934the ForIorga,theproblemwasthatJewswereinassimilable andthereforecouldnot constitute a“national”minority. Inmore pr the interwarperiod,andve twentieth century tradition of anti-Semitism which affectedRomanian intellectuals of thenineteenth and early officially condemning theviolence in the1930s whenviolentanti-Semitic demonstr de Munte: Datina Roma The Case of Romanian Intellectuals in the 1930s (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991). 1991). Press, Pergamon the (Oxford: in 1930s Romanian Intellectuals Caseof The (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1991) and Leon Volovici, National Ideology and Anti-Semitism: Ioanid, Ioanid, 477. zilelede laBotosani in tinut LigiiCulturale: Congresul Oldson, Romania Century Nineteenth in Polity and Nationalism Anti-Semitism: Oldson. SeeAProvidential William Fascism” and Iorga “Nicolae Ioanid, Radu Ibid. The Historical and Nationalistic Thought of Nicolae Iorga, Iorga, Nicolae of Thought Nationalistic and The Historical 164 neasca, 1938), 6-10. 6-10. 1938), neasca, . Inmostcases,however, likeinIorga’s,anti-Semitism didnotexcludethe hement againinthe1930s
the Jews. Iorga’s ownanti-Semitism wentthrough phasesof lent atthe turn of thecentur 162 , Iorga’sattitudewasneverthelessambivalent. Iorgawas e newautarchic credo oftheLeague JournalContemporary of History w ittotakeonanam 48 forms, inthiscaseeconomic nationalism. Most agmatic terms, hisconcernwaswithJewish and embark onaproject 29 si 30 iunie 1938, dari de ations took place in university towns. Whileations tookplaceinuniversitytowns. he “wasoneofthefathersRomaniananti- wouldneglect itscultural projects inthe 165 . 85. 85. 163 166 . Morelikely hebelonged to a . Iorga’sslogan,“We amongst y, temperate atthebeginningof phibian character. , Vol. 27, No. 3. (Jul., 1992), 472. 472. 1992), (Jul., 3. No. 27, Vol. ,
seama sirapoarte. (Valenii 167 to “re-romanianize” . AstheLeague’s CEU eTD Collection once thegoal of politicalunionhasbeen achieved aspired to.Inspiteofits occasionally idealistic achieved, therewasstillalongwaytothecultur fulfillment of theLeague’s goals onlyapparently. While thepolitical unification hadbeen its standardforms forrequests Minoritiesalonedidnot constitute thesi interwar period.Theendofthe Greater Romania 5. FurtherChallenges:OldRomaniansandNewin 170 169 168 Romania, IrinaLivezeanu hasexamined theeduc Thestate took up the challenge inafor aggressive campaign ofculturalunification Romanians from thenewprovin League, orthepublicinOldKingdom atlarge,forthech leaders from acrossthe borderand oftripsto favor ofRomanians inAustria- Theobstacle tocultural unitywasthedi also ofRomaniansfromthenewprovinces,into SeeLivezeanu, Mytranslation. File 1929-1930. no. 25/ Ibid., ANIC Fond Liga pentru Unitatea Culturala a tuturor romanilor, File no. 49/1931-1935, 121. requires ourunrelentingeffort” greatest dream, GreaterRomania, the acco “Although Godhasfoundusworthytos
Cultural Politics in Greater Romania: Regionalism, Nation-Building and Ethnic Struggle Ethnic and Nation-Building Regionalism, in Greater Romania: Politics Cultural
for joining the League read: Hungary, of financial supportandcollaborationwithRomanianHungary, offinancial ces inGreaterRomania. war andthecreationofGreater
169 170 49 the “unfree”regionsdidnotquiteprepare rhetoric, andinspiteofdeclining membership . . Inherstudy of culturalpoliticsin Greater al cohesionandnationalsolidaritytheLeague ational policiesimplemented bytheRomanian GreaterRomania. Decadesofpropaganda in fficult integration notonlyof minorities, but 168 ceful anddeterminate wayengaginginan ngle challenge facedbytheLeaguein , theLeaguesawthisclearly.In1930s, ee the fulfillment ofRomanianism’s mplishment ofourculturalunity still Romania translated inthe allenges ofintegratingthe . CEU eTD Collection 173 172 171 Romanian NationalParty from Transylvania leaders from theprovincesas well.In atransp cultural nationalism, however,Iorg were long abolished andcentralizationwas Of course,Iorga’scounsel came late. Atthetime, theTransylvanians’ autonomous institutions long-lasting andprofoundschism. Iorga’sph disregard theTransylvanians’ow especially Transylvania, tactfu congress, Iorgaadvisedtheauthoritiestoha tensions byspreading FromtheLeague’sperspective, thest carelessness andshort-sightedness. Itsaliena implicitly to therise of theextreme right. inadequate resources and ethnic competition, of Livezeanu’sbook,themodernizing policesof the provinces whosetraditionswere encountered resistancenotonlyamong minorit culture. Thestate’s“cultural offensive”,led byteachers butbackedupbythearmy, state withtheexplicitgoalof 1933 Ibid. my Ibid. translation. 32. Ibid., 1929, 34/ File no. romanilor, tuturor a Culturala Unitatea Liga pentru ANIC Fond (Bucuresti: Editura Ligii Culturale, 1933), 33. 1933), Culturale, Ligii Editura (Bucuresti:
should beallowedtomessaround” to, theycandoit.ButinTransylvania,Bukovina,Bessarabia,nobody “Here intheoldRomania, itisnotg
“hatred” and “animosity”
lly andwithout“offending”them levelingregionaldifferencesandcreatingaunifiednational disregarded.Moreimportantly, n politicaltraditions,thecentr a reproachednotonlytheRomani rasing isrevealinginthissense: ndle theRomaniansfromnewregions,and 50 well underway.Inthe mediating tradition of led to a radicalizationof thestudent bodyand ting policieshadworsenedalreadyexisting ies butalsoamong Romanians fromthenew , Iorgaarguedthatwhilethedesireof ate handled avery delicateproblem with arent allusiontoIuliuManiu,leaderofthe 173 171 ood ifsome mess around.Butiftheywant
state in theeducationalfield,coupledwith . In aspeech fromtheLeague’s 1933 al authoritiescouldproducea and oneofthecrucialinsights 172 an state,but the Romanian . Otherwise, incase they Calendarul Ligii Culturale Ligii Culturale Calendarul CEU eTD Collection new provincesmade themwaryof Romanians outsidethe OldKingdomthanmost Ro research, and the majority of theLeague’smemb least inthistheLeaguehadarighttospeak.Iorgahimself, throughextendedtraveland jeopardizing thegoalofnationalcohesion even whenembodied inbenignap like themembers oftheLeague,regionalidentities ignorance whichcharacterizedrelations touch uponavalidpoint.Reitera 177 176 175 174 at bolsteringthefeeblesenseofsolidarity. League contributedtothisbyorganizingcelebrations,conferencesandculturalprojectsaimed Romanians hadtobereminded constantlyofwh should bethegoverning Transylvanian leaders todominate thepolitical Cluj in zilele de sambata 22 si duminica 23 iunie 1929. Dari de seama si rapoarte Targoviste in zilele deduminica 3 si luni 4 iunie 1928. Dari deseama si rapoarte Ibid ANIC Ligaa tuturor 35/1929, Fond Culturala romanilor,File Unitatea pentru ANIC Ligaa tuturor 30/1928, Fond Culturala romanilor,File Unitatea pentru Ibid. . of theirown provinces
ting arecurrenttheme, Iorga complained aboutthemutual the dangerofregionalidentities the pellations like“Transylvanian between theOldKingdom andtheprovinces 177 51 . Insteadofemphasizingdifferences,interwar 174 at theyhadincommon.Foritsownpart,the life of Romania islegitimate, their priority ers weremorefamiliar withthelives of the . Personaldislikes aside, Iorga’sspeech did manians were. Precisely familiarity withthe , evenwithoutthethr Congresul Ligii Culturale tinut la tinut Culturale Ligii Congresul la tinut Culturale Ligii Congresul s” of“Bessarabians”,were 176 (Bucuresti, 1928), 6. (Bucuresti, 1929), 5. 5. 1929), (Bucuresti, . Forcultural nationalists eat ofseparatism, and 175 . At . At CEU eTD Collection a. Celebrations 1. InHonorofthePast 181 180 179 178 1904 atthePutnaMonastery,in inception. The Leagueinauguratedthistradit celebrating thenation’sachievements anditsheroeshavebeen theLeague’shallmark sinceits the pastthanbycelebratingit.Commemorati “breathe lifeintoit,to never “adisinterestedenquiryinto Anthony D.Smith hadarguedaboutthenationalist but the very materialization of that past in the verypurposeofcultural development, totheachievement ofsolidarityandcohesion, League’s congressin1933,Iorgawasfact
Ibid. D. Smith Anthony 31. File a tuturor romanilor, no.34/1929, Culturala Unitatea pentru Liga ANIC,Fond Nicolae Iorga,
“The contactwiththepastisanational necessity” Chapter IV: Cultural Nationalism Practicesof For Iorgaandotherculturalnationaliststher Pe ce se poate sprijini popor un sprijini Pe cesepoate The Ethnic Origins of Nations , 180. createatrulylivingpast”
nationalism, wasnotonlydidactic
Bukovina, celebratingfourhundred thepast‘asitreallywas’” , 13. the eyes and minds ofthecontemporaries. As 52 ion byorganizingaflamboyant celebrationin confessing hislife’screed.Thekeytonational 181 ons, festivals,monuments andexhibitions . Anything can be taken from usexcept the past.” “The dead are dead onlyforthose whoforgetthem. intelligentsia, theirconcernforhistorywas e wasnobetterwaytostayintouchwith 179 . When making thisassertionatthe knowledgeofthenation’spast, thespiritual union whichwas 180 . Instead,thegoalwasto yearssincethedeathof 178
CEU eTD Collection (Bucuresti: Minerva, 1987), 1987), 179. Minerva, (Bucuresti: significant figureofthenationalpantheon Putna startedin1871 188 187 186 185 184 183 182 members oftheLeaguewerefascinatedwith medals andorganizedpilgrimages tohisgrave League didalotmore thanannualcelebrations union ofMoldovaandWalachia, ofMichaeltheBrave,commemorations aswell evolution ofa“superi development oftheideapo Iorga. Accordingly, MichaeltheBrave’s “ Walachia, MoldovaandTransylvania,late Mihai Viteazul(MichaeltheBrave),auth established agenuinecultforme connected withtheunificationofRomanian would celebrateeitherfamousleadersorotherre initiative incooperationwiththe the legendaryMoldovanrulerStephenGreat Nicolae Iorga, “Constiinta nationa Lucian Boia, 90. File a tuturor romanilor, no.30/1928, Culturala Unitatea pentru Liga ANIC,Fond Marinescu and Netea , 206. Balan. Teodor Curticapeanu, 159. Pentru Congresul Ligii Culturale 1910 Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru The League’s politics of commemorations was The League’spoliticsofcommemorations Even intimes offinancialdistress, History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness Serbarea de la Putna: 1871 or Romanian culture” 183 , subsequenteventsfailedtoma
la romaneasca de laMihaiViteazul Ministry ofPublicInstruction dieval rulers. Apartfrom Ste litical unionoftheRomanians, but , 13. , 13. were theonlyonesLeaguewascertaintokeep.But (Cernauti: Tipografia Mitro Tipografia (Cernauti: 187 186 union” wasnotonlythe . r tobecomethepatronofLeague , Michael theBravewasofspecial relevance to 53 . Itpublishedbrochures,issuedcommemorative or ofthemythical “union”of1600between volutionary figures,orim 182 like inthebeginningof1930s, whatPatriceDabrowski,inhisstudyof lands. Under Iorga’s direction, the League lands.UnderIorga’sdirection,theLeague 188 as thatofJanuary24, . While thetradition of celebrations heldat (Budapest: Central University Press, 2001), 192. . Likeothercommitted nationalists, the essentially twofold.As terialize untiltheLeaguetook pana astazi”,in Nicolae Iorga, politului Silvestru, 1932). 1932). Silvestru, politului 184 phen theGreat,th . alsotheinitial stageinthe thedateof the1859 starting point inthe portant dates,usually such,theLeague e favoritewas Conferinte 185 . A
CEU eTD Collection of AlexandruIoanCuza,theoneresponsiblefor1859union League organizedanexhibitioninBucharest and thenre-emerge, theLeague’spantheonwasneverthelesscomprehensive. In1920the was seldom achieved,especially duetothefast would thusprovidethesectionw celebrated. Beforethewar,ideawasfore Especially initsmore active phases, other the DealuMonastery, where the League 1919 theLeagueorganizedtransportof greatness. The contactwiththepastwasnotonlysp 195 194 193 192 191 190 189 Transylvania onehundred activities wereundertakeninhonorofHorea, unveil commemorative plaquesandorgani annual congressatthesame date,publishabr since thedeathofTudorVladimirescu, leader would organizeanarrayofmani inTarguJiu,to festations called “eloquentashes” inPoland, commemorations Press, 2004), 77. 77. 2004), Press, ANIC, Fond Liga pentru Unitatea Culturala a tu Culturala Unitatea pentru Liga ANIC,Fond Ibid., 19,20,22. 15 Ibid., 8. File a tuturor romanilor, no.5/1919, Culturala Unitatea pentru Liga ANIC,Fond PatriceM. Dabrowski, Pentru Congresul Ligii Culturale 1910 Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru 1910 Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru The League,however,didnotlimit itselftofe Commemorations and the Shaping of Modern Poland Modern of the Shaping and Commemorations and fiftyyearsbefore
ith its“specific heroic meaning” , 9. , 13 planned toerectapropermausoleum turor romanilor, File no 49/1931-1936, 167. 167. 49/1931-1936, File no romanilor, turor Michael’sashes, “his honored head” ze contestsofTudor’sportrait commemorating onehundred 54 ofthe1821revolt.TheLeaguewouldholdits ach localsectiontohaveitsownpatron,who figures, sometimes even obscureones, were pace atwhich some sectionsusedtodisappear ochure, openamuseum andapubliclibrary, Closca andCrisan,initi 195 iritual, but,ifpossible,physical.As such,in . InallyearstheLe stivities dedicatedtoMichael theBrave. 189 , tangible evidence of the nation’s commemorate onehundredyears commemorate (Bloomington: IndianaUniversity 193 192 . Ayearlater,theLeague . While this desideratum ague wouldorganize ators ofarevoltin 194 years sincethebirth 191 . In1924similar . 190 , from Iasito CEU eTD Collection significance private associations weretheonly onesta celebration ofDecember 1inth 199 198 197 196 for almost twodecades,celebrationswereof they werealsoasourceoffinancing. Duringth CelebrationsensuredtheLeague’svisibilit and managed togatherlargecrowds.Apartfrom servingtheLeague’sprogrammatic goals, programs astheysawfit. decentralization” whose dutywastoorganizethem th decided bytheCentralCommittee inBucharesta organizing theDecember 1celebrationstogether Carpathians traditionally collaborated withtheTransylvaniansocieties celebrations wereoftenorganized Transylvania in1918,werecelebratedwithreligiousdevotion.Inthe spiritoftheunion, the Romanian provinces. AssuchJanuary24 revolution of1848 pilgrimages tothegravesofvariousmediev Present Century Romania” in Munte: Societ de Tipografia (Valenii Twentieth- in Identity and National 1918, December 1, of Commemoration ofaNation: “Birth MariaBucur, Ibid., 114. Pentru Congresul Ligii Culturale 1910 Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru Pentru Congresul din Constanta al Ligii Culturale. , edited by Maria Bucur and Nancy Wingfield (West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2001), 27. 27. Press, 2001), University Purdue Lafayette: (West and Nancy Wingfield Bucur Maria by , edited The League’sfavoriteswere,nevertheless, 198 ). Thecooperationcontinuedintothe . Usually the program forthe celebration of major eventssuchas these was 199 Staging the Past: The Politics of Commemoration in Habsburg Central Europe, 1848 to the to the 1848 Europe, Central in Habsburg Commemoration of The Politics Past: the Staging 196 , sectionswereencouragedtoorganizetheirowncelebrationsdates,with .
atii “Neamul Romanesc”, 1912), 17. 17. 1912), Romanesc”, atii “Neamul e firstyearsafterthewar,th in collaboration withother culturalassociations.The League , 5. e besttheycould.Otherwise, Rapoarte siinformatii public 55 al rulers, as wellascommemorations of the e buildingoftheLeague’spalace,whichlasted and December1,thedate ofthe union with king placeandwherethusofparticular ten accompanied by lotteries.While only y. Majoroneswereadvertisedinnewspapers nd thencommunicated tothelocalsections, 197 the commemorations oftheunification the commemorations . Asthestatewassl interwar period,th e commemorationsorganizedby Astra andCarpatii inthecherished“spiritof ate de ComitetulCentral ow totakeupthe e societiesoften . ( The CEU eTD Collection music performances year anaverageoftensuchcelebrations andga celebration ofJanuary24.Before villages preciselywiththe purpose Intherural areas,wherecelebrations seemed also servedasmeans ofrecruitment constant sourceofrevenue. 205 204 203 202 201 200 became thedomain ofthestate. in itsplethoraofimportant datesandpeople. Transylvania itself, theLeagueincorporated surprisingly few between its prewarand interwaractivity. As this description.Intermsofthemes ofcelebra were consignedtooblivion” remembered, generalshadtheirmemorials, but largely for,butnotof,thepeople.Fallenki weekly festivals andgatherings (“sezatori”) intensity of the local section’s activity varied of theCulturalLeague,supportvilla occasionally amounting toasignificantsum John R. John Gillis, 70. Ibid., 44. Ibid., Ibid., 1910 Culturale 35-36; Ligii Congresul Pentru Pentru Congresul din Constanta al LigiiCulturale. Pentru Congresul din Constanta al Ligii Culturale. As JohnR.Gillispointed outabout ninet Commemorations 204 . 205
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 9. 1994), Press, University Princeton (Princeton: . EvenafterthewarLeague’s celebrations couldlargelyfit On theother, they most likely the war,larger local sections of settinguparuralsectionthere 201 . Attimesurbansectionsw 200 Rapoarte siinformatii public Rapoarte siinformatii public , 41. On onehand,lateronintheinterwarperiodthis 56 greatly.Somewouldboasttheorganizationof , thesellingoflotteryticketswasneverthelessa therings includingconferences,folkdancesand tion, therewas infacta ngs andmartyred revolutionaryleaderswere 203 ide from dateof the theunificationwith eenth-century commemorations, “theywere ordinary participantsinwarandrevolution . Otherswouldlimit themselves tothe ge priest and teacherprovedcrucial.The tohavebeenthemost they successful, symbols oftheFirstWorldWar wouldgenerallyorganizeevery belonged toahistory toorecent ould organizecelebrationsin 202 ate de ComitetulCentral ate de ComitetulCentral . Like always inthecase remarkable continuity , 26. , 26. , 6-8. CEU eTD Collection 207 206 culture werefavoritesubjects, League’s prewar conferenceshada patriotic and nationalistic shows surprisinglylittlevariationbetweenthe propaganda, theconferences.Likeincaseof celebrations, thethema b. Conferences anchoring inthepast.Constantreturn totraditional myths a or innovation understanding ofnationalculture,which het League provedlargelyrefractorytochange.Th League occupiedaniche oftrad and theatercinema performances in day includedconferencesinalltowns, speechesin cultural associations,th various ministries, includingthoseofInstruction, Internal AffairsandCults,aswellofother celebrations organized bytheLeague in thein was preciselythelonghistoryof to beeasily incorporated intheLeague’s pant de Munte: Datina Romaneasca, 1937),4. 6, 20, 26. File a tuturor romanilor, no.30/1928, Culturala Unitatea pentru Liga ANIC,Fond Congresul Ligii Culturale tinut la Iasi in zilele de 27, 28 si 29 iunie 1937. Dari de seama sirapoarte deseama Dari si in zilelede 27, iunie 28 1937. la Iasi 29 tinut Ligii Culturale Congresul Thisconclusioncan also applytotheLeague TheexceptionwastheAviationDayof192 Otherwise, theLeague’s celebrations remained
207 . Moreover,times ofchangeandinst e Leaguepracticallymobilized the
although,int itionalist discourse. Thecultur goal whichmade itsoimportant. alltowns inthebenefit of thearmy une withthesamanatorist hought waspermanent, requiringnomodification heon. While theunionitselfwasofrecent date, it 57 terwar period. Benefiting from thesupportof prewar and interwar period. Predictably, the prewar andinterwarperiod.Predictably,the is wasmost likely ac allvillages, lecturesinfactoriesandschools ’s othermain instrument ofeducationand 8, probablyoneofthemost grandiose conservative.Inth ability requiredanevenmore solid nd figureswasthuswelcome. entire country. The program of the entire country.Theprogramofthe al nationalism advocatedbythe tone.Romanian historyand tradition,thepeasantry onsequence ofIorga’s tic ofthe conferences e interwarperiodthe 206 . (Valenii CEU eTD Collection inability toorganize moreconferences intheir absence Whereas thenumber oflecturerswasfew,lead touring thecountry,followedby 212 211 210 209 208 with variousotherissues pedagogy, sociology),sixtreatedreligiousmatters traditions. Twelvedealtwith history andtwentyonRomani April 1936theLeagueorganizedeightyconferences and therentbeingusedtorepayLeague’s inactive becauseitlackedaconferenceroom, its the contentofconferences of theBucharestsection between1931 and1936pr enthusiasm ofhistorians League, likemost nationalistmo historical-nationalist program, in small towns andvillages weretailoredtotheli educated audience, featuringmore elaboratesubj also enjoyedample coverage.While theconfer 189. 1988). Macmillan, Munte: Societ de Tipografia (Valenii ANIC, Fond Liga pentru Unitatea Culturala a tuturor romanilor, File no.49/ 1931-1936, 78, 117, 156, 169, 172, Marinescu and Netea, 220. See Dennis Deletantand Harry Hanak, Pentru Congresul din Constanta al Ligii Culturale. 1910. Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru After thewar theLeague’sc 210 212 . IntheLeague’scase,VasileParvan wastheabsolutechampionin .
atii “Neamul Romanesc”, 1912), 56. 56. 1912), Romanesc”, atii “Neamul in theinterwarperiod.In1934and1935Leaguewaslargely conferences dealingwithreligi conferences A.D. XenopolandIorgahimself various questionsrelated to an culture,includingliteratu vements inEastern Europe,benefitedfrom theunfailing Historians asnation-builderscentral : andsoutheast Europe
onferences proceeded Rapoarte siinformatii public 58 loans.Nevertheless,betweenJanuary1931and ects pertainingtohistoryandculture,theones ownbeingrentedtotheRomanian Railways steners’ interest ing some sections to ences inBucharestweredesigned foran , sixaddressedthesciences,andfivedealt ovide atellingsample ofthefrequencyand . Outofthese,thirty 209 along thesame lines.Theregistries , intheyears before the war the on, health,agricultureorlaw 211 social sciences(psychology, s, including,inadditiontothe re, linguisticsandfolkloric . ate de ComitetulCentral complain about their wereonRomanian ( London : London . 208 . CEU eTD Collection held, the conferences could at high-school students,entitledConversatii Amicale appeal: thestudents.InBuchares uncharacteristically innovativemove the Leagueattime, undoubted 215 214 213 to adjustitsprogram totheinte abandoned. Oftenthelectures failed miserably. Onlyninelectureswereheld attending However, therewerecases, iffew,whenconfer memos recordnothing aboutthe audience,in figures ofthe League,likeMichaeltheBrave,al well asthehistoryofnewly different yearsandbydi of celebrations,weresubjectmorethanone movements thatprecededit.KeydatesinRomanian No lessthantenconferencesdiscussedtheunifi choice ofthemes was reminiscent oftheLeague’s Ibid., 55. 55. Ibid., Ibid., 79, 158. 116. 90, 58, 8, Ibid., At thebeginningof1930s,evenifin As canbeseen,historyremained paramount 213 . The traditionalist characterof fferent lecturers,werededicate bestgatherfortypeople
werecancelledbecause rests oftheyouth.Noneus incorporated provinces,werealsorecurringsubjects.Favorite ly contributedtothis. t itdidsobyinauguratingaseri , triedtoattractasocialgr theconferences, together withthe general decline of 59 in 1931and1932beforetheplanwaseventually ences werecancelledbecauseoftoofewpeople conference.Forexamplefourconferences,in so appearedmorethanonce. Unfortunatelythe cation oftheRomanian landsandthenational case theconferences proceeded asplanned. prewarinterests and typical ofitsobsessions. history,aswell ( in the League’s concerns. Moreover, the intheLeague’sconcerns.Moreover, 215 Amicable Conversations too fewstudentsattended obviousregress,theLeague,inan . TheLeagueostensiblymade aneffort d toJanuary24.The1918union,as ual historicalpatrioticsubjects oup previouslyreticenttoits es oflecturesespeciallyfor in theLeague’s calendar ). The initiative 214 . Evenwhen CEU eTD Collection over students,atleastbetween1928and1933,wasoverwhelming beyond itsabilitytocompetew students inthefirstdecadeofcentury,League lacked sermons oftheLeague.Moreover,exceptforIorg public wasmoreattracted bythe 218 217 216 “Guide forpotatoculti across theborder.Thestoryof messengers deceivedthe vigilanceofthecust consumption intheprovincesoutsideOld consisted inpublications.Beforethewarth Gandhi, Lenin,Mussolini,Chaplin,Prous led byPetruComarnescu. In1932 initiative unluckilycoinci youth waslongaccustomed withmoreappealin “Darwinism”, “Questions insoci typical of the Leaguewere present inthis seri Curticapeanu, 221. Ibid., 262. Z. Ornea, Aside fromconferences,theLeague’smo The League’sattempt atreadjustment, how c. Publications andOtherInitiatives Anii treizeci. Extrema dreapta romaneaca vation”, iswell-known ded withtheseriesofc
Iorga’s “Historyof ology”, or“Thepersonality”. ith thecharismaticoratorslik Criterion mesmerized theyouth with conferencesonFreud, lectures ofthe“newgenerati t, Gide,PicassoandStravinski . (Bucuresti: Est, 2008), 181. 181. Est, 2008), . (Bucuresti: es. Instead, the conferences featuredsubjects like 60 218 Kingdom. TheLeaguetookprideinthewayits oms officersandsmuggled patrioticbrochures ese publicationswerenaturallydesignedfor onferences inauguratedbytheCriterion . TheLeaguedistributed10000copiesofthe g andup-to-date conferences.TheLeague’s a, whohadlonglosttheinfluenceitover ever, wasbothinsufficientandtardy.The st regularwayofpopularizingitscause the Romanians”,circulatedundertitle e NaeIonescuwhoseinfluence magnetic speakers.Itwasthus 217 on” rather than to thedusty . 216 . Understandablythe group CEU eTD Collection 1912 congress,most sectionsweresubscribedtoatleastonejournalfrom from the“unfree” provinces and thus contribute Before thewarLeagueurgeditssections organized protestswhenscandalsinvolvingRomanians brokeoutinAustria-Hungary focused onpopularizingtheRomanian causeinTransylvania.TheLeagueforexample particular wasdesigned asa“repertoireofRomanian life abroad” the masses insupportofthenationalcausees newspaper, 224 223 222 221 220 219 postcards andpaintingsof were writtenbyIorgaandtreated to sellordonatebooksandbrochuresavailabl of Eminescu’s works entitled“Carteabuna”(“TheG own bookseries, of thecalendarandexperimented managed topublishatleast committedthe League’sfundswere tothebuildingof palace.Still, theLeaguestill propaganda abroad latter intheprovincesand1000copiesof“Fap Ibid., File no. 5/ 1919-1925, 32. , a tuturor romanilor File nr.39/1930. Culturala Unitatea pentru Liga ANIC,Fond Ibid. Ibid. Pentru Congresul din Constanta al Ligii Culturale. 1910 Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru Af ter thewarLeague’s activityinevitably declined. Formost of theinterwar period Neamul romanesc 219 224 . Similar stratagems wereundertaken . Whiletheprojectprovedephemera famous Romanians. famous its calendar in most years
, andfortheLeague’scalendar, with itsownbookstore . historical subjects. Rapoarte siinformatii public 61 to subscribeRomanian languagenewspapers e initsdeposit.Understandablymany ofthem tele stram ood Book”)whichstartedwitharepublication to theirsurvival. Assuch, bythe time ofthe pecially inTransylv 223 In addition, the League offered patriotic In addition,theLeagueofferedpatriotic . In1921theLeague sold20000copies and printinghouse,as osilor” (“The Ancestors’ Deeds) for osilor” (“TheAncestors’Deeds)for l, theLeaguehowever,continued forthedistributionofIorga’s important vehiclesforrallying ate de ComitetulCentral 220 ania. Thecalendarin everyprovince . Otheractionsalso wellaswithits 222 , 5 . 221 . CEU eTD Collection 2. StagingCulturalNationalism: rural schools,itscontribution Bucharest or subsidized the university’s residence halls students, offeredscholarshipsto spirit ofsupportingeducation, in 1933thecentrallibraryofLeague 228 227 226 225 engaged throughouttheyear.TheLe aspired to.What wereneeded grass-roots activities whichwoul was awarethatpatrioticdeclamations alonew on theavailabilityoflecturers andtheinte frequency, celebrationsremained occasionalev celebrations, conferencesandpublicationswa remained withoutresponse League receivedconsiderably more requests the newprovinces,most oftenw regional museums atitslocalbranches was itspropagandaforlibrariesandmuseums. Ibid., File no. 5/ 1919-1925, 62. Ibid., 160. 109. 1931-1935, File no.49/ Ibid., 17. Ibid., Emerging naturallyfromtheLeague’sconcer Important astheywereintheLeague 228 . Atatime whenthestate did notyettake upthechargeto equip was neverthelesssignificant.
the League,bothbeforeandafte students from thenewprovinces coming tothe University of ith donationsinbooksbu ague thuslookedwithenvyat 225 . By1929allruralsections inBucharesthaditsofficialopening Theatre,M 62 for help than itcould ents. Conferences,on rests oftheaudience.The League’sleadership In1920theLeaguesettofound“civic”and ould notcreatethenationa s neverthelesslimited. Regardlessoftheir n withthedissemination of patrioticworks ’s program, themobilizing potentialof 227 . Inaddition,itsponsoredschoolsin usic, FolkDances usic, t alsofinancially. r the war provided prizes for r thewarprovidedprizesfor the nationalistcredentialsof had theirownlibrariesand honor andmany appeals the otherhand,depended d keepthecommunities l solidarity that it Asexpected,the 226 . Inthesame CEU eTD Collection theaters, butthepopulationofcountryside, educated audience ofBucharest, wherethetrou of thetheaterandseveredties by1922Iorgawasunsatisfi financial supportfrom it, were favorablefortheLeague, thetroupeperf Popular TheaterinBucharest.Therelationwas 234 233 232 231 230 229 education” ones. InIorga’sview,theaterwasnotaform 1928 thetheaterbecame profitable League’s demise. While underfinancialpressu theater. UndertheLeague’s dire subventions from various ministries theLeague main shareholderofthetheater, with historical andpatriotic themes committee recommended sectionstocreateamateur troupeswhichwould compensated withtheatertroupes,choirsandfolkdancesensembles. emulate their example gymnastic associati Ibid., File no. 49/1931-1936, 150. File atuturor Culturala romanilor, no. pentru Unitatea 90. 30/1928, Liga ANIC,Fond Ibid, 40. File35. a tuturor romanilor, no. 5/1919-1925. Culturala Unitatea pentru Liga ANIC,Fond Ibid. Pentru Congresul Ligii Culturale 1910. 1910. Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru The theaterservedtheLeague’spropagandis The League’saffiliation withtheater hadalong history.Before thewarcentral 234 . Fromthebeginningtargetaudience ons liketheCzech 229 . While gymnasticsclubsneverr
ction thePopularTheaterwould 233 donatedhissharestotheLeague 231
230 . . Inthesame year,however, Sokol . Since1919 theLeague became anassociateofthe andtheBulgarian orming undertheLeague’saegisbutwithoutany 63 pe wouldcompetewithmany otherfashionable consequently became the officialowner ofthe which thetheaterwouldtoureveryyear.The res intheyears followingitsacquisition, by itially fraughtwithco ofentertainment, buta“schoolofcivic tic purposesbutaboveallitseducational ed withtheleadershipandrepertoire of thetheater wasnotnecessarily the Iacut eally tookoff,theLeague continue tofunctionuntilthe andurgedlocalsectionsto the banker Aristide Blank, 232 nflict. While the terms . With thehelpof give representations CEU eTD Collection some scholarsrestrict thisdevelopment tothe nineteenth century Eastern Europewereknowntohaveturnedfolkmusic into avehicle for nationalism. While society forcinemaandfilmproduction unusually receptiveto perceived asthedepravedfashionsoftime. constituted a“healthy”form ofdi comedies were often preferred Greek authors, CorneilleorRacinewereespeciallyrecommended. Inpractice,however,light view couldinstillthemorala not monopolize therepertoire.Inst by theaterintheLeague’spropaganda moral andnationalcharacter. 240 239 238 237 236 235 souls” abroad iswell-known. Theharmony is ofsounds brochure ofthe1910congressstatedthat“therole accompanied byprojectionsandcinema wass repertoire, meant tobea“sanct expression of a politically motivated need, which tends to appear the when toappear tends need, which motivated ofapolitically expression Inaclassic study, Carl Dahlhaus argued that“Na Ibid., File no. 5/ 1919-1925, 33. ANIC, Fond Liga pentru Unitatea Culturala a tuturor romanilor, File no. 49/1931-1936, 177. Iorga Pamfil Seicaru,Nicolae Ibid., 151. Pentru Congresul Ligii Culturale 1910 Ligii Culturale Congresul Pentru 239 Undoubtedly, Iorga’sown ambitions asplaywrightinfluencedtheimportant role played Theater andcinema, however,werenotthe .Theywerenottheonlyonestoreachth moderntechnologyandin (Bucuresti: Clio, 1991), 125. 125. Clio, 1991), (Bucuresti:
237 nd civicvirtuesadvocatedbyhi uary oflightforthepeople” . Notonlyweretheymore appealing to themasses, butthey straction incontrastwithwhatIorga’s traditi , 6. ead, thelatterfeaturedclassi 236 238 . However,Iorga’splays,althoughomnipresent, did . Inthe twentiesand thirti een asapromising toolforpropaganda. 64 In itspropagandisticzeal,theLeagueproved In tionalistic music, emerges itseems,tionalistic asan invariably is conclusion.Nationalistmovements across the surest way to achieve the harmony of thesurestwaytoachieveharmony of 1922incorporatedARCA,TheRomanian playedbychoirsinthelifeofRomanians only waytobringthenationtogether.The 235
national independence is being sought, wouldthusincludeworksof 240 s culturalnationalism. Thus, cal authorswhichinIorga’s , most wouldargueinfavor es conferences wereoften onalist outlook CEU eTD Collection deficit butsoonbecame profitable dances ensembles. Likeinthecaseofthea 245 244 243 242 241 38. Press,1989), of California University denied,or jeopardized, rather thanattained consolidated”. or Carl Dahlhaus, costumes andmade aneffortfortheirpreserva “Moldovan” dangerous regionalism totheextent towhichhecons historian andacollectorseemed tohavesupe national costumes andnationalsewingpatterns project, servingalsoIorga’sagendaofintegr the national culture. The interest for folk danc representations servedtheLeague’s objectiveofpreservingand repertoire ofRomanian folkmusic support oftheGeneralDirecti choirs. In1938thechoirofth organizing musicperformances at national character phenomena throughoutEurope”inauguratinganera turn ofthetwentiethcentury of thenationalist character of folk musicway into thetwentieth century. Accordingly,“bythe de seama si rapoarte File 35/1929, File35/1929, 80. Ibid., 93. 1931-1936, File a tuturor romanilor, no.49/ Culturala Unitatea pentru Liga ANIC,Fond File a tuturor Culturala romanilor, no. pentru Unitatea 66/1938. Liga ANIC,Fond V. Bohlman, Phillip. The League wasquicktopickuponthem Congresul Ligii Culturale tinut la Cluj in zilele de sambata Cluj tinut si 22 la in zileleduminica iunie sambata 23 Ligii1929. Dari Culturale de Congresul (Bucuresti,1929), 5. 241 The Music ofEuropean Nationalism . 245 , Iorgaappreciatedregionaldive on forNationalPropagandatounde national songandthemusic of e Bucharestsection, celebrations, thesections were 242 . Closelyrelated tothisinitiative was theproject of folk 243 . Even more thanthechoirs, the folkdances ating women inthenational cause,of collecting 65 244 es came asthenatural idered appellations lik tion. Theater,choralrepresentationsandfolk rseded hisnationalist fears. While resenting ter, folk dances performances initiallyrana . Inthe caseofthela (Santa Barbara, CA : CA Barbara, (Santa obilizing potential of music. Apartfrom counting seventymembers, receivedthe in whichmusic wastotakeadecisively rsity whenitcame tonational Nineteenth-Century Music Nineteenth-Century popularizing manifestations of nationalismwereubiquitous encouraged to have their own rtake atourabroadwith ABC-CLIO, 2004), 58. tter Iorga’spassion as a continuation ofanother e “Transylvanian”or (Berkeley :
CEU eTD Collection The coursesatValeniideMuntewouldthusconstitute an alternativeto“the infamous abstract, lack of self-confidence, of despairandof humilitytowardsforeigners” the “rectification of theRomanian mentality”, sothatRomanianswould“washthemselves of supposed toinstillfeelingsof idea culturalnationalism.Far even identifiedwithit.From thebeginning, While notan initiative of theLeague Among theLeague’s manyeducationalandpr the fame and the amplitude ofthesummer coursesorganizedbyIorgaatValeniideMunte. 3. AlternativeEducation:TheSummer 248 247 246 nineteen, Iorgadeeplyresentedhisformal education, whichheconsidereddehumanizing Inparttheoriginsof this ideal of alte towards stateeducation.Hehimselfagraduate knowledge andfornationalcommunion w for students.Bothcategories lecturers andaudience.Theschool the fact that interest in theRomanian cultu reminded thepublicofLeague’smission onaregularbasis. ostentatious asthe celebrations orasideol dances weremore discreetwaysinwhichth Nicolae Iorga, Barbu Theodorescu, Neamul romanesc
O viataO deomcum asafost a , August 27, 1910. 1910. 27, August , Nicolae Iorga had tocovertheirownexpenses
nationalsolidarityandtoboost , 218. from beingatraditionalschool providednogratific per se , vol.1, , vol.1, 90. ould thusdrivetheparticipants. , the society wouldbecome closely associated, and ogical astheconferences, artistic representations re andthenationalcause 66 rnative education sprang e Leaguepopularizeditscause.Whilenotas courses weretheperfec of theUniversityBucharest attheageof CoursesatValeniideMunte opagandistic projects,nootherreached ations for professors and no diplomas ations forprofessorsandnodiplomas 247 spiritual growth.Theirgoalwas , theonemonth courseswere . Onlydisinterestedpassionfor t embodimentofIorga’s 246 from Iorga’srepulsion alone animated both aloneanimated . Iorgatookpridein 248 . CEU eTD Collection place, wheretime tohavestopped“ahundredyearsago” seemed not veryremotebutalso noteasily accessible. As traditionalist outlook blendedwith traditional way of life andof authenticRomanian culture “absolutely patriarchal” placeofuntainted by which isthe misfortune of educational institutions of alltimes” students and professorswouldlearnfrom eachothe mechanical lecturingandmemorizing, theco 255 254 253 252 251 250 249 Mandrescu andthepoliticianA.C.Cuza.In th Xenopol, theeconomist VirgilMadgearu,the the Romanian academic world,likethehistorians mainly Transylvanians,andtwenty-seven lectur gradually gainedinpopularity,re unspectacular beginning,with specially designatedcoursesforRoma Thecoursesstartedin1908,underIorga’sdi proposal fromtheBukovinanteacherandjournalis essential culturalquestions,aiming at standardizing school,the same forevery place, every people, everycharacter” 278. Curticapeanu, Theodorescu, 211. Nicolae Iorga, 272. Sadoveanu, Theodorescu, 213. Iorga quoted in Isabela Sadoveanu, “Valenii deMunte: Centru de cultura nationala” in Nicolae Iorga, “Asezamintele mele”
226. O viataO deomcum asafost a
only sixlecturesandfew at Boabe degrau aching theirprewarclimax in1912 this ideal.Thelocationitself, asmall towninWalachia, was a “vulgarization”ofencyclopedicknowledge , vol.2, , vol.2, 204. nians from outsidetheOldKingdom 1930 (8), (8), 64. 1930 67 es, some deliveredbyimportantpersonalitiesof urses wouldprovideanenvironment where modernization, theidealrepository ofthe e meantime, afterinitiallycompeting with VasileParvan, Constantin MoisilandA.D. t GheorgheTofanwhosuggestedtheideaof visitorslaterremembered, itwasabucolic r. Also,instead ofthe“amalgam ofsubjects philologists Vasile Bogrea and Simion philologists VasileBogreaandSimion rection butinresponsetoanearlier 253 . tendants in1908,thecourses 250 , thecourseswouldfocuson 252 255 . ForIorgathis wasan , withalargeaudience, Boabe degrau 249 254 . Insteadof 251 . Afteran . Iorga’s 1930 (8), (8), 1930 CEU eTD Collection part ofIorga’sgoalregimenting women in the serviceofnationalcause, wouldprovide Intime Iorgawouldaddotherinstitutio established the“TheQueenMary SchoolofMoralandNational Missionaries”. Theinstitution, and Chisinau. lecturers wouldcome atValenii, mostofthem from theUniversities ofBucharest, Cluj,Iasi changed theirname intothe“PopularUnivers for whom specialRomanianlanguage courseswe lecture on their national cultures. Partofthea Interruptedduringthewarandacoupleofy this time featuring also foreign lecturers aswe acquiring theschool’sownsite,previouslyth official supportfrom theMinistryofInstru 258 257 256 courses forteachersorganized bytheauthoritiesinIasi Reproduced from Sadoveanu, 278 274-275. Sadoveanu, Theodorescu, 212. Table 2:Participantsatthesummercoursesbetween 1921and1929 byethnicity
Year 1929 1928 1927 1926 1925 1924 1923 1922 1921
. Romanians 350 385 390 375 380 390 380 420 200 ction. Thesubvention,grantedin1911,servedfor e coursestakingplaceinrentedlocations udience wouldconsistofminorities(seeTable1), 68 ll as representatives of theminorities who would ity NicolaeIorga”.By1924almost ahundred Minorities 68 65 50 55 70 60 60 90 40 ns to thesummercourses. In1922Iorga re organized.In1922thecoursesofficially ears later,thecourses 256 , Iorga’ssummer coursesgained would restartin1921, 257 . 258
CEU eTD Collection with theirfounder’s ideal outlook anddoctrinewouldinevitablydifferfromIorga’s,thecour participants later recalled, evenif benefiting cannot beexplainedbyIorga’s years since theirestablishment. offici Various recognition. KingCarolIIhimselfwould attendboththeinaugurati Romanian cultural andpolitical life. More than Thesummer university wasundoubtedlyth initiatives. The coursesprovedremarkably enduri 262 261 260 259 be appealing. fo summer courses,Iorgaseemed founda tohave accessible. Manylocalsectionsgrantedschol popular universitywasinitselfattractive.The other initiativesoftheLeague intended. This, however, cannotaccount forthesuccessinitsentirety.Afterall,hewasbehind popular withtheRomanians from thenewprovinces “King FerdinandInstitute” Germans. Theuniversityboastedotherfacili village teachers.TheschoolenrolledRomanians, one-year longcoursesforyoungwomen, high-school (Valenii de Munte: Editura Ligii Culturale, Munte: Ligii de 1934), Culturale, 20. Editura (Valenii File52. a tuturor romanilor, no. 5/1919-1925, Culturala Unitatea pentru Liga ANIC,Fond 281. Ibid, Un moment cultural: un sfert de veac la sfertintemeiere veac de un cultural: de Un moment la sfertintemeiere veac de un cultural: de Un moment 259 of culturalnationalism , whereHungarianand German t
which provedlessthriving.Moreli prestige alone.Hisfrequenttrav from thepresenceofprominentlecturers whose 69 ties forminorities, lik a Universitatii populare “N. Iorga” din Valenii de Munte Valenii din “N.Iorga” populare a Universitatii de Munte Valenii din “N.Iorga” populare a Universitatii als wouldalso attendthe latter.This success arships topeople attending thecourses ng, attractingaplethoraofpersonalitiesthe rmula inwhichhisculturalnationalism would League contributedtomaking italsomore butalsomembers oftheminorities, usually 262 any other project, it also gained official official gained also it project, other any . Evenifintheformofonemonth long 260 e most cultural successfulofIorga’s , for whom thecourses were originally graduates,whowouldthenworkas eachers could learnRomanian. els abroadmade him indeed kely theideaofaninformal on andthecelebrationof25 ses wereverymuchinfused e the specially founded e thespeciallyfounded 261 .As
CEU eTD Collection unproductive the fact that thecompleteidentification of blamed iton themembers whosupposedly lacked the League wasdetrimental toitsactivity and especially itsfuture. Characteristically, he League. Acoupleofyearslater, decade ofhislifeseemed tohavebroughtawaren ancestors butlefttodieinth contribute, through“inertiaandindolence”,toth In1931,Iorgawarnedthemembers oftheLeaguegatheredatannualcongressin Focsani that bybusyingitself with“celebrations 4. DilemmasofCulturalNationalism 264 263 WhileIorga’sprestigegaveweighttoth the League’shistory.Almostthirtyyearsearlie was similar toquestioning theLeague’s main pillarof existence. ensured itssurvivalintheinterwarperiod.To cultural nationalism. Commemorations wereassociated with theLeague’s image and infact celebrations andfestivalshave AsfarastheLeaguewasconcerned, hisremarks from 1931were,however,more disconcerting. Afterall,Iorgahimself wasoneof (Valenii deMunte: Asezamantul Tipograf si rapoarte (Valenii deMunte: Asezamantul Tipografic “Datina Romaneasca”, 1931), 7.
Congresul Ligii Culturale tinut la Iasi in zilele de duminca 15 si luni 16 iunie 1934. Dari deseama si rapoarte in zilele de du la Focsani tinut Ligii Culturale Congresul 264 .
e absenceofacommon spiritualbond” atthe1934congress,hewould been oneofthebestwaysto ic “Datina Romaneasca”, 1934),6. 70 theLeaguewithhimself couldnotbutbe r, in1902,Ovid Densusianu,former member of andexcursions” the League wouldunwillingly question theutilityofpa e question,theconcern e “destructionofacountryreceivedfromthe the main promoters of thecultof the pastand minica 13 si luni 14 septembrie 1931. Dari de seama seama Dari de 1931. 14 septembrie 13 si luni minica initiative. Nevertheless, hecametorealize ess ofmany relevantshortcomings ofthe achieve theLe admit thathismonopolizing of 263 was notunheardofin triotic manifestations . ForIorga,thelast ague’s goalof
CEU eTD Collection “nationally-decrepit literature” Under hisleadershiptheLeaguesuccumbed to“aparodyofthepatrioticsentiment”, fuelledby “the Transylvanian questioncouldbesolved 270 269 268 267 266 265 everywhere. Asrecent case-studies innationali Theexplanationsforthisphenomenon arema of GreaterRomania, theLeague’s agentsface “indifference” tothenationalcause of thelocalsectionsaboundin the cancelled sessions of theBuchar the Leaguenevergainedfollowingithopedfo the validityofLeague’sst WhileIorgawasnoUrechiadespitetheir League undoubtedlyachievedmore thannoisyag unwelcome manifestations, ofbuf nationalist, excelledinspeech League atthetime. Urechia,aself-taught, roma of theLeagueattime, Densusianudirectedhis attackagainstV.A.Urechia,theleaderof the League,voicedsimilar worriesinamore vehement tone Culturale” Most reports from the 1910 and 1912 congresses. 1912 and 1910 the from reports Most 67. Ibid., Ibid. Densusianu, 20. Goia See Vistian “Ligii a patriotice activitatii asupra impartiale OvidPareri rai: Densusianu,romani si buni Romani (Bucuresti: Institutul de Arte (Bucuresti:Institutul Grafice Carol Grobl, 1902). V.A. Urechia (Bucuresti: Minerva, 1979). 1979). (Bucuresti: Minerva,
rategy wasnotunfounded.While many actionsweresuccessful, es ratherthaninactions 268 complaints aboutthecommuniti . Thesolutionwastoabandon“t fooneries andnationalfeasts” 270 est session attest this. Both before and after thewar reports .
inamerry way,over 71 d challenges familiar tonationalistactivists sm haveshown,“nationalindifference” has r. Theperiodicallydecliningmembership and ntic historianandphil itation underhisleadersh similar nationalistdevotion,andwhilethe nifold. Ononehand,beforethecreation 266 . InDensusianu’swords,forUrechia 265 . Lamenting theobviousdecline 269 es’ “apathy”,“stagnation”and andresume seriouswork. he oldcustom ofnoisyand a bottleofchampagne” ologist andanexalted ip, theconcernwith 267 . CEU eTD Collection easy target,especiallyin 272 271 of culturalintegrationandnationalsolidar Munte couldprovidecluesabout minorities andRomanians from outsidetheOld Kingdom attending the c objectives, bothbeforeandafte actions. Iorga’sattitude, ontheotherhand,ismore political unionwithTransylvania.Assuch,Densusianuhadarightto legitimate. While focusing oncultur tactics and overalleffectiveness. Inthisse movements suchas theLeague’sarecharacteri however, suggestmore about nation-state. Theoccasionaldissenting voices,lik TheLeague’s case thusillustrates several one isclearlytheadjustment ofapreviously various waysoutofthestalemate appealing. Thiswasobviousenoughforthe after thewar,fulfillment of thepolitical union made itscallslessstringent andless and otherwise,the“brothers”abroad.Onot been the norm ratherthan theexception for Children in the Bohemian Lands, 1900-1948 HarvardZahra,: Press,2006) andTara University Mass. ANIC, Fond Liga pentru Unitatea Culturala a tuturor romanilor, File no.49/ 1931-1936, 121. 121. 1931-1936, File a tuturor romanilor, no.49/ Culturala Unitatea pentru Liga ANIC,Fond PieterJudson, Guardians of the Nation: Activists on the Language Frontiers of Imperial Austria caseslikeRomania, wherepeople
272 r thewar,were hardly meas the League’sappeal,therewas the internaldynamics ofsu . al activities, the implicit goal (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008). 271 ity which wastheLea . Mobilizationforthenationa 72 nse, Densusianu’sdiatribecanbeconsidered Kidnapped Souls: National Indifference and the Battle theBattle and Indifference National Souls: Kidnapped her hand, while the League readjusted its goals her hand,whiletheLeaguereadjusteditsgoals irredentist organization League’s members themselves, whosought zed byperiodicalquesti dilemmas of cultural nationalism. Themajor e thatof Densusianu andthelateIorga, intriguing. Afterall,theLeague’s stated were askedtosupport,financially gue’s objective. urable. Whilethenumbers of of theprewarLeague wasthe ch movements. Apparently no way toascertainthelevel l causehasnotbeenan demand moredecisive to the conditions of a to theconditionsofa ourses atValeniide oning oftheirrole, (Cambridge, CEU eTD Collection always pronetoquestioning. nationalist activism undertakenbytheLeaguecoul elusive goalspreventedcleardiagnosesofboth successandfailure.Morelikely,thekindof of culturalnationalism intimes the Leaguesurvivedconsiderablylongerthanis true thatthe “minority enthusiasm” successfully withsimilar courses initiatives cancoexist withthestate. The gradually takesupitsattributions 275 274 273 Neitheristhisinabilitynecessarilyashortcoming. Acco nationalism inevitably fails “in terms of its communitarian goals” Ibid., 17. Ibid., 41. Ibid., 17. Hutchinson,
when thelatterisnolongern organized bytheauthoritiesand 274 275 . AsthecaseofLeague whichanimated theLeague diluted evenmore intime, summer academyatValenii deMuntecompeted 73 expectedofassociationsendorsingaprogram d notbebutdifficulttoassessandtherefore ecessary. Atthesame time, the rding toHutchinson,cultural proved enduring.Whileitis suggests,however,private 273 , because the state CEU eTD Collection implications of theanalysisof political andhistoricalbackgroundinfluence case studies,beinginseparablefromthecont that casealone,suggestthedi However, evenasinglecasestudycanrevealnuan regeneration andsocialharmonization remain for ananalysisofnationalistmovements of Asinglecasestudycertainlycannotchal Hutchinson’s theoryof cultural nationalism, even new provincesinGreaterRomania. Romanians abroadbutontheeffectiveintegrat cohesion andnationalsolidarityremained chief advocated bytheLeagueunderwentareadjustment ofitsgoals.While incorporation of alltheterritories claimed byth was notrestricted totheperiods before theestablishment of thenation-state orthe consecrated itbeforethewar.C actors, theLeaguesurvived theinterwarperiod a decliningmembership andvisibilitycomp League provedenduringdespite
Dilemmas notwithstanding,cultu Conclusion: TheRelevanceofCulturalNationalism versity offormswhichcultural theLeague’scultural nationalism arenoteworthy since evenif onsequently, intheRomanian caseatleast, cultural nationalism all odds.Lackingagoa ral nationalism intheform promoted by the Cultural 74 e latter.Instead, cultural nationalism intheform ext which generates them, reveal the way the ext whichgeneratesthem,revealtheway objectives, theLeaguenolongerfocusedon ion oftheRomanians andminorities from the this kind. Cultural practices, goals of moral a doctrineotherwiseconstant.Assuch,the engaginginthesame kindof activitiesthat eting withmany otherinfluentialtrendsand if controversial,remains avalidstartingpoint ces and variations which, even if relevant for ces andvariationswhich,evenifrelevantfor essential features of cultural nationalism. lenge orevenconfirm atheory.John l thatwouldmobili nationalism cantake.Moreover, the buildingofcultural ze themasses, with CEU eTD Collection visibility. time itisquestionableifwit shortcomings ofhavinganorganizationdepend often contradictoryconvictions archaic understanding ofmorality,attimes beco other culturalnationalist outlook and itsanti-modernist direction.Instea focus onthe rural world andthepeasantry. Atthele cultural nationalism ingeneral, Iorga’s influen beliefs dictatedtheLeague’sorganicist stance. Morethananythingelse,theLeaguesuggest strong leadercanshapethe projects, likeinthecaseofpopular missing, likeinthecaseof one ofcomplementarity. TheLeague replaced th autonomy. Instead,initscase,th from itsinstitutions. In fact,however, theLe undoubtedly revoltedagainstand relation tothestate, theLea In theLeague’s case cultural nationalism coexisted withofficial nationalism. Evenifat the levelofdiscourseLeagueportrayedwh characterize othersimilar movements aswell. they donotmirror ageneralpattern,theyexhibi movements did,theLeagueheldtight character ofaparticular cultural nationalism. Iorga’s theearlyinterwarcommemorations hout IorgatheLeaguewouldha gue infactoftendependedon deprivedtheLeagueofa e relationshipbetween criticized thestateanddream universityatValeniideMunte. 75 ming anachronistic .Also,occasionally, Iorga’s t featureswhichcanbe ague neverachievedthat much soughtafter ce also determined theLeague’slesstypical d ofreconcilingtradition withmodernity, as While organicevolution at Hutchinson characterizedasanadversarial on asingleindividualaremany, atthesame e state’s initiatives s theextenttowhichpersonalityofa vel ofdoctrine,itshap culturalnationalism andthestatewas to itsconservative tenets andits definite direction. While the definite direction.Whilethe , orofferedalternativetoits the authorities.The League ve enjoyedevenitslimited t ofcompleteindependence reasonably expectedto when thelatterwere is characteristic of ed itstraditionalist samanatorist CEU eTD Collection the relationshipbetween nationalismandculture.While anunusualapproach initially, However,even if the validity of cultural nationalism asatheoretical concept isnot yet confirmed, theworkofHutchinsonandotheret understanding ofnationalism ingeneral. can amount toanunnecessaryexerciseinwhich in for finedistinctionsbetweenpoliticalnationalism andthe“culturalbutinherently political”one was thepoliticalunificationofRomaniawithTran at leastbeforethe war,whilee nationalism isinherently political,opens thedoor inspiring similar studies, isstillcontroversial. IfIorgaand hisfollowersdefinedtheirm validity of theconcept asananalytic tool ismorequestionable. Hutchinson’s theory, evenif considerable extent. similarities, theparticularcontexts inwhich theyevolvecanin While the doctrine and activities of cultural nationalism andtestifies totheway thesemovements canadjustaccording tocircumstances. program oftheRomanization ofcommercefr affiliations of itsleader also led to unexpected changing political context, theradicalization of thepublicdiscourseingeneral andthepolitical clerks always filledthe League successful inmobilizing some socialgroupsand Thehistorical context influenced the Lea social andintellectual trends prominent in ngaging instrictly cultural activitie ’s rankswhilestudentsremained terwar Romania explainswhytheLeagueproved 76 Hutchinson himself, when turns intheLeague’s activities. The League’s hno-symbolists havethemerit ofemphasizing gue’s appealgreatly. Competition from other om thelate 1930s isunusualforcultural nationalism everywhere for criticism ofhismodel. TheLeagueitself, ovement asoneofculturalnationalism,ovement the less soinothercases.Priests,teachersand sylvania. Intheeyes tricacies confuserather s, made nosecretthatitsgoal largely aloof to itscalls.The dividualize them to a dividualize thema to of thecritics,looking asserting thatcultural present significant thanilluminate our CEU eTD Collection centered theories. yet passedthetestofscholarlyanalysis,it dynamics ofsuchmovements. evenifthe Thus, looked attheroleofprivateorganizations, for grantedasastate-directed waytocreate private actorsandculture.Previoustheories,lik awayfromsubject. TheworkofHutchinsondrewattention thestateandpoliticstowards nowadays fewoverviewsofdebatesinthefieldonnationalism studieswouldoverlookthe
remains awelcome additiontostate and politics- a standardizedpublicspace.Hutchinsoninstead 77 e Gellner’s,eitherdownpl cultural practicesassu concept of“culturalnationalism” itselfhasnot ch andthesmall-scale ayed cultureortookit CEU eTD Collection
Munte: DatinaRomaneasca, 1934. Munte inthedaysofSaturday15 iulie 1934,darideseama sirapoarte Memos andReports) seama sirapoarte.( Reports si rapoarte Munte: DatinaRomaneasca, 1931. in thedaysofSunday13andMonday14September1929.MemosReports). septembrie 1931,darideseamasirapoarte Saturday 22andSunday23June1929.MemosReports 1929. Darideseamasirapoarte.( days ofSunday3andMonday4June1928.MemosReports 1928. Darideseamasirapoarte.( Ligii Culturale,1933. CalendarulLigiiCulturale1933 Published Sources Primary Sources
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