Introduction 1 Introduction 1

UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes

ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN RIVER BASINS OF DAURIA: ECOLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT

By Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev, Olga Kiriliuk, Vadim Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva, Victor Obyazov, and Tatiana Tkachuk.

PEOPLE'S DAILY PRESS BEIJING 2013 2

Editor of the original Russian publication Olga K.Kiriliuk (Daursky Biosphere Reserve) English version editor and translator Eugene Simonov (Rivers without Boundaries Coalition) English language editor Douglas Norlen ( Pacific Environment), Jennie Sutton (Baikal Environmental Wave) © Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev, Vadim and Olga Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva, Victor Obyazov, Eugene Simonov and Tatiana Tkachuk © STATE BIOSPHERE RESERVE DAURSKY, WWF RUSSIA, INTERNATIONAL COALITION 《 RIVERS WITHOUT BOUNDARIES》, 2013 Introduction 3

Suggested citation: Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev, Olga Kiriliuk, Vadim Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva, Victor Obyazov, and Tatiana Tkachuk. Adaptation to climate change in the river basins of Dauria: ecology and water management. The extended abstract eponymous Russian edition prepared by Eugene Simonov – Beijing: PEOPLE'S DAILY PRESS, 2013. - 104p, 55ill. Abstract: This report presents the first results of the Research and Conservation Program “Influence of Climate Changes on the Ecosystems of Dauria Ecoregion and Nature-protecting Adaptation”, which is implemented at Dauria International Protected Area (DIPA). The report is dedicated to stopping degradation of the natural ecosystems in Dauria and preserving globally endangered species under conditions of intensified economic development and periodic water deficit caused by climatic cycles. The report primarily covers the Northeast of Dauria Steppe Ecoregion its geography, climate, ecosystems and their dynamics, anthropogenic impacts on natural processes, ecological monitoring, protected areas planning and management, water resources management and threats to aquatic ecosystems. This publication was funded by WWF Russia and UNECE Water Convention. 4

图书在版编目（ＣＩＰ）数据

ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN RIVER BASINS OF DAURIA: ECOLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT/Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev, Olga Kiriliuk, Vadim Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva, Victor Obyazov, and Tatiana Tkachuk. 编 .-- 北京 : 人民日报出版社 , 2012.12 ISBN 978-7-5115-1479-0

Ⅰ . ① A… Ⅱ . ① O… Ⅲ . ①科学技术－环境－文集Ⅳ . ① G222.3-53

中国版本图书馆 CIP 数据核字 (2012) 第 281894 号

Title: Adaptation To Climate Change In River Basins Of Dauria: Ecology And Water Management Author: Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev, Olga Kiriliuk, Vadim Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva, Victor Obyazov, and Tatiana Tkachuk. Publisher: People’s Daily Press Address: 2th Jintaixilu Road Chaoyang District Beijing Editor: Chen Zhiming Price: 32.00（RMB） ISBN：978-7-5115-1479-0 Introduction 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS: Introduction……………………………………………………………………………… 6 I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate……………………………… 9 II.Conservation and Monitoring ……………………………………………… 34 III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management………………………… 43 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………… 90 Appendix……………………………………………………………………………… 106 6

Introduction

his report presents the first outcomes of the Programme "The Timpact of climate change on ecosystems of Dauria ecoregion and environmental adaptations to them" and an important part of it – the “Dauria Going Dry” Pilot Project initiated by Daursky Biosphere Reserve ( part of Dauria International Protected Area - DIPA) and WWF-Russia under auspices of the UNECE Convention on Transboundary Waters and the Ramsar Convention. The key question that the Project considers is how to prevent destruction of Daurian natural ecosystems, enhance their resilience and save globally endangered species in circumstances of intensive economic development and water deficit caused by periodic climate change. The Programme collects and analyses scientific information on natural climate- dependent ecosystems processes, their actual conditions and dynamics and anthropogenic influence on them. These data are the scientific basis for environmental-friendly social and economic development in Dauria Introduction 7

Ecoregion. This report is an abridged translation from Russian of a collection of research papers published in 2012 by Express Publishing House, Chita, Russia (Kiriliuk O. editor, 2012). Chapters were contributed by the core team of researchers including: Oleg Goroshko (research and monitoring system), Vadim Kiriliuk(research program and ecosystem dynamics), Tatiana Tkachuk (ecosystem dynamics and monitoring system), Natalia Kochneva (overview of international law), Victor Obyazov (climate dynamics and hydrology), Evgeny Egidarev (water management and cartography), Eugene Simonov ( research program and water management, executive summary in English), Olga Kiriliuk (ecosystem dynamics, protected areas network and overall book editing).This Report edited by Eugene Simonov summarizes key findings presented in this Russian publication. The first part of the Report summarizes geography, climate, biological diversity and ecosystem dynamics of Dauria with emphasis on rivers and wetlands. The focus of our attention is dynamics of ecosystems of Dauria under cyclical climate change. The second part shortly summarizes history and plans for development of protected areas and a comprehensive ecosystem monitoring network. The third part of the report starts with general overview of climate adaptation principles and challenges in Dauria, using the water sector as its focus. The Argun River basin example is used to exemplify and analyze potentially unsustainable water resource use at basin-scale. Besides the basin–wide Argun River example case-studies are presented for coal industry, interbasin water-transfers, hydropower, gold mining and border demarcation. Short conclusions are drawn on international policy 8 and technical approaches to solving environmental problems in water sector in Dauria. The Project formed partnerships with the Ministry of Natural Resources of Zabaikalsky Province, International Crane Foundation, East Asian-Australasian flyway Partnership, Rivers without Boundaries Coalition, Institute of Natural Resources, Ecology and Cryology of Russian Academy of Sciences (Siberian Branch), and a number of Mongolian and Chinese NGOs and researchers. Daursky BR and WWF provided most of the funding for multi-year work, while some activities were supported in 2011 from UNDP\GEF “Russian Steppe Conservation” Project and the Whitley Fund for Nature.. This publication reflects solely the views of its authors. The views, conclusions, and recommendations are not intended to represent the views of the conventions' secretariats or other entities supporting the project. This publication in 3 languages was made possible due to collaboration of all Project partners and generous support from the UNECE Convention on Transboundary Waters. The English version was prepared by Eugene Simonov, the coordinator of Rivers without Boundaries Coalition. Please send inquiries to coalition@ riverswithoutboundaries.org I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 9

I. Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate

Geography and climate. In the last decades considerable climate change of a global character is taking place. However, at the regional level it differs considerably from the general global pattern, and has peculiar features in each region. Even greater differences between regions are observed in the ecosystems’ reactions to climatic variability, which to a great extent depend on the natural and economic conditions of the regions. One of the regions strongly ecologically dependent on climate changes is the Daurian steppe (Dauria). Dauria lies in the northern part of Inner Asia. Most of the Daurian steppe area is situated in North- East China and the Eastern Mongolia; the Russian part is confined to Zabaikalsky Province and the Buryat Republic. The area possesses a very high level of biodiversity for the steppe zone, and it is included in the Global 200 Ecoregions of the World (Fig.1) as “Dauria Steppe” which according to WWF covers the Nenjiang River grassland, the Daurian forest-steppe, the Mongolian-Manchurian steppe, and the 10

Selenge-Orkhon forest-steppe ecoregions. This book is dedicated primarily to North Eastern Dauria.These grassland areas are united by geographic location, annual and multi-year rhythms in ecological factors, and structure and composition of communities (Kiriliuk et al.2012).

Fig. 1. "Daurian Steppe» Global 200 Ecoregion (№ 96) on the world map (by Olson et al., 2001)

In terms of freshwater ecosystems, the Eastern Dauria is divided into 3 principal freshwater ecoregions: Shilka River, Argun River and Endorheic Basins (Abel et al. 2008) of which Torey Lakes\Ulz River Basin is the most prominent (see Fig. 2.) Most of the region lies at 600-800 meters above sea level, comprises mainly plains and rolling relief, and has an ultra-continental I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 11 Fig.2. Principal transboundary river basins of Dauria 12 climate. Low winter temperatures (in the Russian part the average January temperature is –25 ) result in deep freezing of the soils and the formation of permafrost pockets. The spring is cold, windy and dry, while most of the rainfall coincides with the highest annual temperatures during the second half of summer (Fig. 3). This leads to a highly intensive cycling of nutrients in the short summer period and, as a result, to the formation of primarily poor, shallow soils. In the period 1951 to 2009 the average annual temperature in the study area increased by 1.9℃ , and in different parts of the study area the linear trend showed increases from 1.5 up to 2.2 ℃ during 59 years (Fig.4). It led to an increase of the period with positive temperatures in the northern part of the Daurian steppe from 165 - 167 to 173 - 179

Precipitation, mm

120,0

100,0

80,0

60,0

40,0

20,0

0,0 Sept March June Jan Feb Apr May July Aug Oct Nov Dec

Fig. 3. Annual distribution of the precipitation in the Onon-Argun inter- river area I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 13

0,0 T,C° 1 -0,5 2 -1,0 -1,5 -2,0 -2,5 -3,0 -3,5 -4,0 -4,5 -5,0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year

Fig.4. Long-term changes in average annual air temperature for the Onon-Argun inter-river area in the period 1951 – 2009. 1 original series, 2 linear trend days. The strongest increase has been registered in February and only slightly lower in March and April. These three months represent half of the total increase in average annual temperatures. The lowest figures of increase are for the period of October – December. Thus the strongest increase is observed in spring, the least in autumn. For the cold period of the year (October – April) the rise in average air temperature amounts to 2.4℃ over 59 years; for the warm period of the year (May – September) to 1.3℃ . Long-term changes in precipitation are cyclic, and in South-eastern Transbaikalia cycles are most vividly apparent within the time span of a century (Obiazov 1994). From 1955 to 1963 there was a period with above average precipitation, followed, up to 1982, by a below average 14 period. In 1983 a wet period started again, lasting until 1998. 1999 was the beginning of a new dry period, that has probably ended by 2012, but it is still uncertain. Thus, up to two full cycles in precipitation occurred in the area over the past 60 years (Fig.5). Apart from these decennia-long cycles other cycles of another wave length occur in the area, including a 4 – 5 year cycle (Obiazov 1994). Cycles identified are based on classical statistical methods for analyzing climate change, in particular by the construction of residual mass curves (Vladimirov 1990). The inter–annual flow changes in the warm period of the year (May – September) are strongly determined by the amount of precipitation in this period. Inter–year changes in precipitation and flow occur

8 Σ (К-1)/С V 1 2

6

4

2

0

-

-

-

- 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year

Fig. 5. Long-term flow changes of the Shilka river (1) and precipitation totals (2) generalized for the Onon-Argun inter-river area (residual mass curves) I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 15 synphasically (Fig.5) and the correlation coefficient between the observation series of flows of all the rivers in the Shilka basin and the average total of precipitation exceeds 0.7. Lake levels also directly depend on precipitation and correlate with river flows. For instance, Fig.6 shows clear phases in measured water levels in the Torey lakes. It should be noted that by June 2009 Lake Barun-Torey had completely dried up, while just before its floor contained only shallow large puddles, which appeared after rains.

Level, m asl

600

599

598

597

596

595

594

593 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 years

Fig. 6. Long-term changes in the level of Lake Barun-Torey

Plant communities. The Central Asian Steppe Sub-Region of the Eurasian Steppe Region (Lavrenko 1970) has a flora that is notably different from that of the steppes to the west. The most typical steppe communities are dominated by feather grass (Stipa krylovii, S. 16

Fig. 7. Changes in area of Lake Barun-Torey (left) and Lake Zun-Torey (right) from 2001 to 2009 baicalensis) and Leymus chinensis, Artemisia frigida, etc. Shallow salt lakes with halophytic vegetation around them are also characteristic of the region. Grass-dominated grassland communities are intermingled with other vegetation types (wetlands, saline vegetation, forest groves, bush, etc.) and should be described and preserved only in a broader landscape context. In floodplain wetlands (Fig. 8) meadows with grasses (of the genus Calamagrostis) and tussock sedges (Carex schmidtii and others) prevail as well as groves of willows (Salix spp), reeds (Phragmites australis) communities and several species of wild fruit trees (Crataegus sp., Padus avium, Malus baccata, etc.) are also common. I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 17

The bottoms of small depressions and shores of salt and brackish lakes are occupied by salines. Patches of small salines are also spread in steppe areas. Their vegetation is dominated by annual chenopods (Suaeda corniculata, Kochia densiflora, Atriplex sibirica, A. patens, etc.), perennials such as Artemisia anetifolia and A. laciniata, and the dwarf shrub Kalidium foliatum. In big depressions they are surrounded by meadows with Puccinellia spp., Hordeum brevisubulatum, Leymus chinensis and Iris lactea and also L. chinensis steppes. Communities of the large tussock grass Achnatherum splendens are common in depressions and may also fringe lower slopes of steppe hills, where ground water is shallow. Achnatherum steppes usually include some

Fig. 8. Floodplain meadow of Hui River, Hulunbeier. 18 halophytic species (Limonium aureum, Saussurea amara, Iris lactea). As the pattern of vegetation types mentioned closely depends on small differences in relief and some related habitat conditions, fluctuations in climate considerably affect the temporal and spatial diversity of vegetation , changing distribution and species composition of plant communities over time in a cyclic manner.

Principal wetlands of Eastern Dauria Argun River Floodplain. Argun (Erguna, Hailaer in Chinese) River is the largest watercourse in Dauria Steppe, with globally significant network of wetlands. For 940 kilometers it serves as Sino-Russian borderline, and the westernmost part has at least 200 000 ha of wide floodplain rich in biodiversity. Hui and Moergol River Floodplains (approx 70 000 ha). These are small tributaries of Argun River system in Hulunbeier Prefecture of Inner Mongolia in China, which possesses large floodplain wetlands with reed beds known as breeding areas for significant numbers of endangered cranes and geese. Dalai Lake and Ulan Lake. The shallow Dalai (Hulun) Lake in Hulunbeier Prefecture receives waters of Kherlen and Wuershun (Orxon) rivers coming from Mongolia and is connected to Argun River. The 750000 ha Ramsar site is a complex of lakes, rivers, marshes, shrublands, grasslands and reed beds typical of arid steppe wetlands, stretching north-south from the Russian to the Mongolian border. The lakes are important breeding, molting, and stopover sites for waterbirds including endangered geese. Buir Lake (61500 ha) shared by Mongolia and China is fed by I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 19

Fig.9. Largest wetlands of Eastern Dauria.

Khalkh River, with headwaters in China. This river forks at 104000 ha Mongolia Ramsar site and supplies water to Buir Lake and Dalai Lake via Wuershun River. The lake is an important breeding, molting, and stopover site for waterbirds including endangered geese. Torey Lakes and Ulz River. Endorheic Ulz River coming from Mongolia into Russia terminates into 3 large lakes of the Torey depression. The basin has many globally important biodiversity features and is protected by Daursky (172 500 ha) and Mongol Daguur (210000ha) Biosphere reserves, both listed as Ramsar wetlands.

20

Influence of climate cycles on habitats. The Dauria Steppe’s natural climate cycle, with a span of 25-40 years, is the major force shaping regional ecosystems and peoples’ lifestyles. Climate changes in the Daurian eco-region, especially humidification cycles and continuing warming, cause habitat alteration and even habitat disappearance. The most intensive changes occur in wetlands, which are important intrazonal biotopes of the steppe zone. In dry phases of the cycles all small rivers and most of the springs and up to 90 – 98 % of the lakes dry up. Such large rivers as the Kherlen, the Onon, and the Hailaer/ Argun lose most of their tributaries and also become shallow. At that time the levels of Lakes Dalai, Buir, and Khukh also fall considerably. Each water body has its own drying and filling dynamics depending on its depth, volume, hydrogeology and location. Giant Dalai Lake at maximum covers 2300 sq. km., but sometimes becomes a chain of shallow pools. “Pulsating” water bodies provide higher but uneven biological productivity than stable ones. The alternation of the wet and dry phases as well as the diversity in water bodies creates a dynamic mosaic of habitats and triggers migration and changes in species populations. In 1999 Torey lakes yielded thousand tons of fish, and in 2011 the meadow at Barun-Torey Lake bottom was a pasture for Mongolian Gazelle（Procapra gutturosa）. River floodplains have much more frequent flooding events and thus preserve more stable habitat in times of drought. Once in 30 years in the wettest phase thousands of ephemeral lakes scattered throughout the steppe provide the most productive habitat for birds and semi-aquatic species, however, I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 21 several most stable wetlands serve as life-support systems for wildlife and humans through all phases of climate cycles. In Lake Barun-Torey the saline flats that formed after drying up gradually are getting overgrown and turning into a meadow and steppe. The lake depression, devoid of water (551 km2 in 1999), instead of being an aquatic ecosystem inhabited by aquatic organisms and organisms that live near water, including thousands of tons of fish, became part of the terrestrial ecosystem. Presently, it harbors animals that are absolutely not associated with water, for example, Mongolian gerbils and gazelles. Disappearance of water sources in steppes makes steppe habitats unsuitable for animal species that are dependent on water. Following disappearance of the lakes, or their substantial shallowing and salinization, near-water macrophytes also degrade, in particular reeds (Phragmites australis), and shrubs wither. The same occurs in the drying rivers. Thus, tall shore and floodplain vegetation turns into meadow and steppe habitats. Islands and spits of the lakes that were nesting areas for loads of waterfowl and near-water birds, including colonial ones (on the Torey lakes alone in wet periods there were up to 17 islands inhabited by bird colonies), cease to be such and lose their significance. We studied vegetation dynamics along a fixed transect between the Torey lakes in the Daursky Biosphere Reserve during 2002 – 2010 (Tkachuk & Zhukova 2010). The transect is about 4 km long, and includes steppe, halophytic meadows, pioneer halophytic vegetation and dense stands of hydrophytes (Phragmites australis and Bolboschoenus planiculmis). The lowest, recently dried-up parts of the transect carry 22 halophytic pioneer vegetation with patches of hydrophytes. The 1st lake terrace and lake shores, which became dry 2 - 4 years ago, support halophytic meadows, and the highest part of the transect, on the 2nd and 3rd terraces, steppe vegetation. The vegetation belts are much wider at the Barun-Torey depression than at that of Zun-Torey. Vegetation dynamics along this transect over 9 years is illustrated in (Fig. 10). The main trends are the area increase of all vegetation types together and the disappearance of the shore line vegetation. The strong increase of pioneer vegetation and hydrophytes in 2004 is caused by the rapid retreat of the shore-line and connected elongation of the transect. The hydrophytes later decrease as the ground water level falls. Halophytic meadows increase from year to year, especially since 2005. This sudden increase comes with a lag of one year behind that of the pioneer vegetation. The increase in steppe vegetation is insignificant.

4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 m 2000 1500 1000 500 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Steppe Halophytic meadow Pioneer vegetation Hydrophytes

Fig. 10. Change of different vegetation types in the monitored transect in the period 2002 – 2010. I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 23

Fig. 11. Geese migrating through smoke from burning grass above Argun River floodplain. Starotsurukhaitui-Heishantou border crossing. Photo by Guo Yumin

The dynamic successional vegetation pattern between the Torey lakes (as well as at other drying lakes) is similar to that of other salty steppe lakes in Inner Asia (Vostokova 1983; Fengjun 2010), though some details are typical for the Daurian steppe region. In the beginning of dry periods tall herbaceous vegetation, including floodplain vegetation, disappears faster due to the increasing intensity of wild fires (Fig.11). Thus, in 1996 - 1997 50 – 70 % of the steppes and floodplains burned. Large tussock grasses and bushes re- grow slowly after fires. Increasing evaporation on burnt areas in dry periods contributes to further drying of floodplains, and the level of groundwater falls as well. Therefore, restoration of the lake’s level and 24 of the river’s flow with the start of a wet phase slows down. It is extremely difficult to assess whether all these changes are due to natural factors or not, as considerable parts of the steppes of the Daurian ecoregion are under severe grazing pressure. Numbers of free- grazing livestock, though subject to regulation by natural factors, are also artificially maintained at high levels by humans, and this harms the ecosystems. With the beginning of a wet phase rivers and lakes fill with water, and this process goes much faster than drying. Then ground vegetation, growing densely in river beds and on lake floors, is flooded and rots. The processes of destruction of large amounts of organic matter with simultaneous re-filling and warming up of the water in the shallow basins give a sharp rise in the reproduction of plants and animals of all trophic levels. In the steppe zone many intra-zonal aquatic and near- water habitats with rich foraging bases re-appear. The foraging capacity of the steppe biotopes sharply increases, many water sources appear, and shelter conditions improve. In the most humid part of the steppe zone the area with bush and tree vegetation starts increasing. On the whole, the habitats of the Daurian eco-region are subject to cyclic changes with wide amplitudes. Accordingly, the amount of biomass of living organisms differs many-fold between dry and wet phases. Thus, food supply and other conditions for life and reproduction differ. During the dry phase, which is the most critical for many vertebrate species, a few habitat refugia remain, e.g. large rivers and river floodplains, lakes that don’t dry up, southern slopes of hills with outcrops of rocks and ravines in the north of the steppe I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 25 zone and northern in the south of it. In the unbroken landscapes of the steppe such relatively favorable habitats depend on variation in local conditions. The high dynamics in habitats in the Daurian eco-region are accompanied by strong leaps in biological productivity, and these support the high biodiversity of the Daurian steppes, including the abundance of many mammal and bird species. Fauna and climate. The animal world of Dauria is diverse. There are species here whose main distribution area is much farther to the east, west or south (Japanese or Red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis)(see Fig. 12). Manchurian zokor (Myospalax psilurus epsilanus), Mongolian gerbil

Fig. 12. Red-crowned Crane in reeds of the Argun River floodplain (Photo: Oleg Goroshko) 26

(Meriones unguiculatus), Common crane (Grus grus), etc.). Among the endemics of Dauria are Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa) (up to 90 % of the world population of the species live here), Daurian hedgehog (Mesechinus dauuricus), Daurian souslik (Spermophilus dauricus), Mongolian lark (Melanocorypha mongolica) and others. Fish fauna, adapted to climate cycles, is comprised of more than 60 species, three of which are believed to be endemic to Dauria, and giant Kaluga Sturgeon (Huso davhuricus)(Fig.13) is likely migrating to the Mongolian border all the way from the Pacific Ocean. A peculiar feature of the animal world is its variety of bird species determined by the narrowing of the global migration routes of birds in the Dalainor-Torey depression (Goroshko, 2009). The number of transitory migrants in the region’s bird fauna is not less than 45 %. More than 40 bird species registered here are listed in the Red List of IUCN and many more in

Fig.13 Endemic Kaluga Sturgeon still inhabits Shilka River (Photo by Yu.Dunsky) I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 27

Fig. 14. Dead fish on the Torey lakes shore in the dry period of climate cycle national Red Data Books of Russia, Mongolia, and China. Climate change influences vertebrate animals both through transformation of habitats and directly. A convincing example of indirect impact is the drying up and shallowing of water basins and courses, which are the natural habitat for aquatic animals and the main habitat for animals that live near water. In such cases aquatic organisms, including fish, die completely (Fig.14.) or survive in near- dormant regenerative stages, including larvae and roe at remaining survival stations. Also the Prussian Carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) can preserve its vitality for some time after the water basin has dried up by burying itself in the silt. In the Ulz river basin, where in fact no fish 28 is left due to drying, carp remain so far only in Lake Khukh-Nor – the deepest reservoir of the basin. Changes in depth and mineralization of the water of the lakes and rivers also lead to the loss of suitable nesting sites, including islands, and changes in the availability of foraging items. This actually caused considerable changes in the composition of waterfowl and near-water birds nesting at the Torey lakes (Fig.15). With transformation of the lake ecosystem numbers of individuals change at even higher rates than species composition, including the numbers of the very rare Relict Gull (Larus relictus), for which low- water periods in the filling stage are more favorable. Great Cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo), whose numbers on the Torey lakes reached a maximum of more than 2,200 in 2001 (Tkachenko & Obyazov 2003),

35

30 Lari

es 25 Charadrii eci 20

sp Gruiformes

of

Anseriformes 15 er Ciconiiformes 10 Pelecaniformes nu mb Podicipediformes 5

0 1994 1998 2000 2003 2005 2008 2009

Fig. 15. Change in species composition of the nesting fauna for the main groups of waterfowl and near-water birds at the Torey lakes in the period 1994 – 2009 I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 29 had stopped nesting altogether by 2010. This was due first to the dying of fish (2006 - 2007) and then to the disappearance of the last island. After that cormorants spread without forming large colonies over the vast area of forest-steppe and southern taiga, up to Baikal where they hadn’t been seen for some decades. With the disappearance of islands and the impoverishment of forage availability at the Torey lakes other colonial birds have stopped nesting too: Gray Heron (Ardea cinerea), Herring Gull (Larus cachinnans), Caspian Tern (Hydropogne caspia), Black-winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus), Black-capped Avocet (Recuvirostra avosetta), White-winged Tern (Chelidonias leucopterus, Common Tern (Sterna hirundo), the rare Little Gull (Larus minutus), Gull-billed Tern (Gelochelidon nilotica) and Whiskered Tern (Chelidonias hybrida). During the wet phases millions of waterfowl pass through the Daurian steppes using thousands of forage-rich lakes for resting and feeding before rushing across the taiga to the tundra. But as the lakes dry up the broad steppe zone becomes almost insurmountable for waterfowl, and their migration routes change. The total numbers of all ducks in 9 steppe districts of Zabaikalsky Krai decreased 59-fold from 1999 to 2009, which is caused by the shift of migration routes to the east, to the foothills of the Great Hingan, and to the west, to the Hentii region (Goroshko 2011). These ridges stretch far south and, thanks to their rivers, provide waterfowl with suitable conditions for a stop-over during their migration. It makes the flight across dry steppe and desert shorter. With the rivers and lakes drying up almost all White-naped Cranes 30

Percentage of breeding birds

60 50 40 % 30 20 10 0 1999 2000 2001 2007 ye ars

Fig.16. Change in percentage of breeding White-naped Cranes (Grus vipio) in the region in 1999 - 2007 (Goroshko O., unpublished data)

(Grus vipio) have moved from the steppe to the forest-steppe for nesting. Total numbers of nesting White-naped Cranes during the last dry cycle fell sharply (Fig.16), which led to a general reduction of the western population of the species. During dry periods the distribution areas and patterns of many mammal species changes considerably. The home range of the Raccoon Dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) very strongly so. This species expanded to the eastern part of the Daurian steppes in the middle of the 20th century having moved from the east (Peshkov 1967). By 1999, the Raccoon Dog, though preferring rivers and lakes, was common almost everywhere and occupied meadow steppe, forest and shrub habitats in I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 31 the Russian and adjacent parts of the eco-region. At the Torey lakes its numbers amounted to some thousands. By 2008 there were no dogs left there. On the whole their numbers and distribution in this part of Dauria reduced very drastically and the Raccoon Dog now only inhabits the floodplains of large rivers, such as the Onon and the Argun. Moreover, its population density in survival stations has not increased. The most important limiting factor for many non-migrating and non-hibernating animals is the (height of the) snow cover. Areas with a continuous snow cover of 20 or more cm thick, and areas with a firm

Fig.17. Southern limit of the range of the Siberian Roe Deer (Capreolus pygargus) in 1996 and in 2007 32 and ice-encrusted snow cover of 10 - 12 cm thick, are uninhabitable for most steppe species. The Siberian Roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) penetrated deep into the steppe zone in wet periods, and depending on the availability of water it occurred not only in insular forests, groves and floodplains, e.g. along the Ulz River, but also in hilly herbaceous steppes with willow-scrub in depressions. By 2007 - 2008 the limits of its range had moved up to 100 km to the north (Fig. 17). Similarly, following the disappearance of habitat fragments with trees and shrubs, as well as shallow waters with Phragmites and Salix, the southern limits of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), Red Deer (Сervus elaphus), Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx) and Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus) have noticeably shifted northward.

Summary of region’s peculiarities • An important peculiarity of the region is that the amount of endemic natural communities in Dauria, which have been formed with participation of different floras and faunas under conditions of permanent climate change, is much higher than the amount of endemic species. Under the conditions of global warming and the cyclic changes in moisture availability characteristic for the region, appreciable changes in species composition, abundance and spatial distribution of wildlife take place. • Due to cyclic changes in humidity habitats in the Daurian eco-region change. During dry phases habitats with tall plants, which provide much foraging capacity and good protection, reduce in area, I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 33 and most of the wetlands vanish completely, while in wet phases they appear again and provide a sharp rise in biological productivity. • The vegetation of Dauria is adapted to cyclical climate changes and resiliently reacts with fluctuations and cyclical succession. • Most of the species, both aquatic and terrestrial, survive drought using different adaptation strategies. The most important are: surviving in a few refuge habitats; persisting in the dormant phase of the life cycle; survival of non-reproductive adult individuals. The distribution areas of many ground vertebrates pulsate in concord with the cyclic changes in humidity. But the continuing warming gradually destroys the complete reversibility of these processes and leads to aridization. • On the whole, in Dauria the dry phase of the 30-year humidity climate cycle, which occurs against the background of global warming, causes remarkably strong changes in nature with mostly negative consequences: the level of biological diversity falls, as well as the sustainability and productivity of natural ecosystem complexes, the biomass of living organisms decreases, the borders of the ranges and migration routes of mammals and birds shift. Many vertebrate species find themselves on the brink of survival.

34

II. Conservation and Monitoring

Protected areas network: challenges and opportunities. The Russia-Mongolia-China Dauria International Protected Area (DIPA) was founded at the junction of the borders between Russia, Mongolia and China on 29 March 1994(Fig.18). Three protected areas of the three countries (belonging to the I category by IUCN PA classification) were combined to create DIPA:

• Daursky Biosphere Reserve (national strict nature reserve in then Chitinskaya oblast (presently Zabaikalsky Krai) )of Russia; • Mongol Daguur national strictly protected nature area in Dornod aimag of Mongolia, which borders on the Russian reserve; • Dalai Lake (Dalaihu) National Nature Reserve in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China.

The creation of this trilateral protected area, consisting of functionally connected wetland and steppe habitats, was of special importance for biodiversity conservation in Dauria, particularly for II.Conservation and Monitoring 35

Fig.18. DIPA area and emblem. the protection of migrant species of birds and mammals. Besides biodiversity and ecosystems conservation, the main target of the international protected area is monitoring of natural processes and phenomena in the Dauria steppe ecosystem. Despite the differences in nature protection regimes and in the management and staff of the three areas, DIPA as a united international 36 reserve has been a conservation success. Since the first years of DIPA’s existence, the area was managed to promote cooperation, first in science and later in environmental education. Cooperative activities included a joint inventory of animals and plants within the reserves and throughout Eastern Dauria. Since DIPA establishment, more than 300,000 km² of the region have been investigated by joint scientific expeditions spanning the region from the Hentii to the Great Hingan Mountains and from the Gobi Desert to Siberian taiga forests. This enormous tri-national survey has been a great opportunity to acquire data on biodiversity and distribution of rare species, define conditions of regional ecosystems, and also to select key areas for conservation of a number of species. The Ramsar Convention recognized the region’s importance and listed all three reserves comprising the DIPA as wetlands of international importance. Lake Buir and Khurh-Khuiten wetlands are also listed as Ramsar Sites in Mongolia, but lack formal protection. Other globally important wetland areas have been identified, including the transboundary Argun (Erguna), Chinese Moergol and Hui River floodplains, Russian Aginsky lake-steppe complex. All sites have special importance with respect to Ramsar Convention implementation. Careful analyses of ecosystems and populations of rare species in relation to natural and anthropogenic factors enabled DIPA workers to propose a number of conservation measures. These included: (i) an interconnected multi-level regional network of protected areas; (ii) programs for conservation of critically threatened species, and (iii) integration of economic development planning with conservation II.Conservation and Monitoring 37 planning to achieve sustainability. DIPA personnel played a key role in establishment of several protected areas: the Valley of Gazelles National Wildlife Refuge, Aginskaya Steppe Regional Wildlife Refuge in Russia and Onon Balj National Park in Mongolia. Further work on development of an ecological network requires establishment of new protected areas, improvements and adjustments in protection regime and management of existing protected areas and development of explicit transboundary forms of protected areas. Development of a nature reserve network should provide for migration and breeding of species in all phases of region-wide drought cycle and preserve key hydrological features and all important refugia (fragmentation avoidance, promoting connectivity, and protection of climate refuge with especially resistant habitats). Riverine wetland conservation is an essential component in any basin-wide adaptation Programme and should first of all focus on protecting natural refugia during most unfavorable climate conditions and sustaining environmental flows. Network design also requires understanding the interplay of permafrost, fire regime, drought cycles, agriculture, infrastructure development in changing landscapes, with special attention to the forest-steppe transition zone and freshwater ecosystems. Specific suggestions for establishment of new protected areas, improvements and adjustments in the protection regime and management of existing protected areas and development of certain transboundary protected areas were made by DIPA to relevant authorities. (see Fig. 19) 38 II.Conservation and Monitoring 39

Fig.19. Territories requiring establishment of protected areas in the Dauria Steppe Ecoregion 40

Action-oriented Ecosystem Monitoring Multi-year research conducted by DIPA staff resulted in accumulation of a considerable body of knowledge on ecosystems and species of Dauria and spurred development of a new comprehensive ecological monitoring system that is oriented towards integration of science and development of sound science-based policies in conservation and natural resource management. Now all activities are integrated into one program of research and nature conservation called "Impact of climate change on ecosystems of Daurian ecoregion and ecosystem-based adaptations to them".

Fig.20.Inner Mongolian Hulietu Nature Reserve spans the floodplain of the transboundary Argun River near Kuti Village on the Russian side.

The key element of the Program is a system of long-term ground and remote-sensing monitoring of wetlands in the transboundary upper Amur-river basin. The main tasks of the monitoring system are 1) to study the influence of climate variability on the upper Amur II.Conservation and Monitoring 41 basin wetlands; 2) to develop a scientific basis for sustainable adaptation of national and international policies of nature resources management to climate change and biodiversity conservation. 3) to use monitoring results to guide development of specific adaptation measures. The monitoring network includes more than 200 plots at floodplains and at lake shores on an area of about 200,000 sq.km (Fig.21). Most of them are designed for monitoring both vegetation and animal populations. This wide network allows the Project to get data on spatial and temporal dynamics of ecosystems.

Fig.21. Location of the monitoring stations network in wetlands of Dauria Ecoregion (marked by triangles)) 42

The key outputs of the Project are policy-relevant knowledge on the natural dynamics of ecosystems which can be part of the basis of sustainable development of the region including sustaining globally valuable biodiversity in the face of climate change. Now we already know some general principles of climate cycles in the region and, connected to them, spatial and temporal differentiation of biota, the main factors and adaptations that help species to survive during critical multi-year periods. Monitoring results will guide the development of specific adaptation measures such as: 1. new protected areas planning and region-wide spatial planning to secure refugia and corridors for species movements 2. prediction of possible adverse impacts of water infrastructure and adjustment of water infrastructure schemes 3. development of allowable limits of anthropogenic impacts to improve environmental flow requirements in changing climate conditions 4. better planning of land-use and water consumption 5. development of other climate adaptation measures increasing resilience of traditional activities of local communities III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 43

III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management

Fig. 22. Herders’ camp at Huihe, Inner Mongolia

Climate adaptation is not a new theme for people of Dauria - Mongolian nomadic tribes were adapted to temporal and spatial change 44 in availability of water and other resources due to climate cycle. (Fig.22). However, the current mode of development, associated with stationary settlements/production facilities and linear growth in economic output is inevitably leading to severe competition for water and other resources in times of drought. Human induced “Climate Change” may make cycles even more pronounced and affect the duration of phases, but is likely to bring problems similar to those already experienced by society poorly adapted to periodic drought. Meanwhile drought is nowadays perceived as “climate change scarecrow” and very questionable water engineering solutions are proposed to “protect environment and society” from climate change. Poorly planned human activities initiated in anticipation of climate change (including some adaptation measures) may drastically hurt ecosystems much earlier and more severely than the consequences of actual global climate change(Simonov and Wickel, 2009). Recent rapid socio-economic changes and loss of nomadic heritage in Dauria Steppe make ecosystems and local communities less resilient to naturally fluctuating resources and to droughts and floods that are made more extreme through climate change (Fig.23 ). Drastically different cultures, population density and an unsustainable mode of economic development and water use in Russia, China and Mongolia, make it very difficult to build a transboundary mechanism to protect common water resources. Meanwhile risks for wetland ecosystems and dependent population are further exacerbated by recent proposals for several inter-basin water transfer projects and other infrastructure in the Argun River Basin. A water management crisis is actively developing in all three countries – China, Mongolia and Russia. The Argun- III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 45

Fig.23 . Concrete yurts of tourist camp in Gen river floodplain. Inner Mongolia. Photo by Daniel Hanisch.

Hailaer, Khalkh-Halaha, Kherlen-Kelulun, Ulz, Onon, Imalka rivers – virtually all notable watercourses of Dauria - are transboundary. The greatest potential threat is unfolding when competition for water among countries is made the implicit goal of national policies thus forcing them to store waters on national territories and this leads to demolition of transboundary wetlands of global importance. Therefore, any adaptation to climate change in Dauria must first of all occur through the prevention and removal of maladaptive water management practices that do not succeed in reducing vulnerability but increase it instead. Adaptation may be achieved through the use of best water-saving technologies and appropriate resource-use practices. Here 46 III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 47

Fig. 24. Water infrastructure projects and principal protected areas in transboundary Dauria 48

Table 1. Existing and planned water infrastructure in headwaters of Amur River in Dauria. (source: www.arguncrisis.ru/ )

# on Name and Reservoir Water Purpose Notes map Location volume in Diverted km³ Annually, in km³ RUSSIA 2009 withdrawal 0,009 Industry, Likely from the Argun agriculture, underestimated River municipal supply 1,2 Transsibirskaya 15 no Hydropower, Proposed by EN+ Hydro on Shilka navigation, Yangtze Power in river 2011 3-7 Hydropower 4 -20 no Hydropower, Proposed in Sino- cascade on Argun Russian Amur and River Argun Water Management Scheme in 1994. CHINA 8 Xinkaihe Channel no No data Water transfer Built in 1960, fell in from Dalai lake disrepair to Argun River 9 Hailaer-Dalai Canal Dalai Lake 1.05 Water supply to Built and serves as Manzhouli, Dalai functioning since reservoir Lake 2009 replenishment, irrigation 10 Direct canal from unknown “restoration of Suggested in Halaha River to Dalai Lake and 2010-11 at Orxon River that Orxon River” Sino Mongolian cuts off Buir Lake negotiations 11 Water diversion >0.1 Thermal electric In 2010 –EIA held facility to Xilingol power plant and mining operation, water supply Khalhingol to industrial (Halaha) River facilities 12 Zhaluomude 0.7 up to 0.5 Flood control, Project approved Water hydroelectric and financed by the Management power, water Ministry of Water System, Hailaer supply, irrigation. Management River III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 49

# on Name and Reservoir Water Purpose Notes map Location volume in Diverted km³ Annually, in km³ 13 Zhashuhe -Yakeshi 0.1 0.05? Hydroelectric Project approved by City Hydropower power, irrigation the Ministry Plant, of Water Management, tender held in 2011 14 Huihe Reservoirs, 0.1 and 0.2 0.1-0.2 Irrigation Completed by 2006. Huihe River 15 Honghuaerji Water 0.3 0.2 Water supply, Completed by 2010 Management Huaneng System, Yimin Corporation River thermal power plant, flood control, irrigation, etc. 10 small reservoirs >0.05 Multipurpose In planning in Yakeshi area Daqiao and other >0.4 Water supply, Project mentioned reservoirs irrigation in long-term infrastructure plans MONGOLIA Water withdrawal 0.015 Industry, data unreliable from Dauria Rivers agriculture, municipal supply 16 Hydropower on No data Hydropower, Listed in National Onon River “Water” Programme (2010) 17, Togos Ovoo 0.6 «10% of Supply to Feasibility Study by 18 Reservoir for river flow thermal “Prestige Group” in Kherlen-Gobi power plant, 2010-2012 Water Transfer coal washing, Project industry, irrigation, municipal 50 the countries have different comparative advantages and a lot to share. Mining seems to be one of the most fast-growing of water consumers among growing economy sectors in all 3 countries.

Water management in the Argun River basin. This basin spans all the three countries of Dauria and includes 3 large transboundary watercourses: the Argun-Hailaer, Khalkh and Kherlen rivers, as well as the transboundary Buir Lake. While water use pattern in each of the 3 countries is unsustainable and has its peculiarities, China has the key role in this basin due to greater population and economic activity. In the middle of 20 century during wet phase of climate cycle the first notable piece of water infrastructure - the Xinkaihe Channel from Dalai Lake to Argun River was built to protect property built inside pulsating wetlands from flooding (Fig.25). Nowadays the water management component of the program "Revival of Old Industrial Bases in Northeast China" in Inner Mongolia (2003-2030) contains detailed justification for rapid water diversion and flow regulation in the Argun River basin (called Hailar in the upper reaches), including construction of two large canals for water diversion and 10 reservoirs (Honghuaerji, Zhaluomude, Daqiao, Zhashuhe and others – see Fig. 24 and Table 1 ). This will ensure water supply for growing cities (Hailar, Yakeshi, Manzhouli), development of irrigated agriculture, building of thermal power plants that use of local coal (Dayankuangqu deposit and coal-fired power plants in the valley of the Yimin River see Figure 26 and "Thirsty Coal" Box e.g.) and others (China Engineering Academy, 2007, Thirsty Coal…2012). All water infrastructure projects are III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 51

Fig.25. Now dysfunctional Xinkaihe Channel built in the 1960s to bring water from Dalai Lake to Argun River. Hulunbeier interrelated and implementation of one of them increases probability of implementation of other projects to deal with negative consequences. Simultaneously China is also developing programs for "water- conserving irrigation”, air cooling systems and circulating water supply systems in industry, etc. Nevertheless from 2003 to 2015 in four prefectures in eastern Inner Mongolia a 10-fold increase in industrial water use was planned, mainly through the creation of coal energy complexes, as well as substantial growth of water consumption in agriculture and for "environmental" purposes like tree planting in grasslands and converting lakes into reservoirs (e.g. “environmental transfer” into the Dalai Lake). The planned increase in the average long- term water consumption just by the already constructed or approved for construction reservoirs in the Hailar River basin will be up to 1-1,5 km3 52

of water per year. In addition, the canal Hailar-Dalai is designed to transfer more than 1 km3 / year. In total this will take more than 60% of the average long-term run-off of the Hailar -Argun River.

“THIRSTY COAL” GREENPEACE WARNING ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF COAL INDUSTRY EXPANSION (after Thirsty Coal, 2012) Coal mining is an extremely water-intensive industry, as are coal- fired power plants and coal chemical industries. Through Greenpeace East Asia commissioned research report prepared by the Institute of Geography of Chinese Academy of Science, it is estimated that in 2015, the water demand of coal power bases in Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi, Shanxi and Ningxia will either severely challenge or exceed the respective areas’ total industrial water supply capacity. Thus, the development of coal-related industries in these areas will take up a significant amount of water currently allocated to non-industrial uses, such as farming, drinking water and ecological conservation. Report findings show high potential for coal industry impacts on transboundary river basins shared with Russia, Mongolia and Kazakhstan. Inner Mongolia is a key region for the expansion of the coal-power bases as outlined in the 12th Five-Year Plan. Presently Hulunbeier Prefecture alone has 22 lager thermal power plants in operation and under construction that have a generation capacity of 48960MWt. But the region faces a harsh reality: while it is blessed with 26% of China’s coal reserves, it only has 1.6% of the country’s water resources. The III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 53

thirsty Coal Report estimates that in 2015, the major coal-power bases in the region will demand a water volume 139.5% of its industrial water consumption in 2010. Eastern Inner Mongolia -Mengdong coal-power base is China’s largest coal-producing area and the fastest growing region in terms of coal yield is located in Dauria steppe primarily in the Argun River basin. Its coal output is predicted to reach 520 million tons by 2015 and 693 million tons by 2020, if it develops as planned. The Hulunbeier Grassland Supervision Station and the Inner Mongolia Grassland Survey and Design Institute found that the area suffering from grassland degradation, desertification and salinization was 3.982 million hectares at the beginning of this century, increasing two-fold from the 1980s when the number was 2.097 million hectares. Greenpeace predicts that by 2015 the annual water demand from Inner Mongolia’s coal mining industry will reach 2.218 billion m3. Another 606 million m3 of water will be consumed for coal-fired power generation within the region, and 329 million m3 for its coal chemical industry. That means a total of 3.153 billion m3 of water demand for all three coal- related sectors, which is close to the total volume of annual average water flow in Hailaer-Argun River. The development of coal power bases has caused a fundamental change to the distribution of the grasslands’ water resources: groundwater is pulled out, and reservoirs are built to trap surface water. Pumping out groundwater (mine dewatering) is a prelude to coal extraction. In fact, it is estimated that for every ton of coal extracted, 2.54 m3 of groundwater is pumped and wasted. In open-cast coal mining areas in Inner Mongolia, aquifers have dried up 54

and groundwater levels have fallen, leaving the regions’ main water resources depleted. Further long-term effects of this include degradation of topsoil into sand, lowered soil fertility grassland degradation and drying of wetlands, accelerating desertification contributing to sandstorms. It also seriously impacts crop and animal farming. The China Huaneng Group has built the Honghuaerji Reservoir which dams the Yimin River- principal tributary to Hailer-Argun River. The Yimin River, which provides water for the southeastern part of the Hulunbeier grassland but is now cut off and dammed by Huaneng, has tragically dried up - even in flood season. Decreasing surface and ground water supply will result in degradation of forests and wetlands. Regional water pollution is also a serious problem. The mining, transport, processing, and burning of coal produce large amounts of waste water and industrial waste, which is often directly dumped into rivers, causing serious surface water pollution. Previous scientific studies found that in China’s northwest, the mining of every ton of coal results in contamination of an average of about 7 m3 of water resources. The Report concludes that strict assessment should be conducted on the impact of the the coal-power bases on the local water resources, especilly when carrying out the “Strategic EIA on Regional Development”. The principle of “development in accordance with water” should be upheld, which entails limiting the scale of coal-power bases according to the local situation of water resources. Industry should adopt water-saving technologies, improve industrial processes, and conserve and use water more efficiently. III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 55

Fig.26 . New coal mining operation in Moergol River valley, Hulunbeier, Inner Mongolia

In Mongolia the Argun basin is primarily represented by Kherlen River, stronghold of Genghis Khan, where sparse population and cultural tradition of nomads for long ensured protection of water resources (Fig.27), but development of modern mining industry and infrastructure may quickly destroy a fragile river ecosystems already stressed by climate change (Fig. 28). The Mongolian National Water Program stipulates that measures include, along with sound water- conservation projects, an excessive amount of planned reservoirs for “adaptation”, hydropower, irrigation, supply to mining sites, etc.

56

Fig.27.Well used by herders. Dornod. Mongolia

Fig. 28.Gold mining in Mongolia. Photo by UMMRL III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 57

Fig.29. Wastewater discharge from Zhalainor town into Mutnaya watercourse 15 kilometers upstream from Molokanka water sampling station. Hulunbeier

Fig.30. Nighttime wastewater discharge into Huihe River at Modamudji. Hulunbeier 58

In the depopulated Russian part of the Argun River basin consumption of water is minimal and most concerns arise in relation to mineral extraction and processing, with a large Priargunsky uranium mine being of the most concern. Nevertheless Argun is perceived by Russians as the most polluted river in Amur River basin. Water quality in the transboundary Argun River deteriorated sharply after 2000. This is partly connected with the advance of a long-term dry period (reduced volume of water in the river resulted in increased concentrations of dissolved pollutants), and partially - with the rapid development of industry in China (Fig. 29, 30). During approximately the last ten years there have been continuing discussions of this problem between the Government of Zabaikalsky Province and Inner Mongolia. These discussions have not yielded any tangible results, as the Russian side has no effective tools to influence the Chinese side. In connection with development plans for water use, industry and irrigation, as well as with population growth, the situation in the Argun River basin should be expected to worsen in the near future. Hailaer-Dalai Water Transfer. Hulunbeier Prefecture (Inner Mongolia, China) has completed construction of a canal to divert water from the Hailar River (upper reaches of the Argun River) to Lake Dalai for "environmental purposes”. The obvious purpose of the canal construction is to provide water for fish farming, tourist facilities, municipalities and mining industry. (Fig. 31, 32) The project has passed the necessary approvals in the Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of Environmental Protection and other relevant departments in China. The average long-term run-off of the Argun River in the place III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 59 Fig.31. Infrastructure development in the Hailaer-Dalai Water Transfer Project area . area Project Transfer Water development in the Hailaer-Dalai Fig.31. Infrastructure 60 where the Argun-Hailaer River reaches the Russian-Chinese border is about 3.5 km3 per year, and in the dry period the runoff hardly exceeds 1.5 km3 per year. The projected average long-term water transfer is 1,05 km3 without use of pumping and regulation by reservoirs upstream. If the flow is regulated by water reservoirs and/ or installed pumping equipment, water allocation can be increased. At the length of 200-300 km downstream from the planned water intake, the Hailar River is the only significant source of water for the Argun River. The water transfer project was suspended in summer 2007, after

Fig.32. Hailaer-Dalai Canal construction. May 2009 expression of concern from the Russian side at the official negotiations of the heads of two states. The matter was passed for discussion at the meetings of relevant water authorities, at which the Chinese Ministry of Water Resources expressed an unambiguous opinion that the canal construction is a purely internal matter of China, and it is not to be discussed at bilateral meetings. III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 61

Fig.33. Hailar-Dalai Canal construction in May 2009. Image by “Transparent World”

The threat to Dalai Lake Ramsar site from mining was even mentioned in the Resolution X.13 of the COP10 of the Ramsar Convention in 2008. Construction of the canal diverting water from the Hailar River may become a new justification for water allocation from Dalai Lake to many mines and factories around (Fig. 31). Despite negotiations with Russia and concerns expressed by international organizations the canal was nevertheless built and started operating in August 2009 (see Fig.33.34,35). It is expected that by 2012-2015 water diversion through the canal will cut floods feeding the Argun River floodplain and in general substantially change the volume of the river runoff. 62

Fig.34. Water intake structure at Hailar River. 2011

The following consequences are possible as a result of water regime alterations in the transboundary part of the Argun River valley due to upstream reservoirs and canal(Fig. 37,38): • Regulation of river flow will disturb the existing flood cycle, leading to drainage of wetlands; • River meandering will stop, and the natural braided channel will degrade, leading to degradation of wetland habitats structure; • Reduction of wetland areas threatens populations of migrating and nesting birds, including 19 globally threatened species listed in the International Red List; III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 63 Fig.35. Water started flowing through Hailar-Dalai Canal in August 2009. Image by “Transparent World” August 2009. Image by “Transparent Canal in Hailar-Dalai started flowing through Fig.35. Water 64

Fig.36. Hulungou watercourse that channels transferred water to Dalai Lake.2011

• Migration routes of certain animals will be disrupted in the entire area of Dauria steppes; • Flood control will disturb flooding and replenishment of soil with nutrients in floodplains, and thus will reduce the pastures and hayfields on which people’s survival depends during droughts; • Aridization of climate in the Argun River valley will occur, which will worsen conditions for growing crops and cause desertification; • Concentrations of pollutants in the waters of the Argun River will increase; • There will be worsened water supply conditions for Zabaikalsk III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 65

Fig.37.Comparison of water levels in conditions of natural flow in 2004 (1) and such flow reduced by 1 cubic kilometer water withdrawal (2) in Argun River at Kuti village (Assessment of impacts.., 2009)

Fig.38. Argun River curve near Genhe River mouth during flood and in low water. Photo by Daniel Hanisch 66 settlement with the largest customs checkpoint, Priargunsky mining chemical factory, settlements along the river, etc.; • The deteriorating conditions will force inhabitants of the settlements located in the border areas of China and Russia to move to other places. Consequences of the water transfer for Dalai Lake in China may also be negative (Fig. 36): • Increase of the inflow from the Hailar-Argun River will lead to concentration of pollution in the lake, posing a threat to public health, fisheries and tourism; • Disturbance of the natural cycle of water level fluctuation will affect diversity and productivity of the lake that has been converted into human-made reservoir.

These negative consequences may take effect in the course of the next 2 cycles in Dauria climate fluctuation, and in-depth study is needed to plan how to minimize damage resulting from this canal and new planned water infrastructure in Argun River basin. In 2011 the Chinese side invited a delegation of Russian officials to visit the canal and start discussion on the consequences of its functioning. Meanwhile there are other water diversion projects planned in the region: • from the Kherlen River (Kerulen, Kelulunhe) to Gobi in Mongolia to supply the South Gobi mining industry, export-oriented thermal power plant at Shivee Ovoo and exports of added-value products (washed coal) from Sainshand. (#17-18 at Fig.24, Fig.39,40) III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 67

• from the Khalkh Gol River (Halahahe) to Xilingol coal mining areas in China to support development of coal-burning thermal power plants(#11 at Fig.24).

Hydropower Plans. Dauria has very poor and risky conditions for hydropower development due to highly variable flow with dramatic climate cycles, remoteness from large industrial consumers and other limitations. Despite several dozen perspective dam locations suggested here during the last century not a single hydropower plant has been built. Nevertheless, “EuroSibEnergo-En+”, the largest independent power producer in Russia, and China Yangtze Power Co. (”CYPC”), the largest Chinese listed hydroelectricity producer, now prepare for joint investment into power plant construction projects in Eastern Siberia. The owner of “EuroSibEnergo-En+”, the Russian billionaire Deripaska claims that China and Russia could jointly develop large hydropower in Siberia to reduce Chinese dependence on coal. “EuroSibEnergo- En+” proposed Trans-Sibirskaya Hydro in Zabaikalsky Province, on the Shilka River – the source of the Amur River with a 450 kilometer long reservoir, that in length will occupy roughly a half of the Shilka River proper (Fig. 42). It will fully block the Shilka River watershed, disrupt important migration corridor between the Amur river and northern Dauria, exterminate floodplain communities unique for Dauria, drown 130 important historic sites and 20 settlements(Fig. 41, 43). The reservoir will be contaminated with rotting wood and toxic substances from mining complexes upstream, it will exterminate local fish 68 Fig.39. Orkhon-Gobi and Kherlen-Gobi water transfer schemes (after: Long distance …, 2007) III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 69

Fig.40. Gun-Galuut Nature Reserve on the Kherlen River to be destroyed by Kherlen-Gobi water transfer

Fig.41. Old settlements in Shilka River valley would be drowned by Fig.39. Orkhon-Gobi and Kherlen-Gobi water transfer schemes (after: Long distance …, 2007) Transsibirsky Reservoir 70 including giant Kaluga Sturgeon–endemic of the Amur(Fig.14). CYPC and Three Gorges Co. eye this project in the headwaters of the Amur as a first step to build dams on the Amur River main transboundary channel. Over the last 20 years that plan to dam the Amur River main channel，jointly schemed by Russian and Chinese water agencies in the 1980-s，has been continuously rejected by Russian officials, scientists and environmentalists. Completely removed from the development agenda in Russia, but it remains as centerpiece of the long-term hydropower development Scheme for Northeast China and is supported by Chinese authorities despite huge environmental and social risks. Right now “EuroSibEnergo”(En+) is developing a feasibility study to obtain investment from EXIM Bank of China and other sources. Already existing hydropower has significant negative impact on the Amur River Basin and adding a new plant on Shilka River may significantly worsen the situation in the whole river basin (see Fig. 44). Therefore the Shilka project has been continuously questioned by regional scientists and environmentalists. In March 2012 a wave of actions in defense of the Shilka River initiated by WWF and local NGOs rolled through the cities and towns of the Amur River basin and it forced the hydropower company to start a dialogue with NGOs. On World Water Day En + Group and WWF Russia signed an agreement to hold a joint comprehensive study to assess the impact of hydroelectric plants on the ecosystem of the Amur River Basin. The purpose of the study is to produce a balanced account of all the key factors, including environmental and socio-economic, that should be considered when deciding on the possible development of the hydro potential of the III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 71 Fig.42. Planned reservoirs of Transsibirsky hydropower cascade on the Shilka River hydropower of Transsibirsky Fig.42. Planned reservoirs 72

Fig.43. St.Prokopy Church that would be flooded in Gorbitsa Village. Photo by D.Plukhin

Amur basin and construction of new hydroelectric plants. Such a comprehensive strategic basin-wide environmental assessment will be conducted for the first time in the history of hydropower in Russia and the Soviet Union. Prior to the completion of studies and discussion of its conclusions with the public En+ EuroSibEnergo promised to suspend all planning and negotiations on the Trans-Siberian hydropower project on the Shilka River. The decision on the future of the Trans-Siberian hydropower project should be based on the conclusions of a comprehensive III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 73 environmental assessment. If such an assessment was conducted in Dauria river basins only, it would not make much sense, since much better conditions for hydropower development exist in adjacent basins to the North (the Lena River), West (the Yenisey River), East (the Zeya and Bureya tributaries of the Amur).

Gold Mining. The mining industry is on the rise in Dauria and its impacts on rivers are very obvious. Among mining activities, extraction of placer gold has the longest history and widest distribution among mined minerals and has profound impacts on Dauria’s natural systems. Placer gold mining transforms the relief, the hydrological regime, the destroys plant and animal communities (Fig.28,45,46). It is also known to induce disease and abnormal development in humans and animals. Besides devastation of a key element of the habitat - stream valleys, the mining process may bring mercury and other pollution. Fig. 49 presents findings of a survey carried out in 2011-2012 in the Amur River basin, which resulted in in the production of an Electronic Atlas of Gold Mining in the Amur River basin, an assessment of the degree of placer gold mining impacts on river valley ecosystems, and an assessment of potential pollution in streams below mining sites. In China placer gold mining has resulted in degradation of significant parts of wetland and riverine habitat that requires science-based ecosystem management and restoration measures, while in Russia and Mongolia it is also causing on-going destruction in previously pristine river valleys (see Fig47). In cooperation with a project led by Dr.Guo Yumin of Beijing 74 III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 75

Fig.44 . Areas of influence of hydroelectric dams on river basins 76

Fig.45. Chinese gold-mining vessel at work

Fig.46. Kirkun River valley at confluence with the Vereya River devastated by gold mining III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 77

Fig.47. Gold mining consequences on Onon River tributaries in Russia

Fig.48. Protest by Mongolian environmentalists in Ulaan Baatar in 2011 78

Forestry University and supported by Whitley Fund for Nature we also explored gold mining policies in Russia, China and Mongolia. China issued strong forest conservation policies and has already stopped a “gold rush” in forested regions but still has to deal with profound consequences and bears the costs of habitat restoration and developing alternative livelihood opportunities for local people. Mongolian society has just realized the tremendous threats to nature and people and in 2009 the government under strong pressure from the expert community and civil movements adopted the “Law on prohibiting mineral extraction in forest areas, river headwaters and water protection zones” and started implementing measures to limit mining in environmentally valuable areas. Russia is boasting the greatest amount of rivers already destroyed by mining and is on the verge of starting new mining operations. Due to the economic crisis there was some slow-down in expansion of Russian placer mining operations in the 1990s and then a significant shift to hard-rock ore mining of gold. This is because of complicated regulations, lack of new accessible deposits, depopulation of Eastern Russian and the bad attitude of local communities towards placer-mining operations. But in 2010 the placer mining companies successfully lobbied to boost development of “micro-deposits” in small valleys with under 10 kilograms of gold in each, and that had not interested larger companies in the past. It is presented to the public as a “social measure” to help local people to make a living in harsh economic times by killing their environment. In reality it will have ultimate effects similar to “ninjia mining” in Mongolia where people are loosing health and culture in the process of devastation of their III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 79 Fig. 49.Gold mining impacts on rivers of Dauria. Map derived from the Atlas Electronic of Gold Mining in Amur River basin the 80 Fig.50.. Gold mining in transboundary Onon River basin III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 81 own environment. Demonstration of effective conservation limitations imposed on placer mining in two neighboring countries would help to introduce similar measures in Russia, where many pristine rivers are now targeted for accelerated gold prospecting. Downstream pollution from placer gold mining on Onon River tributaries Ashinga, Balj and Kirkun in Zabaikalsky Province of Russia threatens the well-being of local citizens, cattle breeding and fishing tourism and the integrity of Onon-Balj National Park in Mongolia (Fig.50,51) . Gold mining on transboundary rivers has already led to official complaints by Mongolian authorities and civil society to Russian

Fig.51.Downstream impacts of gold mining. Polluted Ubyr-Shinia River confluence with transboundary Ashinga River 82 officials in 2010-2011(Fig.48). Several licenses were withdrawn from “Balja” Mining Company in 2011, but despite that in June 2012 new pollution reached Mongolia from placer mining on the Kirkun River.

Embankments on the Transboundary River. The relation between the state border line and natural changes of the riverbed (erosion and sedimentation processes) is a hot issue in Sino-Russian negotiations. In the present situation the agreed border follows “the center of transboundary watercourse” and each party independently decides the issue of preserving stability of riverbanks on the demarcated state border, including undertaking artificial bank protection which

Fig.52. Embankment built on the China side of the Mutnaya and the Prorva watercourses’ confluence III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 83 may lead to erosion of the opposite bank, destruction of the natural floodplain dynamics at this section, loss of natural retention areas in floodplain reservoirs that reduce the risk of catastrophic floods, loss of spawning grounds, etc. (Fig.52,53) This issue is most relevant for the Argun River, where negative environmental impacts of river bank protection have never been formally evaluated by governments. Natural riverbed processes (meandering) are cyclical in time and are limited by floodplain areas (i.e., they may cause only local and temporary loss of limited areas). A sound common regime for the protection and use of floodplains and for demarcation of state border should be elaborated, that preserves the

Fig.53. Erosion of the Argun River Bank in Russia provoked by embankment of the opposite riverbank. Starotsurukhaitui 84 natural floodplain processes. The coordinated establishment of a system of protected wetlands on transboundary rivers in the long term may also help to solve the problem. Resolving this problem has enormous long-term environmental, economic and political effects, because the ecological integrity of the river will be maintained, enormous costs to control riverbed processes will be reduced, the damage to fisheries will be eliminated, ability to self-purification will be maintained, and damage from floods to downstream areas will be prevented (not increased). Obviously, the mutual claims of both parties that regularly arise under the present regime of border demarcations will be eliminated.

International cooperation on water and climate. Uncoordinated water resource development aimed at securing water on the individual national territories would have devastating effects on the transboundary wetlands. While conflict is possible, the countries have different comparative advantages and have a lot of reasons to share experience. There are hopeful developments in each country: China has a strong National Wetlands Protection Policy and Action Plan that prescribes water allocation to important wetlands (2003). Russia adopted a new Water Code prescribing development of “Standards of acceptable impact” (SAI) for environmental flows, as well as chemical, thermal, radioactive and microbial pollution (2007), Mongolia adopted a new law “Law on prohibiting mineral extraction in forest areas, river headwaters and water protection zones”(2009). Amongst the many multilateral conventions the Ramsar Convention is one of the most relevant policy tools in the Amur-Heilong III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 85

Fig.54. Sand storm in Argun River Valley near Huliyetu Nature Reserve, Hulunbeier, Inner Mongolia. Photo by Guo Yumin

River basin with 17 wetlands already listed under the convention, five of them located in Dauria Steppe. The Ramsar Convention Regional Initiative approach provides a suitable framework for multilateral cooperation on transboundary water management and transboundary environmental flows for wetland conservation, but the three countries are slow to realize it. All three countries also have bilateral agreements on Use and Protection of Transboundary Waters, which lack clear mutual obligations and their implementation so far has not led to appropriate integration of water management across the borders. It is necessary to initiate the establishment of a Chinese-Russian- 86

Mongolian intergovernmental commission on economic and ecological adaptation of nature resource management policies in Dauria to climate change with the aim to ensure a favorable environmental and political situation. The Commission is needed primarily for the development and implementation of water management regimes, mutual endorsement of economic projects that might have a significant impact on transboundary ecosystems, as well as for the joint application of best technologies and management practices. One of the most needed international tools is an Agreement on environmental flow norms for transboundary rivers of Dauria river basins and provisions for sustaining natural dynamics when planning water allocation to wetlands.

Fig.55. Argun River Valley near Russian Kuti village across from Inner Mongolian Hulietu Nature Reserve on the China side. Photo by O.Goroshko III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 87

E-Flow Design of Environmental Flow Requirements Environmental flows describe the quantity, timing, and quality of water flows required to sustain freshwater and estuarine ecosystems and the human livelihoods and well-being that depend on these ecosystems (Brisbane Declaration 2007). The goal of environmental flow management is to restore and maintain the socially-valued benefits of healthy, resilient freshwater ecosystems through participatory decision-making informed by sound science. Sound environmental flow management hedges against potentially serious and irreversible damage to freshwater ecosystems from climate change impacts by maintaining and enhancing ecosystem resiliency. Scientific research is being undertaken by DIPA on the environmental flow requirements of the transboundary Argun and Ulz rivers during different phases of the climate cycle. Considerations on selection of critical components and parameters of environmental flow in conjunction with Hailar-Dalai water transfer are presented below. (Table2) When developing environmental flow norms we should also consider climate change effects on water temperature and flow volume, etc. Over the last 50 years the average thickness of ice cover on Dauria rivers has decreased by 22 centimeters. To protect and manage wetlands we should consider flow dynamics interplay with other factors such as wildfires, overgrazing, 88

Table 2. Critical components and parameters of environmental flow Critical Components Measurable parameters to be monitored I For Argun River: 1 Sustaining floodplain Timing of floods, flooding frequency, duration of rise habitat for waterbirds and fall and fish, meadow Flooded area (wetted perimeter) productivity Density and breeding success of indicator species of birds and fish Area and productivity of meadows (ton/hectare) related to flooding frequency 2 Sustaining Reporduction of important stream habitats and geomorphological meandering processes, braided channels. processes Frequency and magnitude of flow events necessary to reproduce habitat features Additional condition: limitations on length and location of embankements and other engineering structures 3 Biota survival in low Timing, frequency and duration of low flow (and no- flow periods and flow freezing) periods changing concentration Critical low-flow discharge ( still sufficient for survival of pollutants (minimal of biota) flow) Species composition, abundance and productivity of plankton and benthos, dynamics of fish populations, invasion of exotic species II For Dalai Lake: 1 Sustaining cyclical Fluctuation of water level (magnitude, timing, speed, habitat dynamics frequency) Habitat succession and acreage and abundance of indicator species 2 Sustaining geochemical Cyclical change in water chemistry (salinity, PH, etc) dynamics of lake Succession and abundance in indicator species, ecosystem absence of exotic species Additional condition: limitations on pollutant discharge through diversion canal III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 89 waterfowl hunting and egg collection, thermal power plant impact, and embankment construction. Lack of field observations is the greatest impediment to developing environmental flow norms and therefore DIPA concentrates on data collection and management. In 2010 DIPA developed a monitoring system and established 3 field monitoring transects with more than 100 standard observation plots, which allow to discern changes in, water surface, and plant communities succession under climatic fluctuations. Wetland monitoring in both Argun and Ulz River basins is enhanced by developing combined remote-sensing and field- transect monitoring methods in transboundary wetlands. This will allow scientists to measure the effects of climate change and other impacts on water levels and ecosystem health, and will help improve water management for human use and economic development. This research, when completed, may provide the technical foundation for harmonizing bilateral water management policies with Mongolia and China. Results will be used to promote the implementation of the existing Sino-Russian provincial Agreement on the Conservation of the Argun River Basin and development of bilateral Agreement on environmental flow norms for transboundary rivers of Argun basin and provisions for sustaining natural the dynamics of water allocation to wetlands. 90

Bibliography

1. 噬水之煤 : 煤电基地开发与水资源研究 / 中国科学院地理科学 与资源研究所陆地水 循环与地表过程重点实验室编著 . -- 北 京 : 中国环境科学出版社 , 2012.7. Thirsty Coal: Research on coal industrial bases and water resources. Institute of Geography and Natural Resources of China Academy of Science. Beijing, China Environmental Science Publishers, July 2012 ISBN 978-7-5111- 1076-3 http://www.greenpeace.org/eastasia/publications/reports/ climate-energy/2012/thirsty-coal-water-crisis/ 2. 余 晓 , 李 翀 , 王 昊 , 王义成 ., 额尔古纳河洪水淹没模拟及湿地植 被变化分析 . 水利学报第 42 卷 第 11 期 -2011 文章编号：0559- 9350（2011）11-1308-08/ 哈尔滨市 08-1315 (YU Xiao, LI Chong, WANG Hao, WANG Yi-cheng/ Simulation of flood inundation and analysis on dynamic variation of wetlands for Argun River, Journal of hydraulic engineering Volume 42 issue11 p 1308-1315 ) 3. Annenhonov O.A., 2008. About state of forest components of forest-steppe of Transbaikalia in connection with dynamics of climate. Changes of climate of Central Asia: social-economical and ecological consequences. Chita, pp. 149-153 (in Russian). Bibliography 91

4. Assessment of impacts of Argun River water withdrawal in China on hyrological characteristics of Russian part of transboundary river basin, Chita Hydrometeorology Center. Report to the Amur Water Authority. 2009, 54 pp (in Russian). 5. Australia Environment. Moving water long distances: Grand schemes or pipe dreams? Published by the Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities CANBERRA ACT Commonwealth of Australia 2010 6. Batnasan N. ed.. ASSESSMENTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS INTO HYDROLOGICAL SYSTEMS OF ONON, KHERLEN AND KHALKH RIVER BASINS, MONGOLIA. Manuscript. - Ulaanbaatar: WWF Mongolia Programme Office., 2009. – 60 p. 7. Brisbane Declaration/ Freshwater Biology. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Volume 55, Issue 1 (January 2010). Special Issue: ENVIRONMENTAL FLOWS: SCIENCE AND MANAGEMENT. – P. 5-7. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/123214913/issue. 8. Bunn S. E., Arthington A. H.. 2002. Basic principles and ecological consequences of altered flow regimes for aquatic biodiversity. Environmental Management 30:492-507. 9. 钱正英 , 主编 . 沈国舫 , 石玉林副主编 . 东北地区 : 有关水土保 持资源配置 , 生态与环境保护和可持续发展的若干战略问题研 究 .10 卷 -4000 页 . 北京 – 科学出版社 .2007 Chinese Academy of Engineering. On Some Strategic Questions in water and land resource allocation, environment and sustainable development in North East China. Summary Report. Shen Guo Fang,et al. ed. 92

Chinese Academy of Engineering. Chinese Science Publishing, Beijing.2007. 10 volumes, 4000 pp. 10. J. Dalai. Water and Gobi. Ulaanbaatar 2011, 220pp 11. Darman Yu.A., Simonov E.A. The Amur River: from the Daurian steppe to the Sea of Okhotsk. Keynote Case Study. River Symposium, Brisbane, Australia Sept 2009. (short paper ) 12. Darman Yury, Evgeny Simonov, Evgeny Egidarev. Integrated Amur River Basin Management: Problems and Challenges. Third International Symposium on Ecology and Biodiversity in Large Rivers of Northeast Asia and North America. Memphis, Tennessee. september 20-24, 2010г. P 17-18. 13. Ecosystem Based Adaptation Approach to Maintaining Water Security in Critical Water Catchments in Mongolia. UlaanBaatar, 2011. (UNDP PIMS 4505) 11 pp. 14. Egidarev.E. Simonov E. The principles of protected area mapping in Amur ecoregions. Pp.124-128. In “Proceedings of the VIII Fareastern Conference on Nature Reserves. Blagoveshensk, October 1-4, 2007. (in Russian). 15. Environmental Flows in Water Resources: Policies, Plans, and Projects. WB. World Bank 2009 Washington D/C/ 250 pp. 16. Fu Jing..City expects boost from UN listing. China Daily 2012-03-14 http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2012-03/14/ content_14827965.htm 17. Glushkov Igor, Cybikova Ekatherina, Tkachuk Tatiana, Goryunova Svetlana, Simonov Eugene/ Assessment of environmental change in wetlands of Argun River Basin in relation to planned water Bibliography 93

infrastructure development. (in Russian). In A.Galanin, editor, Proceedings of the conference “Rythms and Catastrophes I vegetation cover: Desertification in Dauria” Botanical Garden of FEBRAS Vladivostok 2009. ISBN5-7596-0403-1 (in Russian) 18. Goroshko O., The Chinese-Russian Argun River is a threatened globally important site of cranes, geese, swans and other birds // China Crane News. Vol. 11. N 2. P.28-34. (in Chinese and English). 2007. 19. Goroshko O. and N. Tseveenmyadag. 2002. Status and Conservation of Cranes in Daurian Steppes (Russia and Mongolia). Abstracts of International Crane Workshop. August 9-10, 2002. Beijing, China 20. Goroshko О.А. 2002. State and Protection of cranes’ and bustards’ populations in South-East Transbaikalia and the adjacent areas of Mongolia. Abstract of Dissertation for Candidate of Biology degree Мoscow. 19 p (in Russian). 21. Goroshko О.А. 2009. Migrations of birds. In: Goroshko, O.A. Concise encyclopaedia of Transbaikalia: Natural heritage. Nauka. pp. 337 - 339 in Russian. 22. Goroshko О.А. 2011. Analysis of the state and multi-year dynamics of waterfowl in Zabaikalsky krai and recommendations for organizing their rational use. Report of the scientific research. State Biosphere Reserve Daursky. 19 p. 23. Guidance on Water Adaptation to Climate Change. UN\\ New York and Geneva/ 2009. 124 pp. 24. Gun-Galuut Nature Reserve, 2011 http://www.argalipark.com/ . last accessed: 30.03.12 94

25. Gunin, P. D., E. A. Vostokova, and E. N. Matushkin. 1998. Preservation of the ecosystems of Inner Asia. Russian-Mongolian joint complex expedition, Moscow (in Russian). 26. Gunin, P. D. and E. A. Vostokova (eds). 1995. Ecosystems of Mongolia. – Moscow: Accord: 15p. 27. Gunin, P.D., E. A. Vostokova, N. I. Dorofeyuk, P. E. Tarasov and C. C. Black (eds.). 1999. Vegetation Dynamics in Mongolia. Geobotany 26. Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 238 pp. 28. Guo Yumin, E. Simonov, O.Goroshko. “Some considerations on environmental impacts associated with Hailaer-Argun water transfer project” .(other title: “30 days left before Hailaer/Argun river –Dalai Lake Water Diversion Project Starts”. By Simonov, Goroshko”.– first published on Nujiang web-site and then reproduced in 3 other electronic media.(in Chinese or Chinese and English). Official response from Hulunbeier Water Bureau was issued as a consequence of this internet publication 29. JETRO, CTI Engineering International Co., Ltd. The Study on Herlen River Basin Water Supply (Herlen-Gobi) Project in Mongolia. 2007 in Japanese with English summary. http://www. jetro.go.jp/jetro/activities/oda/model_study/develop/pdf_h18/8.pdf 30. Justification for Expansion of the Dauria International Protected Area (DIPA). International Crane Foundartion, CPL Erguna Wetlands Project, Amur Information Center, 2007, 18 pp. http:// www.dauriarivers.org/pdf/2008_DIPA_expansion.pdf 31. Joint Comprehensive Scheme . 1999, 2000:.“Joint Russian-Chinese Bibliography 95

Comprehensive Scheme for Water Development in Transboundary Waters of Argun and Amur Rivers”. Synopsis. Sovintervod, Songliaowei.Moscow-Changchun. 1999 \(in Russian) 32. Karamysheva Z.V. 1993. Botanical geography of steppes of Euroasia. Steppes of Euroasia: Conservation and Restoration problems. S. Petersburg – Moscow, RAS Institute of Geography. p. 6-29 (in Russian). 33. Kirilyuk O., O. Goroshko and V. Kirilyuk. 2006. Dauria International Protected Area: 10 years of cooperation. Chita:Daurskii NNR. 60 p. 34. Kirilyuk O., editor, 2012. Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev, Vadim and Olga Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva, Victor Obiazov, Eugene Simonov and Tatiana Tkachuk. ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN RIVER BASINS OF DAURIA: ECOLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT. (in Russian) 180pp, Express Publishing House, Chita, Russia,2012.www.WWF.ru/resources/publ/book/713 (in Russian) 35. Kirilyuk et al. Influence of Climate Change on Vegetation and Wildlife in the Daurian Ecoregion / Vadim E. Kirilyuk, Victor A. Obyazov, Tatyana E. Tkachuk, Olga K. Kirilyuk // Eurasian Steppes. Ecological Problems and Livelihoods in a Changing World. – 2012. – Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London. – P. 397-424. 36. Kirilyuk O.K., Kirilyuk V.E., Goroshko O.A., Simonov E.A. International Ecological Importance and Contemporary Problems of the Upper Basin of the Amur River // Third International 96

Symposium on Ecology and Biodiversity in Large Rivers of Northeast Asia and North America. Memphis, Tennessee, USA. September 20-24, 2010. - P.32\ 37. Kiriliuk V.E. 2007. The first results and perspectives of the Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa) restoration in Russia. Chita: “Express-Izdatelstvo”. 36 p. (in Russian) 38. Khalkh River project goes into steam April 22, 2010б http:// english.news.mn/content/8035.shtml 39. Lavrenko E.M. 1970. Province Division of the Central-Asian Sub- Region of the Steppe Region of Euroasia. Botanizheski Journal 55, 1734-1747.(in Russian) 40. Lehner, B., Verdin, K., Jarvis, A. (2006): HydroSHEDS Technical Documentation. World Wildlife Fund US, Washington, DC. 27p.. Available at http://hydrosheds.cr.usgs.gov. 41. Long distance water transmission pipelines and applications for the gobi and Steppe regions of Mongolia, Mongolian Natonal Water Programme Support Center/ October 2007. 6 pp. http:// www.dauriarivers.org/pdf/2007_Mongolia%20Water%20 Transmission%20Pipelines.pdf http://arguncrisis.ru/kerulen-vizit- na-mesto-kazni/ 30.03.12 42. Ma Jianzhang, E.Simonov. Northeast Forestry University. Protected areas network of Argun River Basin and international efforts to conserve transboundary ecosystems. “Cooperation in nature conservation between Chita Province and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.” October 29-31.2007. Proceedings. Chita 2007.(in Russian ). Bibliography 97

43. Ma Jianzhang, Simonov Evgeny, Dahmer T., Darman Yu., Minaeva T. Perspectives of transboundary conservation management of the Amur Heilong River Basin. Hpp182-189. in Conference Proceedings “A long life for Clean Amur” Khabarovsk, 2008. (in English and Russian) 44. MARCC: Mongolia Assessment Report on Climate Change. UNDP- UNEP-MONET Ulaanbaatar, 2010; page 62. 45. Minaeva, Markina, Simonov, Titova, Gafarov. Wetlands of the Amur River basin. Russia-China-Mongolia. WWF Amur Branch , September 2008.50 pp . 46. Мining infrastructure investment support project –MINIS. World Bank Project appraisal document Report #59811-MN, 60 pp. April, 2011. www.minis.mn 47. Mongolia National Development Committee. Techno-enginering and economical prefeasibility study on Water supply improvement in Southern gobi area. Prestige engineering. Co. 2011 48. Moscow State University. School of Geography. Research Report: Comprehensive Assessment of water resources and water management in Argun River Basin 2011.226pp.(in Russian) 49. NDRC Environmental Protection Department. Developing and Reforming Energy [2011] No. 2242 Provisional Measures for the Evaluation of River Hydropower Plans (RHPs)http:// www.transrivers.org/documents/hydropower/new-regulation- on-evaluation-of-river-hydropower-plans-issued-in-china/ - _ ftn1_2400 and Environmental Impact Statements (EISs) http:// www.transrivers.org/documents/hydropower/new-regulation-on- 98

evaluation-of-river-hydropower-plans-issued-in-china/ Последнее обращение: 30.03.12 50. Obdrlik, P., P. Nieznansky. Oder Border Meanders. WWF. 2003. 60pp. 51. Obyazov V.А. 1994. Connection of fluctuations in water fill of the Transbaikalia steppe zone lakes with multi-year hydro- meteorological changes on the example of the Torey lakes. News of the Russian Geographic Society 126, 48-54.(in Russian) 52. Olson D.M., Dinerstein E. 1998. The Global 200: A representation approach to conserving the Earth’s most biologically valuable eco- regions. Conservation Biology 12, 502- 53. Olson David M. The Global 200: priority ecoregions for global conservation / David M. Olson, Eric Dinershtein // Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. – 2002. – Vol. 89. – №2. – P199-224. 54. OYUNBAATAR Dambaravjaa, Gombo DAVAA, Dashzeveg BATKHUU, Luvsangombo CHULUUN, Nyamaa KHISHIGJARGAL. Water Resources and Hydrology and Some Socio-economical and Environmental Aspects in the Kherlen River Basin. http:// amurokhotsk.com/?page_id=209 и http://amurokhotsk.com/wp- content/uploads/2011/12/02-Oyunbaatar-web.pdf 55. Peshkov B.I. 1967. Spreading of the raccoon dog in the Chita region. Protection and reproduction of natural resources. Chita. 1, 78–79.(in Russian) 56. Postel, S., and B. Richter. 2003. Rivers for life: managing water for people and nature. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA. 57. Poff, N. L., J. D. Allan, M. B. Bain, J. R. Karr, K. L. Prestegaard, Bibliography 99

B. D. Richter, R. E. Sparks, and J. C. Stromberg. 1997. The natural flow regime: a paradigm for river conservation and restoration. BioScience 47:769-784. 58. Ramsar Wetlands of Dauria.pp102-103 (in English and Russian) In The Second Assessment of Transboundary Rivers, Lakes and Groundwaters in the UNECE region.UN.Geneva. 2011. http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/water/publications/ assessment/Russian/F_PartIV_Chapter2_Ru.pdf 59. Resolution X.13 of the COP10 of the Ramsar Convention in 2008 http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubs-cop10-resolutions-of- 10th/main/ramsar/1-30-170%5E21247_4000_0__ 60. Richter, B. D., and G. A. Thomas. 2007. Restoring environmental flows by modifying dam operations. Ecology and Society 12(1): 12. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/ art12/ 61. Shesternev D.M., Enikeev F.I., Obyazov V.A., Chuprova A.A., 2008. The Cryolithozone of Transbaikalia in conditions of global climate changes: the problems and research priorities. Changes of climate of Central Asia: social-economical and ecological consequences. Chita, pp. 46-53.\(in Russian) 62. Simonov Eugene, Dahmer Thomas. Amur-Heilong River Basin Reader. - Hongkong: Ecosystems LTD, 2008. - 450p. http://www. wwf.ru/resources/publ/book/299. and http://www.amur-heilong.net 63. Eugene Simonov and Bart Wickel (WWF US, DC), Reinventing a “Climate cycle” in Dauria. (in Russian) In A.Galanin, editor, Proceedings of the conference “Rythms and Catastrophes I 100

vegetation cover: Desertification in Dauria” Botanical Garden of FEBRAS Vladivostok 2009. ISBN5-7596-0403-1 (in Russian) 64. Simonov Evgeny, editor. Golden Rivers. Issue I. The Amur River Basin. International Coalition Rivers without Boundaries, WWF- Russia Amur Branch,Beijing Forestry University. 120 pp, Apelsin publishers, Vladivostok, 2012(in Russian) 65. E.Simonov. Hydropower and water resource management in the Amur River basin- options for the future.pp93-103 (in Russian) http://www.dauriarivers.org/pdf/2011Amurreview.pdf (2011 version in English) published in a book:Evgeny Simonov, Evgeny Shvarts and Lada Progunova editors. Environmental Concerns of Russian-Chinese Transboundary Cooperation: from “Brown” Plans to a “Green” Strategy. 200 pp. WWF-Russia. Moscow. 2010 (in Russian) 2012 (in English) http://www.wwf.ru/resources/publ/ book/eng/440 66. E.Simonov. E.Egidarev. Analysis of Hydropower Development in Amur River Basin: some questions of dam location. Proceedings of Amur 2011 International conference. Khabarovsk. 2011 (in Russian) http://arguncrisis.ru/documents/dokumenty-2011/ges-gde/ (in Russian) 67. E.Simonov. “International treaties in Amur River Basin and development of transboundary environmental policies” .Proceedings of International Symposium on “Russo-Chino- Japanese cooperation toward the environmental conservation of the Sea of Okhotsk” November 2009. 9 pages (in English.) 68. Simonov E. . 2006. The role of international conventions, Bibliography 101

agreements and projects in conservation cooperation in transboundary areas of Amur river Basin. P232-234. In: Natural Resources of Transbaikalia and research on earth sciences. Conference proceedings. Chita. ZapSHPU publishers.2006. (in Russian) 69. E.A.Simonov, S.A.Podolsky, Yu.A.Darman. Water resource utilization in Amur River Basin and possible environmental consequences: an early warning. P133-138. In: Problems of sustainable use of transboundary territories. Proceedings of the international conference. PIG FEBRAS. Vladivostok 2006.(in English) 70. Simonov Eugene, Kiriliuk Vadim.. “Design of environmental flow requirements of Argun River and opportunities for their introduction into transboundary management” Second workshop on water and adaptation to climate change in transboundary basins: challenges progress and lessons learnt, held on 12-13 April 2011 in Geneva. http://www.dauriarivers.org/unece-loooks-into-argun- river-environmental-flow-requirements/ 71. Simonov E. Transfering of water from Hailaer River to Hulun Lake: Agenda for international negotiations. “Cooperation in nature conservation between Chita Province and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.” October 29-31.2007. Proceedings. Chita 2007.(in Russian). 72. Simonov Eugene, Zhang Yadong, Oleg Goroshko, Tatiana Tkachuk, Igor Glushkov, Vadim Kiriliuk. . Transboundary conservation of wetlands in Dauria and adaptation to climate change. International 102

Congress for Conservation Biology (23rd Annual Meeting of the Society for Conservation Biology. Beijing, China 11-16 July 2009. Report at Wetlands Conservation Section. 73. Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Tatiana Tkachuk, Igor Glushkov, Vadim Kiriliuk. Trans-boundary conservation in Dauria and adaptation to climate change. Biodiversity and Humanity Cooperation Forum. ECBP Hulunbeier project. Hailaer. June 2009. (in English) 74. Sukhgerel Dugersuren, Mining in Mongolia and possible transboundary impacts of water transfers from Orkhon and Herlen Rivers. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON “EUROPE-ASIA TRANSBOUNDARY WATER COOPERATION.UNECE Geneva, Palace of Nations, December 15-16, 2011http://www.unece. org/fileadmin/DAM/env/documents/2011/wat/Int._Conference/ presentations/Session_5/4_Mongolia_Sukhgerel_Orhon_Herlen- Gobi_Project_Transboundary_ImpacESt.pdf\ 75. Tkachenko Е.E. & Obyazov V.А. 2003. Change of the Torey lakes level and nesting of colonial near-water birds. Ground vertebrates of Dauria. Collection of scientific papers of the Daursky State nature biosphere reserve. Chita. 3, 44-59. (in Russian) 76. Tkachuk T., Kirilyuk O., Simonov E. 2008. Daurian Steppe. Compendium of Regional Templates on the Status of Temperate Grasslands Conservation and Protection. Prepared for The World Temperate Grasslands Conservation Initiative Workshop “Life in a working Landscape: Towards a Conservation Strategy for the World’s Temperate Grasslands. Hohhot, China”. Canada, 2008 Bibliography 103

– рр.46http://www.srce.com/files/App_2_Comp_of_Regional_ Grassland_Templates.pdf 77. Tkachuk T.E., Zhukova O.V. 2010. Results of vegetation monitoring on the stationary transect at Daursky nature reserve. Nature protection collaboration of Zabaikalsky krai (Russia), Autonomous Province Inner Mongolia (China) and Eastern Aimak (Mongolia) in transboundary eco-regions. Chita, pp. 299-302. (in Russian) 78. Tsybikova E, _Simonov E, _Glushkov I. Monitoring of Hailaer river –Dalai lake Water transfer in transboundary Dauria. “Earth from Space”. Russian Journal of Remote Sensing. 2009. (in Russian) 79. The Study on Herlen River Basin Water Supply (Herlen-Gobi) Project in Mongolia. CTI Engineering Co., Ltd. Mongolia 2007 .http://www.ctie.co.jp/english/service/projects/01/project09.html 80. Tuinhof, A. and Buyanhisnig, N. 2010. Groundwater Assessment of the Southern Gobi Region. Mongolia Discussion Papers, East Asia and Pacifc Sustainable Development Department. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ INTEAPREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/GroundwaterAsse ssmentoftheSouthernGobiRegion(Eng).pdf 81. Udvardy M. A classifications of the biographical provinces of the world / M.D.F. Udvardy // IUCN Occasional Paper. – 1975. – № 18. – P. 5-47. 82. Vladimirov, A.M. 1990. Hydrological calculations. Leningrad, “Gidrometeoizdat”, 366 p. (in Russian) 83. Vostokova E.A. 1983. Ecological rows of vegetation of closed 104

depressions in the Mongol Peoples Republic. Ecological-coenotic and geographical peculiarities of vegetation. Moscow, Nauka Publisher. p. 40-49. (in Russian) 84. Water Authority and Dutch Gov. Strengthening Integrated Water Resource Management in Mongolia project (IWRM), 2008-2012 . Nation-wide Groundwater Resource Assessment ( in print, not made available to us by decision of project manager) 85. Water Authority and Dutch Gov. Strengthening Integrated Water Resource Management in Mongolia project (IWRM), 2008-2012 Nation-wide Surface Water Resource Assessment ( in final editing, not made available to us by decision of project manager). 86. “Water” National Program. Ulaanbaatar, approved in May 2011 by Mongolian Parliament (in Mongolian and English) - 80pp. 87. World Bank. 2006. Mongolia: a Review of Environmental and Social Impacts in the Mining Sector. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. 88. Zhao, F., Liu, H., Yin, Y., Hu, G. & Wu, X. 2011. Vegetation succession prevents dry lake beds from becoming dust sources in the semi-arid steppe region of China. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 36: n/a. doi: 10.1002/esp.2114 106 107

Appendix I.Climate II. Rivers and Landscapes III. Dauria Zoo IV. Landuse V.Dauria People

CLIMATE 108 109

i

ii

iii

i | Dry salt lake in Dornod, Mongolia by V.Kiriliuk ii | Hummocks in Erguna floodplain by Dan Hanisch iii | Dry Ulz River at Erentzaav in 2007 by V.Kiriliuk iv | Swaeda invading dry lake bottom by V.Kiriliuk v | Wet Duroy lake in Argun floodplain by Simonov iv

v 110 111

i

ii i | Halophyte by V.Kiriliuk ii | Dry Duroy lake in Argun floodplain by Simonov 112 113

i ii

iii iv v

vi vii

i | In dry years a bar connects island with shores of Zun Torey Lake ii | A Cormorant and Gull colonies on the island are devastated as soon as it becomes accessible to predators iii | Halophyte by Oleg Korsun iv | First ice on Onon river in N.Tsasuchei by Simonov v | Thick snow cover makes grazing difficult by Guo Yumin vi | Floodplain of Argun river by T.Tkachuk vii | In dry years spring fires facilitate encroachment of steppe into forest zone by V.Kiriliuk

114 115

i

ii iii

i ii iii | Dance on new ice by A.Barashkova 116 117

i ii

iii iv

vii viii

v vi

i | Degraded oxbow bog in Erguna Wetland Reserve by Simonov ii | Sand on a road in Huliyetu Erguna valley by Simonov iii | Moving sand blocking road in Hulubuir by Simonov iv | Sandstorm by Simonov v | Soil on floodplain meadow during draught by Simonov vi | Spring in Dornod by Simonov vii | Kids of Erguna by Dan Hanisch viii | Flood on Genhe River by Dan Hanisch ix | Dry wetland by Guo Yumin x | Shade is precious on Torey Lakes in dry summers by V.Kiriliuk ix x 118 119

i

ii

iii

i | Hills at the northern shore of Zun-Torey Lake are refugia for many species in dry periods by V.Kiriliuk ii | Elm groves sheltered by rock outcrops - important refugia for many species by E.Kokukhin iii | Roe Deer can survive in steppe if water and woody plant shelter is available by E.Kokukhin iv | Simonov blown with the wind - thumbleweed is well adaptated to steppe climate by O.Kiriliuk iv 120 121

i

i ii | Winter flowers by A.Barashkova ii 122 123

i | Pallas cat in winter by A.Barashkova ii | Local cattle is adapted to year-round grazing by A.Barashkova i ii 124 125

Rivers and Landscapes 126 127

ii

i | Adun-chelon rocks in Daursky BR by V.Kiriliuk ii | Apricots in Onon-Balj National Park by Simonov iii | Argun floodplain across fom Genhe River Mouth in Russia by Simonov i

iii 128 129

ii

iii

i | Cliffs overlooking Zun Torey Lake in Daursky Biosphere Reserve by V.Kiriliuk ii | Erka Wetland connecting Dalai lake and Argun River by Simonov iii | Confluence of Kirkun and Bukukun rivers in Onon headwaters in Mongolia by Simonov iv | Cranes stop-over at Daursky BR by O.Goroshko

i iv 130 131

i

ii iii

iv v

i | Head of Xinkaihe Canal at Zhalainor by Simonov ii | Herders camp on Argun River in Russia by Simonov iii | Fieldwork in dry year on Barun Torey lake in Daursky BR by V.Kiriliuk iv | Horseshoe-shaped oxbow lake on Argun River floodplain across from Huliyetu reserve by Simonov v | Huihe wetland in bloom by Simonov 132 133

i | Ice on Barun Torey Lake by V.Kiriliuk i 134 135

dauria zoo 136 137

i

ii iii iv vi v

i | Bean and White-fronted geese by Guo Yumin ii | Daurian hedgehog by V.Kiriliuk iii | Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) by O.Goroshko iv | Flying swans by Guo Yumin v | Demoselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) By V.Kiriliuk vi | Gallinago gallinago by O.Goroshko 138 139

i ii iii iv

v vi

vii

i | Hooded cranes return from the south very early by Guo Yumin ii | Gazelle migration is often triggerred by snowfall by Barashkova iii | Gazelle injured by border fence by V.Kiriliuk iv | Lenok from Balj River by Simonov v | Grayling (Thymallus arcticus) by Oleg Korsun vi | Great Bustard by Guo Yumin vii | Kaluga Sturgeon by Yu Dunskii 140 141

i ii iii iv

v

i | Loach(Barbatula toni) by Oleg Korsun ii | Mongolian toad(Bufo raddei) by Oleg Korsun iii | Marmota sibirica by V.Kiriliuk iv | Otter by V.Solkin v | Pallas cat by V.Kiriliuk vi | Mongolian Gazelle by V.Kiriliuk

vi 142 143

iii iv

i v ii vi

i | Pallas kittens by V.Kiriliuk ii | Red fox by Egidarev iii | Rat snake (Elaphe dione) by Oleg Korsun iv | Red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis) by O.Goroshko v | Migrating geese at Argun river by Guo Yumin vi | Racoon dog by V.Solkin 144 145

i ii

v viii vi

ix x

vii xi i | Ruddy shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea) by Oleg Korsun iii ii | Siberian crane by Guo Yumin iii | Wader by Oleg Korsun iv iv | White-naped crane (Grus vipio) by O.Goroshko v | Relic gulls by Guo Yumin vi | Tree frog (Hyla japonica) by Oleg Korsun vii | Tern (Sterna hirundo) by Oleg Korsun viii | Wolf by V.Solkin ix | Swans come in early spring by V.Kiriliuk x | White-tailed Sea-eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) by Oleg Korsun xi | Swan goose (Anser cygnoides) hiding in reeds by O.Goroshko 146 147

landuse 148 149

iii iv

i | Construction of Hailaer-Dalai water transfer canal in 2009 from RwB archive ii | Coal prospecting well at Old Heishantou village at Erguna wetland edge by Simonov iii | Discharge channel and meadow flooded with water from coalmine Chenbaerhu bnner, China from RwB archive iv | Barbwire-promiinent landscape feature in Argun Valley in Russia by Simonov v | Elm tree shelterbelt in Erka nature reserve wetland China by Simonov i v vi | E.Simonov at Hailaer-Dalai canal 2011 ii vi 150 151

iv v vii vi

i

viii

ii i | Good Morning in Heishantou village Erguna China by Simonov ii | Gully erosion in Erguna China by Daniel Hanisch iii iii | Herder camp in Dornod Mongolia by V.Kiriliuk iv | Evening on Argun River by Simonov v | Gold miners from Balja company discharge polluted water into Kirkun River floodplain by Simonov vi | Gold mining water cannon of Balja Company destroys river valley, Kirkun River, Russia by Simonov vii | Honghuaerji Huaneng coal-energy complex on Yimin River from RwB archive viii | Gold prospecting also destroys river valley, Kirkun River, Russia by Simonov 152 153

v

iii

i ii

i | Lamb in fenced pasture of Erguna China by Simonov ii | Moergol fisheries, Hulunbeier China by Simonov iii | Horse breeding in biuffer zone of Daursky BR by V.Kiriliuk iv | In Moergol wetlands herders often travel by boat Hulunbeier China by Simonov v | Horses are used for transportation, sports and food in Dauria iv vi vi | Khudzhertai River destroyed by Balja Company miners in 1998 from RwB archive 154 155

ii

i iii vi i | Old Heishantou village at Erguna wetland edge by Simonov ii | Tractor grazing Argun floodplain in Abagaitui, Russia by Simonov v vii viii iii | Pig herd in Norovlin Henti by Simonov iv | Old boundary fortification on Argun by Simonov v | Sheepyard Erka NR China by Simonov vi | Reed of Moergol floodplain transported to paper-making factory - one of main water polluers in Hulunbeier China by Simonov vii | Overgrazing in Huihe natue reserve China by Simonov viii | Overgrazed floofplain in Erguna by Simonov ix | Two coalmines at Moergol valley by Simonov

iv

ix 156 157

iii iv

i ii

i | Vereya River destroyed by Balja Company miners in 2010 from RwB archive ii | Wetland edges are severely affected by grazing in dry years Huihe floodplain Hulunbeier China by Simonov iii | Wildfire eats grassland by Simonov iv | Wild egg collection at Huliyetu China by Chen Liang v | Wetland is not an ideal pasture Hulunbeier China by Simonov

v 158 159

dauria people 160 161 i | As gazelle grow in numbers in Daursky and vicinity rangers have to do more and more patrolling by E.Kokukhin ii | Bowl of Genghis Khan in Aginsky steppe reserve-Russia by Simonov iii | Barbers' shop on Kherlen River floodplain at Togos-Ovoo. Herders do not welcome plan to build reservoir there. Mongolia by Simonov iv | Binder-ovoo at Khurkh -Khuiten Ramsar site in Henty-Mongolia by Simonov

i ii

iii iv 162 163 i | Cowboys of Hulunbuir by Simonov ii | Cows a base of economy in Heishantou village at Genhe River mouth iii | Daursky Biosphere reserve has brave rangers iv | Dr.Goroshko and his workload by V. Kiriliuk

i

ii iii

iv 164 165

ii iii

i

i | Dr.Korsun in search of grassland bugs by O.Goroshko ii | Water delivery by truck to Daursky BR ranger station by Simonov iii | Eugene Simonov befriending Daurian herder at Derbugan river, Hulunbeier China by Dan Hanisch 166 167

iv v

i

ii iii

i | Gorbitsa village resident - They threaten us with reservoir on Shilka River each decade by Simonov ii | Observation post at the border on Argun River by Simonov iii | Interview with a herder in Erguna, China by Simonov iv | Herder's holiday at Moergol wetland by Simonov v | Herding wild cats with radiometry in Daursky BR by A.Barashkova vi vi | Local herder riding through marsh in Erguna China by Dan Hanisch 168 169

iii

i | Local moving by boat through the Moergol wetland by Simonov ii | Mudhut construction by Simonov iii | Monument of Mongolian-Russian Friendship at Kherlen river in Choibalsan by Simonov iv | Nomadic birdwatch by Simonov

iv

i ii 170 171

i | Ovoo at Torey lakes by V.Kiriliuk i 172 173

i

i | Summer huts used by Russians for recreation in Argun River floodplain by Simonov ii | Hydro-meteorology station at Gorbitsa village on Shilka River by Simonov ii iii | Swan goose chick by O.Goroshko iv | Utochi research station at Daursky BR in 2006 before renovation by V.Kiriliuk v | Ritual on the road Dornod by Simonov

iii v iv 174 175

ii iii

i | Watchful ornithologists of DIPA by V.Kiriliuk ii | Ovoo overlooking Kherlen valley at Baganuur- Mongolia by Simonov i iii | Sacred Alkhanay Mountain in Russia by Simonov 176 177 i

ii

i | Ranger station at Zun-Torey Lake Daursky BR by V.Kiriliuk ii | Parking lot in Dadal Mongolia by Simonov iii | Protect the Taimen sign in Dadal Soum on Onon river Mongolia by Simonov iii Introduction 105