On Indigenous Agency Bible Translation in Historical Context The Changing Role of Cross-Cultural Workers by Gilles Gravelle

1. Introduction he cross-cultural transmission of God’s Word into new languages and cultures began, as Andrew Walls points out, in the third century T B.C. when the Jewish Bible was translated into the Greek language, and, we might add, into Greek conceptual schemes. Then it was communicated cross-culturally, so to speak, when Jesus the Logos came in human form to live among people and tell them in the Aramaic language things He received from the Father. Following that, the gospel made a cross-cultural quantum leap into the known world on the day of Pentecost when a group of Jesus’ Jewish dis- ciples began telling of the wonders of God’s works in possibly a couple hundred languages. The Holy Spirit was establishing His universal church by means of cross-cultural transfer. This latter event illustrated a future practice when lin- guistic outsiders would communicate Scripture by means of the local language rather than their own language. This has been the pattern for over 2,000 years, but mostly so only during the last 200 years. The gospel is introduced by mis- sionaries (linguistic and cultural outsiders) to live in new linguistic and cultural contexts. But the process of transmission is not complete at that stage.

Cross-cultural transmission usually takes place in partially assimilated ways.1 If we believe the ultimate goal of mission is to make Christ live in new languages and cultures then it cannot end with cross-cultural transmission. Bible transla- tion is only an activity that helps achieve that aim. The final stage of transmis- sion would be the indigenizing stage when the people fully grasp the nature of Gilles Gravelle, Ph.D., is the Director Christ as prophet, priest and king, the one who holds the universe in balance, of Research and Project Development c with The Seed Company, a U.S. placates God’s wrath, provides ultimate peace and delivers people from evil. affiliate organization of Wycliffe Bible That, it seems, is the point where the gospel has completed its migration into a Translators. He researches, writes, nation of people. and speaks on mission strategies in regard to Bible translation work, with First, we will briefly review what has been accomplished during the last 2,000 special emphasis on emerging models of Bible translation practice and years to gain a fresh understanding of the cross-cultural workers’ role in Bible global partnerships. translation. Next, we will examine how the practice and process of Bible International Journal of Frontier Missiology 27:1 Spring 2010•11 12 Bible Translation in Historical Context: The Changing Role of Cross-Cultural Workers translation may look quite differ- the sort of church that was first mod- first in the colonial languages and then ent during the indigenizing stage of eled in Antioch. This possibly reveals eventually in the local languages. Then translation. Then in light of that, we a nearness to that great culminating by the mid-twentieth century, growth will discuss what may need to change event as described in Revelation 7:9.2 in cross-cultural Bible translation work in order for the cross-cultural workers began to accelerate with the emergence The illustration below shows how, in Bible translation to more effectively of parachurch volunteer organizations. after the Chalcedon split in 451 a.d., make Christ known among unreached Their mission was to provide the New the cross-cultural transmission of the peoples, train leaders and nurture sus- Testament and some Old Testament gospel took on more of a mono-cul- tainable movements among Muslim, portions in the local languages, par- tural perspective. That is, the messen- Hindu, Buddhist and tribal cultures. ticularly in places where the people gers no longer typically communicated groups had no access to Scripture. 2. The Stages of Bible the message using the local language Translation as a Process of and culture of the people they meant to Because of this largely Western cross- reach. Instead, they communicated the cultural mission effort in Bible transla- Incarnation gospel through their own language and tion, approximately: Scripture reveals that from the begin- cultural worldview. 451 languages have complete ning of time it has been God’s plan Bibles to create diverse peoples, nations, 1,185 languages have complete tribes and languages. Humanity’s After the New Testaments migration from the Garden of Eden to the uttermost parts of the earth Chalcedon split in 843 languages have some Bible portions has resulted in more people speaking 451 a.d., the cross- more languages within more unique Therefore, of the world’s 6,900+ cultural and national settings. God is cultural transmission languages, 2,479 have some or all of working to bring this diversification the Bible. And because many of these of people, languages and nations to a of the gospel took on translations were done in large lan- culmination in heaven. On that day a more of a mono-cultural guage groups, about 94 percent of the great multitude that no one can count, world’s population have some Scripture from every nation, tribe, people and perspective. in their language, with a full Bible language, will be standing before the in the largest languages. Remaining throne of the Lamb worshipping God language translation needs stand at 3 for their salvation. Then in 1793 William Carey, a British about 2,200 languages. It is clear to missionary living in India, established see that the cross-cultural transmission The transmission of God’s Word the practice of cross-cultural transmis- of God’s Word over the past 200 years through Bible translation could be seen sion by translating the scriptures into has resulted in the injection of biblical as a process of incarnation in that each the local languages. This was followed information into many of the world’s stage or period of translation work by the establishment of the Bible languages and cultures. resulted in a better understanding of Societies, beginning with the British African theologian Lamin Sanneh the Word. and Foreign Bible Society in 1804. expresses great appreciation for the Their mission was to provide the Bible To understand the ongoing role of dedication and sacrificial efforts of for people living in pagan nations, at cross-cultural workers in Bible trans- Western cross-cultural translators in lation, it is helpful to review where accomplishing so much. However, he we are in God’s redemptive history.  Figure 1: The cross-cultural transmission does not view the transmission of the Although the history is linear in that of the gospel in history. gospel during the last 200 years as it has a beginning and an end, the complete. Instead, he suggests that it circular chart below reveals how the 21st century  Pentecost (33) laid a solid foundation for the struc- diversification process has proceeded multi-cultural and multi-cultural and tural shift from Western translation universal church universal church for two millennia. It shows how the work to indigenous translation work.4 Church was launched through multi-  Indeed, Hwa Jung believes the process cultural and multi-lingual means.  of transmission is not complete until Following that, it went monolingual Indigenous Period Chalcedon (451) the translation takes into account the and mono-cultural for a long time. (late 20th century) West/East split- deeper and more meaningful history

Next, it broadly expanded by means of mono-cultural

  and culture of the people. a cross-cultural stage. Now, during this  current indigenous stage, this spread- Modern mission There are signs that a shift from (1793) cross-cultural Western cross-cultural translation ing of the gospel has come full circle to translation International Journal of Frontier Missiology Gilles Gravelle 13 work to indigenous translation work ow the translation periphery is becoming the is occuring. Andrew Walls explains how Christian history shows advance translation heartland as the indigenizing and recession. “The recession process increases. typically takes place in the Christian N heartlands, in the areas of the great- translators. However, they are not 2.1 The Mono-Cultural Stage est Christian strengths and influences, doing it alone. A mark of twenty-first Translation practice carried out by while the advances typically take century mission is greater global part- cross-cultural translators during the 5 place at or beyond the periphery.” So nership efforts. This will be discussed mono-cultural stage adhered closely eventually the periphery becomes the further in another section. to Greek and Hebrew structures, Christian heartland and the heartland All of this seems to indicate that the terms and mental frameworks, so of old becomes the new periphery in 200-year period of largely Western it was mono-cultural in this sense. serial fashion. and cross-cultural Bible translation Therefore, it was necessary for the There is evidence that this is indeed work begun by William Carey and people receiving the translation to the case. Many now view Africa, others is quickly coming to an end. understand the structure of the source with approximately 45 percent of its Now the translation periphery is language. They also had to grapple population being Christian, as the new becoming the translation heartland with the conceptual understanding of Christian heartland, or the center of as the indigenizing process increases. the source language words in order to Christianity, as some put it. Morever, If the new translators are now the make sense of their own translations. Africans, along with Asians and Latin mother-tongue speakers, how does Naturally, mostly the pastors with Americans, are becoming the new this affect the process and practice of extensive libraries were able to decode cross-cultural missionaries bringing translation? And if this is indeed the the meaning most accurately. apostolic faith back to the West. They pattern, then what is the role of cross- Could this practice in translation be are doing that either through formal cultural workers in Bible translation linked to the prevailing linguistic means as professionals, teachers and during this stage? theory at the time? The theory was pastors or informally through immi- To answer these questions, it is based on structuralism. Structuralism gration as service workers.6 necessary to first review the stages is concerned with signs and meaning, By the mid 1980’s, over 1,000 lan- of Bible translation during the but it focuses more on the individual guage translation projects were last 200 years. We will review this parts that combine to form mean- launched worldwide cooperatively in terms of 1) what the goal of ing units, such as words, phrases or but still largely through the efforts Western mission was, 2) how that sentences of mostly Indo-European of Western cross-cultural workers. goal influenced translation practice, languages. The supposed underlying Now the number of people train- and 3) how translation practice may pre-existing rules that generate sounds ing in the West to do Bible transla- have been influenced by advances in and meaning units were also a focus tion is on the decline. For example, linguistic theory. of study. However, little focus was new annual membership in Wycliffe placed on understanding the speaker’s Bible Translators USA has declined by about 45 percent since it peaked in 1988. Total membership of that On Indigenous Agency: Mother-Tongue Translation organization has declined by about 27 “Since we are dealing with a translatable faith and translated Scriptures, mother-tongues, percent since 1995 when membership new languages, and the potential of new idioms become central and are crucial in the open- 7 was at its highest. ing up of fresh insights into our common understanding of Christology. On this side of the Currently, there are over 1,900 transla- modern missionary movement and its intense commitment to Scripture translation, we may tion projects where cross-cultural be tempted to take the subject for granted. We now recognize the critical impact that the translators have a significant role in the Scriptures in the mother-tongues of converts have had in the spread of the Christian faith. But translation work. Yet as this current it is important to recognize that it is the modern expansion of the faith into the non-Western world that has alerted us to this phenomenon. What remains to happen, is the realization generation of Western translators age, that this major event can have a significant impact in the actual Christian idiom in which we more and more of their incomplete articulate our experience. In relation to Africa, Lamin Sanneh has argued that “Scripture trans- translation projects are being turned lation imbued local cultures with eternal significance and endowed African languages with over to the mother-tongue speakers. At a transcendent range.” This means also that African pre-Christian religions had a theological the same time, new Bible translation significance in the whole process, for the centrality of Scripture translation points to the sig- projects being launched worldwide are nificance of local religions and cultures in which Christian faith now finds a home.” led predominantly by the indigenous Kwame Bediako, Jesus and the Gospel in Africa, p. 81 church and their own mother-tongue 27:1 Spring 2010 14 Bible Translation in Historical Context: The Changing Role of Cross-Cultural Workers own conceptualization of meaning and Yung refers to this stage of translation connection between forms and their language use in general. In a similar as only partial enculturation.8 meanings are completely irrelevant. way, translation practice during this It has more to do with the language period was also more concerned with 2.3 The Indigenizing Period users taking advantage of the linguistic source language structure, frequently at Now in the indigenizing stage of the utility of their language to fully convey the expense of meaning in the receiv- late twentieth and early twenty-first the same meaning.9 centuries, a significant portion of the ing language. As a result, even if the In addition, the translators in the gospel spread afar it lacked depth of people doing translation are non-West- ern mother-tongue speakers. While indigenizing stage may utilize more understanding. And this, I suggest, local material (cultural/religious terms equates with low assimilation. some of them have received instruction in linguistic theory based on Western and concepts) rather than trying to fit 2.2 The Cross-Cultural Stage frameworks, many have not. Is this an in Western material where the con- During this stage we see a shift away advantage or a disadvantage? It might cepts appear to be missing or the local from literalistic translation. Cross- present a disadvantage in the decoding terms are deemed unacceptable, at cultural translators during this stage stage, and that is arguable, but it may least from the perspective of a cross- sought to utilize the natural grammar cultural translator. and terminology of the receiving lan- During this current stage of transla- guage to communicate meaning more tion, advances in cognitive linguistic faithfully and dynamically. However, theory help us understand gram- they typically sought after a one-to-one mar based more on how the lan- form/meaning correspondence with The translators in the guage speakers conceptualize and words whenever possible. Therefore, indigenizing stage express meaning units, particularly in there was still some adherence to the specific contexts. formal equivalence model of the mono- may utilize more local cultural stage. Moreover, if one-to-one 2.4 Three Periods of Mission Focus correspondences did not appear to material. Paul Hiebert mentions three periods exist, foreign terms were commonly in modern mission history, and those brought in to rectify that. periods seem to parallel the three stages of translation.10 During the Linguistic theory during this stage nineteenth century, the goal of mission seems to have contributed to the prac- be highly advantageous in the encod- work focused greatly on outward signs tice of dynamic equivalance translation ing stage. of belief through behavioral change. as well. The development of functional This did not require people to have a If they understand meaning from the descriptive linguistics, also referred deep understanding of Scripture. This original language detached from the to as basic linguistic theory, helps the stage seems to parallel the practice of structure of that language, then mean- cross-cultural translator gain a better literalistic translation which did not ings and their conceptual frameworks understanding of how language users provide the average person with a deep are more naturally expressed according express nominal, verbal and adverbial understanding of Scripture. Then to the language’s own linguistic genius. meanings. In addition, the theory during the twentieth century, mission Importantly, their lexicon will look seeks to understand how linguistic work focused more on people believing quite different from that of an Indo- universals are applied in the language. the right things. This focus required European language. Even so, this theory still assumes that  people to have a deeper understand- meaning is generally predictable based This has great significance for com- ing of Scripture. Therefore, the shift on an Indo-European understanding of municating important biblical concepts to meaning-based translation provided language. As a result, it places signifi- more deeply. This is because words that deeper level of understanding cant constraints on a receiving lan- in the source text may be expressed for the average reader. Now in the guage’s lexicon in that meaning units by simple words, complex words or twenty-first century, missionaries were assumed to be based on specific phrasal constructions in the receiving are placing greater focus on helping word classes. However, meaning units language. Additionally, the words or people undergo a worldview change in some languages, such as the Papuan phrases may be expressed in differ- through deep-level transformation. languages of New Guinea, defy catego- ent ways in different genres. One This goals requires a fuller assimilation rization based on this theory. This has might say it is more of a concept-to- of Scripture into the people’s language had a significant effect on cross-cul- concept equivalence with the Hebrew and culture for such deep-level trans- tural translation as well. It is why Hwa and Greek texts. This practice is not formation to take place, hence the shift radical contextualization, where the to the indigenizing stage in translation.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Gilles Gravelle 15 3. A Twenty-First Century astors in Africa view translation as a need- Model of Bible Translation As mentioned earlier, the number driven and urgent task simply because of their of people training in the West to current circumstances. become cross-cultural translators is P significantly reduced in comparison The process and purpose of Bible Indeed, Yung states contextualization to the enthusiastic 1970s and 80s. Yet, translation during the indigeniz- “is not a fad or a catch-word, but a at a time when travel is easier, cost ing stage is more cogently defined by theological necessity demanded by the is reduced, global communication is the Global South church and their incarnational nature of the Word.”17 instant, knowledge of language and theologians and missiologists. Consider Finally, Devagnanavaram, who culture greater and funding abun- their remarks: worked for 26 long years as a cross- dantly available, why has interest on • In Malaysia, Hwa Yung cultural translator in his own country the part of the emerging Western believes mother-tongue transla- of India, concluded that it would have generation in doing Bible translation tion is necessary for developing been wiser to train mother-tongue diminished? It seems this loss of inter- local and practical theologies speakers from the beginning because est has to do, in part at least, with the that are pastorally and missio- the translation would have been com- way it has been done. logically relevant.13 pleted faster and would have commu- nicated better.18 The church of the Global South has • In Nigeria, Emmanual Egbunu been on the forefront of mission for believes “the indigenizing Some Western mission thinkers are quite a long time. But their focus has principle ensures that each com- getting it. Philip Jenkins maintains been more on church planting than on munity recognizes in Scripture that Bible translation is no longer seen Bible translation. One reason for this that God is speaking to its primarily as a Western method for 14 is their perception of what the transla- own situation.” spreading Christianity. Rather, pastors tion process involves. Many church • The Ghanaian theologian in Africa view translation as a need- planters view it as a theoretical and Kwame Bediako questions, driven and urgent task simply because scientific task that takes many years to “How can we minister the of their current circumstances. They complete. They also consider it to be Gospel effectively if we are not live and serve at a time when people the work of foreign linguists and bibli- equipped to reflect theologically are suffering tremendously because of cal language scholars. in the languages in which we horrendous civil and religious wars. pray and dream?”15 They are watching the disintegration In comparison, the Western translators • The Peruvian missiologist of their own social structures. Many have viewed Bible translation primarily Samuel Escobar says that people have lost loved ones to the as a method for spreading the gospel to “the text of Scripture can be rampant spread of diseases. Others new places. The theological and social understood adequately only are experiencing debilitating hunger reasons for doing Bible translation within its own context, and that during long-lasting famines. This cur- have been secondary, if they consid- the understanding and appli- rent reality has led to the globalization ered these reasons at all.11 However, cation of its eternal message of theology as well, and Bible transla- church-planting missionaries and demands awareness of our own tion plays no small role. In fact, it is pastors have had more urgent needs 16 cultural context.” indispensable to the work of mission to address, and the slow pace of Bible these days. translation usually meant that the task would be put off until another time, Table 1: Two Bible translation models. or not accomplished at all. Now these perceptions are beginning to change. Traditional Western Model Emerging 21st Century Model As a result, more local churches and Focus greatly on the NT Focus on OT/NT mix church-planting organizations are launching their own translation proj- Provide rational biblical knowledge Correct wrong understanding or bridge ects. Figures from The Seed Company understanding to Christ reveal that, in the projects this organi- Focus on written media and growth Focus on end-user’s media preferences zation has tracked from 1997 until the through literacy training for access for broader access and more immediate present, about 1,300 mother-tongue access speakers have launched translation Small independent team with usually one Community-oriented with multiple projects in over 500 languages.12 Western translator translators Product/outcome oriented Impact/action oriented

27:1 Spring 2010 16 Bible Translation in Historical Context: The Changing Role of Cross-Cultural Workers Therefore, it appears that a significant Koyama’s comment reveals something meaning-based method described in goal of Bible translation in the minds important about the indigenizing chart 2, extracts propositional meaning of the Global South church leaders is stage of translation. Bible translation from another language (e.g., English for immediate practical reasons, and is not about replacing the religions of or the biblical language), and then possibly secondarily about spreading Buddhism, Hinduism or Islam with encodes it into the local language the gospel to other peoples and places. Western forms of Christianity. He and idioms.20 This model presumes Could this be a mark of twenty-first asserts that this approach has had little that contextualization happens at the century mission in regard to Bible success. Instead, Bible translation is to encoding stage. But Yung suggests it translation? For two hundred years, the recover, reconnect and transform what does not because “cultural patterns seeds of faith were scattered broadly already exists by way of the richness are not easily decoded and encoded by through cross-cultural means. Now of the language and religious culture, outsiders… and it assumes that revela- they are establishing deeper indigenous and not the religion per se. This then tory meaning can be detached from its roots to yield more abundant fruit. allows for the contextualization of culturally imbedded state.”21 The indigenizing period allows the theology for practical needs. However, Nineteenth through twentieth-century gospel to live at home among a people, Koyama maintains that the process Bible translation practice treated their language and culture. This then Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic and animist increases the people groups’ practical religious terminology as suspect at understanding of the Word, which best and generally errant at worst. As leads to hope and produces action. “For the Thai a result, translators replaced impor- The table on page 15 illustrates two translators of the Bible, tant theological terms with other different Bible translation models. terms, usually those that mirrored the The left column shows the traditional there was no language equivalent Western concept. They did Western model. This model primarily this to avoid blending the message of seeks to provide rational knowledge other than the language the gospel with local religious beliefs. of Scripture through the completion of the Buddhist-animist Indeed, many Western missionary of translations. So it is product or translators considered indigenous lan- outcome-oriented in this sense. The culture . . .” guages to not even have the linguistic Western translator’s assumption is that facility to express key theological once people hear or read the transla- concepts.22 This perception was not tion, then they will respond to the should include two movements: 1) uncommon nor has it been short-lived. gospel in the same way that western “to articulate Jesus Christ in cultur- Holding this view created some dif- people generally responded to it. ally appropriate, communicatively ficulties for the translators. It often The right column shows a new model apt words, and 2) to criticize, reform, required them to borrow terms from based more on indigenous church dethrone or oppose culture if it is other languages, such as a national lan- thinking. This model seeks to deepen found to be against what the name of guage or some other contact language. the people groups’ understanding of Jesus Christ stands for.” In some cases, the translators had to the gospel, bridge traditional religious This process of translation reveals a produce creative descriptive phrases to and cultural understanding to the significant difference between what communicate an important theological gospel, communicate it more rapidly a Western cross-cultural translator concept. They did this to avoid using and broadly, and address their people’s would or could attempt in comparison local religious terms or for supplying day-to-day social needs. So, in a sense,  supposedly missing theological con- to what a mother-tongue translator the model is impact-oriented. It also could and would like to attempt. But cepts. Therefore, the recipients of the seeks to transform religious worldviews do traditional Western practices in translation had to learn the meaning rather than replace them. The latter is translation prevent this undertaking? of a new foreign term or phrase. Then more a mark of Western mission. The indigenous stage of translation they had to figure out how to apply the requires what Koyama refers to as “this meaning of the term in different trans- 4. Is Indigenization Syncretism? 23 dangerous and unavoidable task” for lation contexts. As a result, many In the Thai Buddhist context, Kosuke the appropriation of the gospel in local Western cross-cultural translations Koyama comments, “For the Thai language and culture. are full of English, French, Spanish or translators of the Bible, there was no Arabic key biblical terms, for example. language other than the language of Kevin Vanhoozer comments on the Andrew Walls points out the irony the Buddhist-animist culture…With decoding and encoding of meaning of this practice. After all, the writ- great care Thai translators insured in translation. The Western cross- ers of the New Testament, especially richness. It is not a distortion.”19 cultural translator, following the Luke and Paul, used the language, International Journal of Frontier Missiology Gilles Gravelle 17 terminology and conceptual schemes n a partner-oriented model, there are a variety of of the Greeks to communicate Christ faithfully and accurately. They did Global Church organizations working together to not use their own Jewish terms and achieve impact in a number of areas. concepts that would have been difficult I for the Greek audience to understand. deep is the love of Christ and to know In a partner-oriented model, there are a As Koyama’s argument would hold this love that surpasses knowledge— variety of Global Church organizations in this case, they had no language that [they] may be filled to the mea- working together to achieve impact other than the language of Greek sure of all the fullness of God.”26 in a number of areas, and that sooner. polytheistic culture. Cross-cultural workers from church 5. Cross-Cultural Workers in Even so, Kevin Vanhoozer rightly and parachurch organizations bring a warns that location should not be the the Indigenizing Stage wealth of experience and knowledge Thus far I have attempted to provide essential characteristic of Christian to the projects. However, their role is some evidence that shows how the increasingly to equip mother-tongue theology. The primary source must process of translation involves stages. speakers and the local churches to grow remain in Scripture. When culture is The idea is that the stages are not in their ability to begin, nurture and the primary source for theology a theo- serial, per se. The indigenizing stage sustain the work. This model especially logian (or a translator) becomes a wit- would be the final stage, at least in includes the work of Bible translation. ting or unwitting revisionist. Liberals terms of enculturation. Given that The chart on this page illustrates this in the West are willing to revise the mother-tongue translators will likely model being applied in India. faith to make it more acceptable and carry out most of the remaining 2,200 intelligible to those in a particular Ideally, if twenty-first century mis- language translation projects, how does 24 sion goals are to train leaders, foster cultural-intellectual situation. that affect the role of cross-cultural faith communities, nurture and Therefore, the indigenization stage of workers in translation? sustain movements, then the role of translation is not meant to make the The chart on page 15 shows that the Western church seems appar- Scriptures more acceptable. It is not translation practice in twenty-first ent. However, this may require some accommodation, either. However, if a century mission is community- or adjustments, if not complete framework mother-tongue translator is prevented group-oriented. Indeed, most of the changes, to the Western churches’ from using “experience-near” mate- translation projects that started this traditional ways of working. I offer four rial as opposed to “experience-distant” year with The Seed Company partici- domains where Western cross-cultural material from the translation source pation involve a group of translators workers may need to change their goals 25 texts, as Robert Priest puts it, then working together, rather than one and methods to participate in the indi- it seems this would prevent the full translator working alone with one genizing stage more effectively. enculturation of Scriptural meaning. language. In addition, the projects This then puts the users of the transla- involve broader partnership, with each Translation Training tion at a disadvantage. The point is person, church and parachurch orga- Much of a Western translator’s training that a fully indigenized translation nization contributing in their areas of has been theoretically and academi- should allow the pastors, preachers, calling, experience and ability. It is a cally oriented, and in no small way theologians and everyday users to “have Global Church covenant community influenced by a Western positivist power, together with all the saints, to of believers working together. epistemology. Therefore, the language grasp how wide and long and high and of translation has been an academic Figure 2: The partner-oriented model of Bible translation in India. and scientific language. Now many if not most of the mother-tongue trans- New India Evangelistic Association  The project leaders lators are pastors or teachers or other 14 Indian Church-Planting Orgs  The impact workers people who hold other positions within WBT Asia  Training & consulting the Church. This means the work of translation is fast becoming the work SIL South Asia Group  Training & consulting of the local and national Church and OneStory  Story crafting consultant less so of parachurch organizations. Campus Crusade/The Je s u s Film  Producing the film The pastors’ language of translation is Faith Comes By Hearing  Recording of Luke theological. Some of them will go on to Local and Global Bible Societies  Publication funding become linguists and translation con- Global Scripture Impact  Impact assessment sultants, as is needed. However, many The Seed Company  Project planning, funding and monitoring of them will resume their pastoral

27:1 Spring 2010 18 Bible Translation in Historical Context: The Changing Role of Cross-Cultural Workers duties. In addition, they are language certainly so that God’s Word would any phase of the project? Today’s donors and cultural insiders. Given the differ- have its transformative effect on people also desire to see greater partnership in ences between Western cross-cultural and cultures, and in many situations a translation project. However, this sort and indigenous translators, what would it has indeed had some very good of partnership is the kind that focuses the training curricula entail for the effects. However, early planning for on transferring more capacity to the indigenous translators? It will require these effects to occur sooner and more people group and their church so they rethinking what they need to know, broadly has not been the norm in most can launch and sustain translation work when they need to know it, and how it situations. Now the need is for the in new places. This is not what some should be communicated.27 partners to determine at the start of the people in the west refer to as “donor- project the effects they would like to see driven” planning. The donor’s role has Scripture Access and Use stemming from the use of the transla- more to do with accountability relation- Western translation organizations still tion. However, the translation outcomes ships between all the partners, and they value literacy training for, among other that a Western translator desires may are also accountable for their role. things, producing a larger number of differ from what an indigenous church people who can read the translated translator may desire, as the table in 6. Final Thoughts Scriptures. Of course, learning to I have attempted to show how Bible read is often a value for many of the translation has been carried out in local people for economic reasons, stages over time. The process began too. However, finding ways to provide This sort of as a multilingual and multi-cultural Scripture translations in a medium that movement at Pentecost. Then the is most preferred by the people group is partnership focuses multilingual and multicultural aspect another mark of the indigenizing stage. on transferring more of translation more or less ceased—not Darrell Whiteman comments, entirely—during the monolingual and “Literacy is nearly always seen as the capacity to the people mono-cultural stage. The next stage panacea for any development ills, when group and saw broad expansion through largely in fact the record is a mixed one. In Western cross-cultural translation. some cases it has been helpful, in other their church . . . Now we see the emergence of the situations it has not been.”28 The fact indigenizing stage at the end of the is, while literacy is an important and twentieth century. This latter stage is ongoing need in any translation proj- where the Word of God makes itself section 3 illustrates. Therefore, the ect, it has not really produced literate fully at home with a people and their opinion of the indigenous church in societies. Therefore, a translation team culture. It is a first- and second-person translation planning is imperative. needs to place greater focus on com- communication with God rather than municating Scripture through other a third-person communication filtered Funding through another people’s language or mediums as well. Alternative methods Today’s Western donors are concerned could be crafting oral Bible stories, their culture. Jesus, the Word of God, that the former type of Western mission is no longer a distant, vaguely under- producing audio recordings, audiovi- planning has not always produced the sual films, and putting Scripture into stood person. He is now living within sort of fruit they believe God desires the community. song or poetry. The important thing is from the translation projects. They that literacy training is balanced with want to be wise and faithful inves- Bible translation is an imperfect other Scripture-access strategies. tors of the large sums of “talents”29 science, and as we have seen, a per- (i.e., millions of dollars) that God has son’s perceptions about other people’s Project Planning and religion and cultural can add to that Implementation entrusted to them. Therefore, they look for projects that display certain wise imperfect practice. Even so, God is It is generally true that Western planning characteristics. Before com- sovereign and therefore He has never translation organizations have focused mitting financial support for a project, been hindered in accomplishing His mainly on completing translations. In they might ask if the translation team mission during any stage of Bible this sense it has been product-oriented. has clearly defined goals and schedules. translation. However, I tend to think The translators’ desired outcome Are the important roles and activities He is not satisfied until people can was to get the translated Scriptures in the project well-defined? Does the know Him more deeply and completely into the people group’s hands. Their project budget clearly show how they within their own language and cultural assumption was that the people would intend to spend the funds? Do they setting. Yet, this begs the question, immediately begin reading and apply- have a method to know how they are what about the 1,726 complete full ing the Scriptures in their lives. Their doing in reaching their goals during Bible or New Testament translations motivation for doing translation was that are more or less only partially International Journal of Frontier Missiology Gilles Gravelle 19 enculturated translations? And what translations are available. Indeed, they 5 Andrew F. Walls. 2002. The Cross- about the more than 1,900 translation are freer to do that than a Western cultural Process in Christian History, Orbis, projects currently in progress, most of cross-cultural translator would be. So p. 30-31. 6 See Samuel Escobar. 2003. which still heavily involve the faithful I believe that God continues to make The New Global Mission. The Gospel From Everywhere work of the cross-cultural translators? Himself known more intimately in to Everyone. InterVarsity Press. This is something I’ve pondered languages and cultures through the 7 This figure combines people retiring or since my wife and I completed work globalizing of theology and through leaving for other reasons with new people join- ing the organization. The 1980s-90s saw quite on two New Testament translation the second-generation work of the a spike in new membership, no doubt a result projects, which also included several mother-tongue translators. Each stage injects more biblical information and of the Jesus movement revival of the 1970s. Old Testament books. We were what 8 helpful insights into pre-existing indig- See Hwa Yung. 1997. Mangoes or Paul Hiebert referred to as insider/ Regnum Studies in Missions,p. 11. 32 Bananas? outsiders.30 Over time we gained more enous theology. IJFM 9 See Paul Hiebert on the impor- of an insider view through extensive tance of this in, Form and Meaning in the Endnotes Contextualization of the Gospel. In Dean linguistic and cultural learning. Yet, 1 See Andrew Walls. 2002. The Cross- we were intuitively still outsiders in S. Gilliland (ed.). 1989. The Word Among Cultural Process in Christian History, Orbis, Us, Word Publishing, p. 101-120. that our cognitive insights were far less p. 31. 10 Paul G. Hiebert. 2008. Transform- 2 than that of a mother-tongue speaker. The work of Andrew Walls on the ing Worldviews: An Anthropological Under- Like most cross-cultural translators, we cross-cultural transmission of the Gospel standing of How People Change, Introduction worked closely with the speakers and has been especially helpful in gaining section, Amazon Kindle electronic book. the Church. Yet, the translations still this historic overview. Two resources are, Baker Academic. Bible and Scripture Use in Christian History 11 For an example of this divergence bear their distinctive mark as a cross- (unpublished manuscript) and The Transla- cultural and hence partially encultur- in mission strategy, see Samuel Escobar, tion Principle in Christian History, in (ed.) A Movement Divided. Transformation: ated work. Therefore, in the long term, Philip C. Stine. 1990. Bible Translation Volume 8:4, October-December 1991. the success or unsuccessfulness of these and the Spread of the Church. The Last Two 12 The Seed Company, 3030 Matlock two translations will be judged by Hundred Years. E.J. Brill. Rd., Suite 104, Arlington TX, 76015. 3 indigenous criteria.31 Figures vary according to sources. This 13 Hwa Yung, 1997, p.7 data is based on SIL International Sept 2009. 14 Emmanuel Egbunu. 2008. Teach, 4 Now, one former associate translator, See Lamin Sanneh. 2003. Whose Baptise, and Nurture New Believers, in a mother-tongue speaker, is continu- Religion is Christianity? The Gospel beyond the (eds.) Andrew Walls and Cathy Ross, Mis- ing work on the Old Testament. West, Eerdmans, p. 23-24. sion in the 21st Century, Orbis, p. 25-46. His translation has a different feel and sound to it. I believe it is a more pleasing and insightful feel and sound On Indigenous Agency: Samuel Crowther Of Samuel Ajayi Crowther (ca. 1807-91), that gifted African missionary of the nineteenth because he is the one working to century, Lamin Sanneh spoke of his considerable linguistic gifts, how he went everywhere communicate the concepts in terms scribbling down suitable words, tracing out their various usages within the customs and cul- of how he intuitively understands his tures, and boldly allowing the native assembly to frame the Christian message. He set an language. He is also drawing from almost forgotten precedent for indigenous translators today. more cultural material than I was “Crowther recognized that translation was more than a mechanical exercise, and that some- willing to draw from. So it seems in thing of the genius of the people was involved. Language was not merely a tool fashioned this case that the process of transmis- to achieve limited and temporary goals. It was also a dynamic cultural resource, reflecting the sion is indeed continuing as it can only spirit of the people and illuminating their sense of values. As such it demanded to be imagina- when it is squarely in the hands of the tively approached, with the investigator skillful enough in the sort of cultural archeology by local church and their own mother- which one may discover the stored paradigms whereby society represented and promoted itself. tongue translators. I tend to believe The translator should be prepared to dig underneath the layers of half conscious notions and that someday a team of mother-tongue dim familiarities to reclaim the accumulated treasure. Consequently, Crowther made a point of translators from these two groups befriending ordinary people without regard to their religious affiliation, going on to pay close of people will finish the translation attention to the speech of the elders in order to get behind new inventions of the language and process with their New Testament, the colloquialisms that break the line of continuity with the original. He plunged after the widen- too. They have already begun doing ing consequences of the initial missionary contact, finding his way to the vital material…(he) was that as they theologize in lively perceptive enough to realize that translation led naturally into developing a deeper appreciation conversations over what the current for the entire culture, and he pursued this line to its logical conclusion. He wrote in 1844 that his linguistic investigation forced him to delve into other aspects of traditional African life…The translations mean. sense of responsibility this created toward preserving the authentic forms of indigenous life and These days the Global South church custom constitutes an enduring tribute to Christian mission.” and their theologians are contextu- Lamin Sanneh, Translating the Message, p. 165-166 alizing the message with whatever 27:1 Spring 2010 20 Bible Translation in Historical Context: The Changing Role of Cross-Cultural Workers

15 Kwame Bediako. 2002. The Chal- 25 See Robert Priest, 2006. “Expe- lenge of Mother Tongue for African Chris- rience-Near Theologizing in Diverse tian Thought. Journal of African Christian Human Contexts.” In Craig Ott and Thought 5. no.1 (June), p. 1-60. Harold A. Netland, (eds.), Globalizing 16 Samuel Escobar. 2003. The New Theology, Baker, Grand Rapids, p.180-189. Global Mission. The Gospel From Every- 26 Ephesians 3:18-19. The New Inter- where to Everyone, InterVarsity Press, p. 21. national Version. Zondervan. 1989. 17 Hwa Yung, 1997, p.13. 27 Serampore College recently 18 Devagnanavaram. 2007. Why Have developed a new curriculum for training We Ignored the Mother Tongue Transla- mother-tongue translators as on-the-job tor? Word and Deed, vol. 6.1. SIL Interna- education. It is part of the translation pro- tional. Dallas, TX. cess in many ways, rather than apart from 19 Kosuke Koyama, 1999. Water Buf- the task. It also seeks to use less technical falo Theology. Orbis. language, but rather communicate the 20 See Kevin J. Vanhoozer, 2006. important concepts in clearer terms. “One Rule to Rule Them All?” Theologi- 28 See Darrell L. Whiteman. 1990. cal Method in an Era of World Christian- Bible Translation and Social Development. ity. In Craig Ott & Harold A. Netland In (ed.) Philip C. Stine. Bible Translation (Eds), Globalizing Theology, Baker, Grand and the Spread of the Church. The Last 200 Rapids, p. 85-126. Years. Studies in Missions, vol. 2. p.135. E.J. 21 Hwa Yung, 1997, p.11 Brill. 22 Andrew Walls, 2002, p.39 29 The Gospel of Matthew 25:14-28 23 Missionary translators thought the 30 See Paul Hiebert. 2006. The Meyah language of Indonesia had no term Missionary as Mediator of Globalizing for sin, so they borrowed one from a neigh- Theology. In (eds.) Craig Ott and Harold boring unrelated language. Unfortunately A. Netland. Globalizing Theology, Baker, the Meyah thought it only referred to two Grand Rapids, p. 100. sins: killing and adultery. 31 Sanneh, 2003, p. 127 24 Kevin Vanhoozer, 200, p. 106-107. 32 Koyama 1999, p. 60 Are you ready? Edinburgh 2010

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International Journal of Frontier Missiology