Research on the Evolution of Building Technology Based on Regional Revitalization

Article Research on the Evolution of Building Technology Based on Regional Revitalization

Jingjing Wu *, Hongyang Wei and Li Peng *

School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China * Correspondence: [email protected] (J.W.); [email protected] (L.P.); Tel.: +86-135-9406-4963 (J.W.); +86-151-2305-1093 (L.P.) Received: 23 May 2019; Accepted: 2 July 2019; Published: 8 July 2019

Abstract: With the rapid development of the times, regionalization has become one of the hotspots in the field of architecture. The aim of this paper is to deal with the regionalization of contemporary architecture from the perspective of building technology. This paper systematically and comprehensively evaluates and summarizes the development process of China's building technology, determines the key points of the evolution of building technology, and combines a large number of historical documents and historical remains to analyze the causes of the evolution of building technology, which include the natural environment, science and technology, building system and concept consciousness. Based on this, it analyses buildings in Sichuan from three aspects—building materials, structural system and construction process—and seeks for a reasonable regional development direction of building technology. Analysis results showed that greening, integration and scientific are the evolution path of building technology in the new era. Not only building technology is a necessary means of building realization, but also its influence on the regionalization of architecture should be supplemented and promoted.

Keywords: inﬂuence factors; building materials; structural system; construction process

1. Introduction Rheology, which comes from the field of material mechanics, focuses on the law of deformation and flow between materials and time. The same is true of the development of building technology. Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe once said, “technology is rooted in the past, dominates the present and extends to the future” [1]. It is known that building technology is constantly developing and innovating in the time dimension, and will not stop or disappear. Before the industrial revolution, China's building technology was dominated by soil–wood structures, while Western building technology was dominated by stone–wood structures. In essence, the two were consistent and belonged to natural materials. After the industrial revolution, the emergence of artificial materials such as steel, glass, concrete, etc. brought new structural forms [2], such as steel structures and reinforced concrete structures, and the emergence of mechanized production tools also brought new construction processes [3]. At the same time, the popularity of electricity, insulation materials [4] and the widespread use of modern construction equipment [5] had contributed to the development of environmental control technologies [6]. In the past, building technology was created based on a specific geographical environment. Nowadays, with the rapid development of technology and information, modern technology has almost ablated the geographical concept of time and space, resulting in the convergence of architecture [7,8]. However, convergence is relative to difference, especially regional differences. If regional differences exist, convergence is always relative [9]. Therefore, the regional nature of building technology is the key to solving the problem.

Buildings 2019, 9, 165; doi:10.3390/buildings9070165 www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 12

46 significance for third world countries [11]. Erskine explained regionalism from a human and 47 geographical perspective [12]. Norberg Schultz more fully integrated regionalism into architecture 48 [13]. Alexander Tzonis and Liana Lefevre explicitly proposed critical regionalism and used locality 49 Buildingsto resist2019 the, 9 ,impact 165 of global civilization [14]. Critical regionalism also emphasizes the influence2 of 12of 50 regional factors on the development of architecture. Although China’s studies on regionality emerged 51 later than abroad, most of them focus on architecture, culture and image [15–17], with less emphasis 52 on buildingRegionality technology. began with Therefore, the concept the purpose of regionalism of this mentionedpaper is to byanaly Lewisze the Mumford development in 1924 of [10 China's], and 53 ledbuilding to a series technology, of discussions. determine Amongthe causes them, of its Giedion evolution, thought and find that a newfeasible regionalism path of contemporary had special 54 significancebuilding technology, for third in world order countriesto achieve [the11]. purpose Erskine of explainedregional revitalization. regionalism from a human and geographical perspective [12]. Norberg Schultz more fully integrated regionalism into architecture [13]. 55 Alexander2. Historic Tzonis Evolution and Liana Lefevre explicitly proposed critical regionalism and used locality to resist the impact of global civilization [14]. Critical regionalism also emphasizes the influence of regional 56 Building technology is accompanied by the emergence of buildings, and a complete history of factors on the development of architecture. Although China’s studies on regionality emerged later 57 building technology carries the entire development of the building. Building structure is the main than abroad, most of them focus on architecture, culture and image [15–17], with less emphasis on 58 element of building technology, and it can be used to trace the history of building technology. building technology. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to analyze the development of China's 59 According to records, building structure has existed since the beginning of human civilization and building technology, determine the causes of its evolution, and find a feasible path of contemporary 60 has been influenced on many aspects such as economy, politics, science and technology, and culture. building technology, in order to achieve the purpose of regional revitalization. 61 It is mainly divided into the following stages (Figure 1): 62 2. HistoricNest structure. Evolution Ancestors began with the structure of the nest in primitive society (about 1.7 63 million years ago to around 21st century BC). With the rich experience of labor, ancestors gradually Building technology is accompanied by the emergence of buildings, and a complete history of 64 moved to ground buildings and dry-column buildings. The emergence of bauxite, dark foundation building technology carries the entire development of the building. Building structure is the main 65 and Qingyan column was crucial to the development of the building. The nest structure is the source element of building technology, and it can be used to trace the history of building technology. According 66 of the soil–wood structure. to records, building structure has existed since the beginning of human civilization and has been 67 Wooden frame structure. In slave society (around 21st century BC to around 2nd century BC), influenced on many aspects such as economy, politics, science and technology, and culture. It is mainly 68 the concentration of rights and the emergence of bronze tools had promoted the development of the divided into the following stages (Figure1): 69 wooden frame structure and the plate-building method.

70 Figure 1. Time diagram of the development of building technology. 71 Figure 1. Time diagram of the development of building technology. Nest structure. Ancestors began with the structure of the nest in primitive society (about 1.7 million 72 yearsWooden ago to around beam 21ststructure. century Due BC). to the With stability the rich of experience economy and of labor, culture ancestors in feudal gradually society (around moved 73 to2nd ground century buildings BC to late and 18 dry-columnth century), buildings. craftsmen The used emergence their experience of bauxite, and dark lessons foundation learned from and 74 Qingyanpractice columnand gradually was crucial formed to the a developmentwhole set of building of the building. technolog Theies nest on structure a wooden is thebeam source structure of the, 75 soil–woodwhich included structure. structural components, such as the foundation, the wall, the roof and the arch. 76 WoodenBrick (stone) frame–wood structure. mixed In slavestructure. society After (around the Opium 21st century War in BC 1840, to around the trading 2nd century ports wereBC), 77 theestablished, concentration and ofa large rights number and the emergenceof Western of building bronze tools techniques had promoted were introduced. the development Then, a of brick the wooden frame structure and the plate-building method. Wooden beam structure. Due to the stability of economy and culture in feudal society (around 2nd century BC to late 18th century), craftsmen used their experience and lessons learned from practice and Buildings 2019, 9, 165 3 of 12 gradually formed a whole set of building technologies on a wooden beam structure, which included structural components, such as the foundation, the wall, the roof and the arch. Brick (stone)–wood mixed structure. After the Opium War in 1840, the trading ports were established, and a large number of Western building techniques were introduced. Then, a brick (wood) load-bearing structure with wooden trusses and iron roofs appeared. However, most buildings still used a wooden beam structure, because the new alternative was too expensive. Steel structure or reinforced concrete structure. During the Republic of China (1912–1949), many Western architects and Chinese overseas architects poured into the Chinese construction market and established several architectural ﬁrms. In the same period, the construction level of construction workers had gradually matured. Together these provided a solid human foundation for the development of concrete structures. After the opening, many steel, cement, glass and other factories, and semi-mechanical construction tools provided a material basis. Additionally, under the strong promotion of the government, the development of steel structure and reinforced concrete structure was promoted. At the same time, the wood structure from the historical stage gradually faded in use [18]. Precast reinforced concrete structure. New China was founded in 1949. Due to political and economic factors, the government directly drew on Soviet building technology experience. To save steel and cement, industrial buildings widely promoted prestressed precast reinforced concrete structure. Houses still were dominated by the brick–concrete structure in the same period. Cast-in-place reinforced concrete structure. Until the reform and opening up in 1978, the output of the prefabricated structure and the construction technology of the workers could not meet the needs of the society due to the increase in construction volume. The cast-in-place concrete structure came into being, greatly improving building safety and construction speed. New structural form. Since 2000, in the era of technological innovation, the building structure has created a lot of forms, such as grid structure, thin shell structure, suspension structure and aerated structure to satisfy super high-rise buildings, large-span buildings and super-large-scale buildings.

3. Exploring the Evolution Factors of Building Technology The Great Learning said, “if you can one day renovate yourself, do so from day to day, and let there be daily renovation”. The general idea is to look at the development of things from a dynamic and introspective point of view, and building technology should also be like this. Building technology is a very complex system, including building materials and structures, building physics and equipment, construction and many other aspects. It is also necessary to sort out the development of building technology dynamically and systematically. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the evolutionary laws from the following aspects and guide the development of contemporary building technology.

3.1. Basic Factors: Natural Environment Building technology exists to provide human beings with a physical and spiritual ‘shelter’. Its essence lies in directly and simply solving the contradiction between man and nature. It can be said that building technology will vary with the geographical conditions of the climate. There are seven architectural climate zones in China, and different zones form different building technologies (see Figure2). Cold and warmth are considered in hot and cold areas. Both heat protection and cold protection are required in hot summer and cold winter areas. Summer heat and winter warm areas are concerned with ventilation and heat insulation, while mild areas pay more attention to ventilation. It can be seen that climate adaptation becomes one of the keys of building technology [19]. In addition, the structure of buildings is mostly dry-column buildings in the ancient mountainous and hilly areas of China, while the plains and basins are mostly buildings. Therefore, traditional building technology is the result of natural selection of the survival of the fittest, and the natural environment is the basic factor for the evolution of building technology. Buildings 2019, 9, 165 4 of 12 Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12

122 Figure 2. Chinese traditional architecture map. 123 Figure 2. Chinese traditional architecture map. Since the industrial revolution, modern technology had transcended the limitations of nature 124 and beganSince the to blindlyindustrial transform revolution, the modern living environment technology had of mankind, transcended causing the limitations great destruction of nature of 125 andecology. began Therefore, to blindly the transform development the living of contemporary environment building of mankind, technology causing needs great to destruction consider the of 126 ecology.role of the Therefore, natural environment, the development extract of contemporary ‘effective genes’ building from traditional technology technologies, needs to consider rationally the role use 127 ofthe the ‘accumulation natural environment, effect’ of technology,extract ‘effective create genes’ building from technologies traditional technologies, that adapt to rationally different climaticuse the 128 ‘accumulationconditions, and effect’ improve of the technology, ecological create environment. building technologies that adapt to different climatic 129 conditions, and improve the ecological environment. 3.2. Promoting Factors: Science and Technology 130 3.2. Promoting Factors: Science and Technology Science and technology are the driving force behind the development of building technology, and 131 everyScience stage ofand technological technology developmentare the driving is closelyforce behind related the to thedevelopment renewal of of building building tools. technology, It can be 132 andseen every from Tablestage1 ofthat technological from stone tools development to bronze toolsis closely to iron related tools, to the the ancestors renewal had of donebuilding their tools. best inIt 133 canthe applicationbe seen from of Table wood 1 coupled that from with stone the continuous,tools to bronze stable tools and to slow iron growthtools, the of ancestors China’s science had done and 134 theirtechnology. best in Finally,the application they formed of wood a set coupled of wooden with beam the continuous, structures as stable the main and frame.slow growth In modern of China’s times, 135 sciencethe industrial and technology. revolution F ledinally, to artificial they formed construction a set of materialswooden beam and mechanization structures as the of the main construction frame. In 136 modernprocess, times, which the largely industrial expanded revolution the scale led and to artificial complexity construction of the buildings. materials So, and the m advancementechanization of 137 thescience construction and technology process, has which brought largely an opportunityexpanded the for scale the innovationand complexity of building of the technology.buildings. So, the 138 advancementNo matter of whatscience form and or technology in which field, has brought technology an opportunity has developed for fromthe innovation low to high of andbuilding from 139 technology.simple to complex, and it has risen and fallen [20]. There is always a spiral response to the development of technology. Building technology may lose geographical support if it is followed blindly. For example, 140 air conditioningTable 1. Comparison solves the of indoor construction comfort tools level, and building but the structures result is thein various heat islandhistorical eff ect.stages. Thus, air conditioningHistorical is required more frequently. Today, traditional technology has been re-enabled in the Construction tools Structure type Icon ecologicalperiod crisis. Therefore, it is necessary to correctly treat the promotion of science and technology to building technology.From Do not chopping blindly admire stone tools modern technology or ignore traditional technology. It is Primitive Nest structure important to chooseto appropriate polishing construction stone tools, techniques. society wood, bone, pottery and other tools.

Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12

122 123 Figure 2. Chinese traditional architecture map.

124 Since the industrial revolution, modern technology had transcended the limitations of nature 125 and began to blindly transform the living environment of mankind, causing great destruction of 126 ecology. Therefore, the development of contemporary building technology needs to consider the role 127 of the natural environment, extract ‘effective genes’ from traditional technologies, rationally use the 128 ‘accumulation effect’ of technology, create building technologies that adapt to different climatic 129 conditions, and improve the ecological environment.

130 3.2. Promoting Factors: Science and Technology 131 Science and technology are the driving force behind the development of building technology, 132 and every stage of technological development is closely related to the renewal of building tools. It 133 can be seen from Table 1 that from stone tools to bronze tools to iron tools, the ancestors had done 134 their best in the application of wood coupled with the continuous, stable and slow growth of China’s 135 science and technology. Finally, they formed a set of wooden beam structures as the main frame. In 136 modern times, the industrial revolution led to artificial construction materials and mechanization of Buildings 2019, 9, 165 137 the construction process, which largely expanded the scale and complexity of the buildings. 5So of, the 12 138 advancement of science and technology has brought an opportunity for the innovation of building 139 technology.

Table 1. Comparison140 of constructionTable 1. Comparison tools and of construction building tools structures and building in structures various in historical various historical stages. stages.

Historical Historical Period Construction ToolsConstruction Structure tools TypeStructure type Icon period From chopping stone tools Primitive Nest structure to polishing stone tools, Buildings 2018, 8, x FORsociety PEER REVIEWwood, bone, pottery and 5 of 12 Primitive societyBuildings From 2018 chopping, 8, x FOR stone PEER toolsREVIEW to other tools. Nest structure 5 of 12 Bronze tool, knives, axes, Wooden frame polishingSlave society stoneBuildings tools, 2018, 8 wood,, x FOR PEER bone, REVIEW 5 of 12 Buildings 2018Bronze, 8, x FOR PEER tool, REVIEW knives, axes, Wooden frame 5 of 12 potterySlave society and other tools.saws, chisels, drills and structure saws, chisels,Bronze drills tool, knives, and axes,structure Wooden frame BuildingsSlaveother 2018 society, 8 ,sharp x FORBronze PEER wooden REVIEW tool, knives,tools axes, Wooden frame 5 of 12 Slave societyother sharpsaws, wooden chisels, tools drills and structure saws,other chisels,sharp wooden drills tools and structure Bronze tool, knives, axes, Wooden frame Slave societyother sharp wooden tools saws, chisels, drills and structure Slave society Bronze tool, knives, axes, saws, Wooden frame structure other sharp wooden tools chisels, drills and other sharp wooden tools Iron tool, tools for felling Iron tool, tools for felling Feudal FeudalIron tool, tools for felling WoodenWooden beam beam Feudal and unwindingIronand tool, unwinding, such tools as , forsuch axe, felling as Woodenaxe, beam Feudaland unwinding, such as axe, Wooden beam society societysaws andand sawsframe unwinding and saws frame, such saws as axe,structure structure society saws and frameIron saws tool, tools for fellingstructure societyFeudal structureWooden beam sawsand and unwinding frame saws, such as axe, society saws and frame saws structure

Feudal society Iron tool, tools for felling and Wooden beam structure unwinding, such as axe, sawsHandmade and gradually is Brick (stone) Republic of frame saws replaced by mechanical wood mixed HandmadeHandmade gradually gradually is isBrick Brick (stone) (stone) Republic Republic ofChina Handmade of construction: gradually Development is Brick structure (stone); Republic of replacedHandmade by mechanical gradually is woodBrick mixed (stone) Republicreplaced of of by by building mechanical mechanical materials woodwood Brick mixed mixed (stone) China replaced by mechanical wood mixed ChinaChina construction:construction:industry Development Development such Development as brick, glassstructurestructure structurereinforced; ; ; China construction: Development structure; of and buildingwood processing materials; Brickconcrete (stone) of building buildingof building materials materials materials BrickBrick Brick (stone) (stone) (stone) industryIntroduction such as brick, of glass new reinforcedstructure; industry suchsuchindustry as as brick, brick, such glass asglass brick, reinforced glassreinforced reinforced andequipment wood processing such ; as air concreteSteel structure or Republic of China Handmade gradually is replacedand by wood processingBrick (stone); woodconcrete mixed and woodwoodIntroduction conditionersprocessing processing and; ; of elevators newconcreteconcrete structurereinforced ; mechanical construction: Introductionstructure; of new structure; Introductionequipment of of such new new as structure airstructure Steelconcrete; structure; or Development of building materialsequipment Brick such (stone) as air reinforced Steel structure or equipmentconditioners such and as elevators air Steel reinforcedstructurestructure or industry such as brick,equipment glass and conditioners such concrete as and elevators air structure;Steel structurereinforced or concrete wood processing;Introductionconditioners of and and new elevators elevatorsSteelstructure reinforcedreinforced orconcrete reinforced structure equipment suchEa asrlyair conditionersThe mechanizationconcrete structureconcrete andconcrete Precaststructure and elevators structure founding assembly degree of thestructure reinforced EarlyEa rly The The mechanization mechanization and and PrecastPrecast construction are improved; concrete Early foundingfoundingThe mechanizationassemblyassembly degree degree and of ofPrecast the the reinforcedreinforced Early The mechanizationThe flow operation and method Precast structure constructionconstruction are areimproved improved; ; concreteconcrete founding assembly and degree the winter of construction the reinforced Early founding Thefounding mechanization assembly and assembly degree Precast of the reinforced reinforced concrete The Theflow flow operation operation method method structurestructure degree of the constructionconstruction aremethod are improved structure; concrete improved; constructionand andthe are thewinter improved winter construction construction; concrete AfterThe flow the operationIntroduction method of computer structure- Cast -in-place The flow operation method andmethod the winter constructionreformThe method flow and method aidedoperation technology method; structurereinforced Afterand the the winter Introduction construction of computer - Cast-in-place Afteropening and the upthe IntroductionwinterMechanization construction of ofcomputer building - Castconcrete-in-place reformmethod and aided technology; reinforced reform and aidedconstruction technology; ; reinforcedstructure openingmethod up Mechanization of building concrete After opening the Introduction up MechanizationDiversification of computer of building- Cast and -concretein-place After the Introductionconstruction of computer; - Cast-instructure-place After the reform Introduction of computer-aidedintelligentizationCast-in-place of reinforced reform and aided technologyconstruction; ; reinforcedstructure and opening up technology; Diversificationconcrete structure and reform and aided technologyconstruction; equipment reinforced Mechanizationopening up of buildingMechanizationDiversification of building andconcrete intelligentization of construction;141 No matter what form or in which field, technology has developed from low to high and from opening142 up Mechanizationintelligentization of building ofconcrete Diversificationsimple and toconstruction intelligentization complex, andconstruction; it has risen equipment and structure fallen [20] . There is always a spiral response to the 143 development of technology. Building technology may lose geographical support if it is followed of construction141 equipmentNoconstruction matter whatconstruction form; or equipmentin which field, structure technology has developed from low to high and from 144 blindly. DiversificationFor example, air conditioning and solves the indoor comfort level, but the result is the heat island 141 142 Nosimple matter to complex,what form and or itin haswhich risen field, and technology fallen [20] .has There developed is always from a spirallow to response high and to from the 145 effect. Thus, air conditioning is required more frequently. Today, traditional technology has been re- 142 143simple development to intelligentization complex,Diversification of andtechnology. it has Building risen and of technology fallen [20] may. There lose geographical is always a support spiral response if it is followed to the 146 enabled in the ecological crisis. Therefore, it is necessary to correctly treat the promotion of science 3.3. Constraints Factors:143 144 Buildingdevelopment blindly. System For of example, technology. air conditioning Building technology solves the ind mayoor lose comfort geographical level, but the support result is if the it isheat followed island constructionintelligentization equipment of 144 145blindly. effect. For Thus, example, air conditioning air conditioning is required solves more the indfrequently.oor comfort Today, level, traditional but the technologyresult is the has heat been island re- The building system146 is a set of laws and regulations involved in construction activities that must 141 145No mattereffect.enabled whatThus,construction formair in theconditioning or ecological in which equipment iscrisis. required field, Therefore, technology more it frequently. is necessary has developed Today, to correctly traditional from treat low thetechnology promotion to high has andof beenscie fromnce re- be observed142 bysimple all146 parties to enabled complex, [21]. Startingin the and ecological it from has risencrisis. the clanTherefore, and society, fallen it is[20] necessary building. There to is technologycorrectly always treat a spiral wasthe promotion influenced response of scie to by thence 141 No matter what form or in which field, technology has developed from low to high and from the clan system143 development and the ritual of technology. and music Building hierarchy technology system, may and lose gradually geographical formed support a set if of it oisffi followedcially 142 simple to complex, and it has risen and fallen [20]. There is always a spiral response to the specific architectural144 blindly. concepts For example, and air corresponding conditioning solves systems the ind andoor regulationscomfort level, that but the constrained result is the the heat form, island 143145 development of technology. Building technology may lose geographical support if it is followed scale and layouteffect. of the Thus, building air conditioning [22]. The is hierarchyrequired more system frequently. regulated Today, the traditional development technology of buildingshas been re- 144146 blindly.enabled For in theexample, ecological air conditioningcrisis. Therefore, solves it is the necessary indoor comfortto correctly level, treat but the the promotion result is the of heatscience island 145 effect. Thus, air conditioning is required more frequently. Today, traditional technology has been re- 146 enabled in the ecological crisis. Therefore, it is necessary to correctly treat the promotion of science Buildings 2019, 9, 165 6 of 12 and cities more harmoniously and orderly and played a certain role in the production of out-of-control construction. It also limited the development of ancient buildings and technological innovation. This hierarchy ended and the Western building system was introduced in the Republic of China. It still did not form its own building system in the early days of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, not yet fully adopting the Western and Soviet building system. The building system with Chinese characteristics began to develop and improve after reform and opening up. Table2 shows that the evolution of building technology has always been restricted by the building system. Although the initial development of the system is conducive to the summarization and application of technology, it constrains and restricts the development and innovation of technology in the later stage of the system. Therefore, the development of building technology and building systems need to advance, integrate and innovate with each other, leaving a certain flexibility space for each other, alleviating the contradiction between advantages and disadvantages, and better promoting the benign development of the two.

Table 2. Relevant contents about building technology in each historical period.

Historical Period Construction Participant Building System Related to Building Technology At that time, there was no clear norm, only to meet the needs of Primitive society Everyone Clan system living and production in groups and to express religious beliefs. Through the bloodline clan system, a strict hierarchy of superiority and Slave society Slave Separate system subordination is created to make people stand in their own right, and architecture is no exception. Determine the combination of the building regulations and the Management and construction hierarchy of the city and the palace, The hierarchy of ethics Feudal society of the industrial officer; the form, scale, layout, materials and rituals Folk craftsman and decoration of the house, and gradually form the official construction laws and regulations. Building regulations pay more National Government Western architectural attention to design, guide national Construction Committee; system adapted to construction, promote "inherent Republic of China Private architecture firm; industrial conditions forms of China" and have detailed Private construction enterprise Building Law, etc. regulations on public housing, schools, and industries. The government can only control Basically, quote the the construction work in a macro Construction Engineering existing Soviet building manner, lack of plans and Department; State system to meet the regulations, and building standards Early founding Construction Company; construction are not high. Design principles are Central Design Institute, requirements at that time; based on “applicability, economy, Soviet expert Design Work and attention to beauty under Regulations, etc.; possible conditions”. From design ideas to design content Construction Engineering and design methods, from technical Department; State During the Cultural theory to technical norms, Construction Company; Design revolution Revolution management systems embody Architectural Design Institute political, regional, domain and of the Ministry of Construction internal modernity. Ministry of Construction; Various laws and Building policy of “appropriate, state-owned and private regulations related to Reform and opening safe, economical and beautiful” construction companies; building and planning to up period Implementation of a registered state-owned and private adapt to national architect system architectural design institutes conditions, etc.

3.4. Potential Factors: Conceptual Awareness An important reason why humans are diﬀerent from other animals is that people are subjective. From the original Paleolithic beliefs of the Paleolithic Age to the Sun beliefs of the Neolithic Age to the various religious beliefs, they were all embodied in architecture and thus achieved through building Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12

178 fundamental conscious values that guide people’s thoughts and behaviors [23]. China’s traditional 179 values are dominated by the practical rational spirit [24] and have the relevant tool rationality of 180 practicality and effectiveness. It fundamentally reflects the essence of building technology, which has 181 an emphasis on practicality and neglect of experimentation. Taking the traditional tenon and mortise 182 Buildingsstructure2019 as, 9an, 165 example (Figure 3), to maximize utility, the ancients only used the simple occlusion7 of 12 183 of the gimmick protruding from the component itself and the squint of the sag to complete the 184 connection between the components and then derived the ever-changing combination. Practical technology. According to dialectical materialism, there is a decisive consciousness: consciousness 185 rationality makes traditional technology pay attention to practicality, but it also has the shortcomings actively reacts to existence, and this reaction is decisive for the development of things. 186 of short-sightedness. Therefore, building technology is influenced by values, philosophy, religion, aesthetics, and all 187 After the Opium War, Western civilization intruded, and Chinese society gradually began to conscious activities used to regulate and guide architectural activities. Among them, values are the 188 reflect on the gains and losses of traditional values. Our traditional values gradually disintegrated, fundamental conscious values that guide people’s thoughts and behaviors [23]. China’s traditional 189 and new values began to wage a conflict between Western values and traditional values. The same is values are dominated by the practical rational spirit [24] and have the relevant tool rationality of 190 true of building technology. The big roof building in the Republic of China is the best example. practicality and effectiveness. It fundamentally reflects the essence of building technology, which 191 Modern technology prevailed until the advent of globalization, as did the values. But the concept of has an emphasis on practicality and neglect of experimentation. Taking the traditional tenon and 192 consciousness always lags behind and subtly influences the evolution of building technology. mortise structure as an example (Figure3), to maximize utility, the ancients only used the simple 193 Today, for the Chinese dream, we should cultivate and promote the core values of socialism [25]. occlusion of the gimmick protruding from the component itself and the squint of the sag to complete 194 Building socialist core values requires the achievement of outstanding genes that inherit traditional the connection between the components and then derived the ever-changing combination. Practical 195 values while innovating and developing the values of the new era. Therefore, building technology rationality makes traditional technology pay attention to practicality, but it also has the shortcomings 196 must not only absorb the essence of traditional technology, but also actively respond to the spirit of of short-sightedness. 197 the times, and construct building technology with Chinese characteristics.

198 Figure 3. Schematic diagram of parts of tenon and mortise structure in Rules of Architecture. 199 Figure 3. Schematic diagram of parts of tenon and mortise structure in Rules of Architecture. After the Opium War, Western civilization intruded, and Chinese society gradually began to 200 reflectIn on summary, the gains building and losses technology of traditional is influenced values. Our by traditional factors such values as the gradually natural disintegrated, environment, 201 scienceand new and values technology, began to building wage a system, conflict and between conceptual Western awareness. values and These traditional factors promote values. Theor inhibit same 202 theis true development of building of technology.building technology The big roofat different building stages. in the From Republic a dynamic of China and holistic is the best perspective, example. 203 buildingModern technology technology prevailed is innovating until the and advent moving of globalization, forward in a as spiral did the way. values. Therefore, But the afterconcept fully of 204 understandingconsciousness alwaysthe influencing lags behind factors and of subtly the evolution influences of the building evolution technology, of building we technology. can ensure stable, 205 healthyToday, and fororderly the Chinese development. dream, we should cultivate and promote the core values of socialism [25]. Building socialist core values requires the achievement of outstanding genes that inherit traditional 206 values4. Evolution while P innovatingaths: The D andevelopment developing Direction the values of B ofuilding the new Technology era. Therefore, in Sichuan building technology 207 mustThe not onlyevolution absorbary the causes essence of of traditional building technology technology, but affect also its actively development respondal to thedirection. spirit of The the 208 developmenttimes, and construct of buildi buildingng technology technology involves with Chinese the localization characteristics. problem, and also the sustainable 209 developmentIn summary, problem building [26]. B technologyuilding technology is influenced also includes by factors all technical such as the means, natural which environment, is roughly 210 dividedscience and into technology, three aspects: building building system, materials, and conceptual structural systems awareness. and constructionThese factors process promote [27] or. 211 Binhibitecause the the development soil–wood structure of building is the technology source in at diChina,fferent this stages. paper From attempts a dynamic to find and a feasible holistic 212 perspective,evolutionarybuilding path by taking technology the Sichuan is innovating region andas an moving example. forward in a spiral way. Therefore, after fully understanding the influencing factors of the evolution of building technology, we can ensure stable, healthy and orderly development.

4. Evolution Paths: The Development Direction of Building Technology in Sichuan The evolutionary causes of building technology aﬀect its developmental direction. The development of building technology involves the localization problem, and also the sustainable Buildings 2019, 9, 165 8 of 12

development problem [26]. Building technology also includes all technical means, which is roughly divided into three aspects: building materials, structural systems and construction process [27]. Because the soil–wood structure is the source in China, this paper attempts to ﬁnd a feasible evolutionary path by taking the Sichuan region as an example. Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12 4.1. Greening of Building Materials 213 4.1. Greening of Building Materials From the agricultural society to the industrial society to post-industrial society, the innovation of 214 buildingFrom the materials agricultural always society promotes to the industrial the innovation society to of post structural-industrial systems society, andthe innovation construction of process. 215 Buildingbuilding materials materials always are the promotes primary the factor innovation in the of development structural systems of building and construction technology process. [28]. In the 216 Building materials are the primary factor in the development of building technology [28]. In the pursuit of green buildings, the greening of building materials will be an inevitable trend. This requires 217 pursuit of green buildings, the greening of building materials will be an inevitable trend. This that building materials have the least impact on the ecological environment during the whole lifecycle 218 requires that building materials have the least impact on the ecological environment during the through production, use and disposal, in order to achieve commonalities such as safety, energy 219 whole lifecycle through production, use and disposal, in order to achieve commonalities such as conservation, environmental protection and recycling [29]. The eight aspects of the Green Building 220 safety, energy conservation, environmental protection and recycling [29]. The eight aspects of the Evaluation Standards all involve the greening of building materials (see Figure4). 221 Green Building Evaluation Standards all involve the greening of building materials (see Figure 4).

222 223 FigureFigure 4. Applicati 4. Applicationon of green of green building building materials materials in Green in Green Building Building Evaluation Evaluation Standards Standards..

224 SichuanSichuan has has abundant abundant sunshine sunshine and and concentrated concentrated rainwater. rainwater. Tree Tree resources resources are are abundant. abundant. 225 Additionally,Additionally, the thephilosophy philosophy of harmony of harmony between between manman and andnature nature conforms conforms to the to development the development of 226 localof localwood wood.. Modern Modern wood wood not only not only has goodhas good ecological ecological properties, properties, but but also also better better mechanical mechanical 227 properties,properties, thermal thermal insulation insulation properties, properties, fire ﬁre protection, protection, moisture resistanceresistance andand shock shock resistance resistance than 228 thannatural natural wood, wood, which which together together meet meet the the problem problem of of sustainable sustainable development development of of buildings. buildings. ThereThere are 229 aremany many cases cases of of modern modern wood wood in in Sichuan, Sichuan, such such as as antique antique tourist tourist buildings buildings that that satisfy satisfy emotional emotional needs, 230 needs,Wenchuan Wenchuan disaster disaster buildings buildings that meetthat seismicmeet seismic needs, needs, and residential and residential buildings buildings that meet that ecological meet 231 ecologicalneeds (Figure needs.5 ().Figure 5)

232 233 Figure 5. Applications of green building materials in Sichuan.

234 4.2. Integration of Structural Systems 235 The wooden beam–column system is the essence of traditional buildings. Lin once affirmed the 236 traditional structural spirit and pointed out the intersection of modern architecture and traditional Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12

213 4.1. Greening of Building Materials

214 From the agricultural society to the industrial society to post-industrial society, the innovation of 215 building materials always promotes the innovation of structural systems and construction process. 216 Building materials are the primary factor in the development of building technology [28]. In the 217 pursuit of green buildings, the greening of building materials will be an inevitable trend. This 218 requires that building materials have the least impact on the ecological environment during the 219 whole lifecycle through production, use and disposal, in order to achieve commonalities such as 220 safety, energy conservation, environmental protection and recycling [29]. The eight aspects of the 221 Green Building Evaluation Standards all involve the greening of building materials (see Figure 4).

222 223 Figure 4. Application of green building materials in Green Building Evaluation Standards.

224 Sichuan has abundant sunshine and concentrated rainwater. Tree resources are abundant. 225 Additionally, the philosophy of harmony between man and nature conforms to the development of 226 local wood. Modern wood not only has good ecological properties, but also better mechanical 227 properties, thermal insulation properties, fire protection, moisture resistance and shock resistance 228 than natural wood, which together meet the problem of sustainable development of buildings. There 229 are many cases of modern wood in Sichuan, such as antique tourist buildings that satisfy emotional 230 Buildingsneeds, 2019Wenchuan, 9, 165 disaster buildings that meet seismic needs, and residential buildings that9 meet of 12 231 ecological needs. (Figure 5)

232 233 Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEERFigureFigure REVIEW 5. 5.ApplicationApplications s of ofgreen green building building materials materials inin Sichuan. Sichuan. 10 of 12

237234 4.2.architecture,4.2. IntegrationIntegration in ofof orderStructural Structural to provide SystemsSystems a theoretical point of developing the modern structure [30]. 238235 SubsequentTheThe wooden wooden structural beam–column beam systems–column have system system shown is is the the structure essence essence spirit of of traditional traditional, but there buildings. buildings. are more Lin orLin less onceonce deficiencies aaffirmedffirmed the thein 239 236 traditionalthetraditional overall. structuralstructural spiritspirit andand pointedpointedout out thethe intersection intersection ofof modern modern architecturearchitecture andand traditional traditional 240 architecture,Under the inorder emergence to provide of prefabricated a theoretical pointbuilding of developing, this situation the modernis reversed. structure From [ 30the]. Subsequentperspective 241 structuralof generative systems logic, have the shownwooden structure beam–column spirit, but structure there are in moreSichuan or less is a deficiencies combination in theof carpentry overall. 242 workUnder and joinery the emergence work. Prefabricated of prefabricated building building, is coordinated this situation to is create reversed. an efficient From the organic perspective whole of 243 generativefrom the design, logic, thefrom wooden the production beam–column to the structure on-site construction in Sichuan is [31] a combination. It can be seen of carpentry from the workflow 244 andchart joinery (Figure work. 6) of Prefabricated the two constructions building is that coordinated the prefabricated to create building an efficient can organic be regarded whole as from an 245 theextension design, and from evolution the production of the wooden to the on-site beam– constructioncolumn system, [31]. which It can is be a seenreasonable from the development flow chart 246 (Figuredirection6) offor the the two integration constructions of structural that the systems. prefabricated It not building only meets can the be regardedinheritance as anof traditional extension 247 andwood evolution structure of system, the wooden but also beam–column caters to the system, development which isof amodern reasonable technology. development direction for the integration of structural systems. It not only meets the inheritance of traditional wood structure 248 system,4.3. Scientific but also Construction caters to theProcess development of modern technology.

249 Figure 6. Procedure charts of carpentry work construction and prefabricated building construction. 250 Figure 6. Procedure charts of carpentry work construction and prefabricated building construction. 4.3. Scientiﬁc Construction Process 251 The traditional construction process has always been taught by masters and apprentices, which The traditional construction process has always been taught by masters and apprentices, which is 252 is restricted by regional factors and human factors. The process is the result of continuous experience restricted by regional factors and human factors. The process is the result of continuous experience 253 and mistakes. With the advent of the industrial age, the craftsman model was gradually replaced by and mistakes. With the advent of the industrial age, the craftsman model was gradually replaced by 254 factory production. The construction process is always closely related to the development of building factory production. The construction process is always closely related to the development of building 255 tools. Additionally, the development of science and technology has promoted the construction tools. Additionally, the development of science and technology has promoted the construction process 256 process to become more scientific, from the material ratio to the determination of the structural form to become more scientiﬁc, from the material ratio to the determination of the structural form and the 257 and the mechanization of the construction tools, and it has become more detailed and specialized. mechanization of the construction tools, and it has become more detailed and specialized. 258 The traditional earthen process has good ecological properties, but also poor durability and 259 mechanical properties [32,33]. However, the modern earthen process is different, which improves the 260 mechanical properties and durability through the introduction of earthen raw materials and 261 mechanical boring tools [34,35]. The post-disaster reconstruction project in Ma’anqiao Village, 262 Sichuan (Figure7) is an excellent example of this [36,37]. Based on local earthen process, it 263 systematically, comprehensively and scientifically uses various methods, such as experimental 264 comparisons, computer simulation and physical models in soil materials, structural joints and 265 structural systems, building physics, construction tools and construction methods. This process 266 improves the thermal comfort of the living room as much as possible.

267 5. Conclusion 268 There is a need for different angles with which to study the evolution of building technology. 269 Existing studies focus on the single factor of building technology, such as materials, without overall Buildings 2019, 9, 165 10 of 12

BuildingsThe 2018 traditional, 8, x FOR PEER earthen REVIEW process has good ecological properties, but also poor durability11 of and 12 mechanical properties [32,33]. However, the modern earthen process is diﬀerent, which improves 270 andthe mechanicalcomprehensive properties consideration. and durability Thus, it is through necessary the to introduction explore the influence of earthen of rawregional materials factors and on 271 themechanical evolution boring of architectural tools [34,35 ].technology The post-disaster from a more reconstruction comprehensive project and in Ma’anqiao macroscopic Village, perspective. Sichuan 272 (FigureThis is 7 inseparable) is an excellent from example a large number of this [ of36 , historical37]. Based documents on local earthen and practical process, case it systematically, analysis and 273 induction.comprehensively This papander scientiﬁcally combines usesthe various existing methods, factors such of natural as experimental environment comparisons, and science computer and 274 technologysimulation andto acknowledge physical models their insupport soil materials, and promotion structural of jointsbuilding and technology. structural systems,However, building for the 275 suddenphysics, changes construction that cannot tools and be explained construction by traditional methods. This studies process, the consideration improves the thermalof building comfort system of 276 andthe living concept room consciousness as much as possible. is increased, which can more accurately and reasonably evaluate the 277 evolution of building technology.

278 Figure 7. The reconstruction of Ma’anqiao Village in Sichuan Province takes advantage of the improved 279 Figure 7. The reconstruction of Ma’anqiao Village in Sichuan Province takes advantage of the traditional rammed earth technique. 280 improved traditional rammed earth technique. 5. Conclusions 281 The evolution of building technology varies from region to region. Taking Sichuan as an 282 example,There the is a unique need for regional different environment, angles with human which to history study and the evolution contemporary of building background technology. have 283 createdExisting the studies development focus on the of contemporary single factor of regional building buildi technology,ng technology. such as materials, Compared without with overalltraditional and 284 methodscomprehensive that only consideration. consider the Thus,objective it is factors necessary of building to explore technology, the influence this ofmethod regional is more factors rigorous on the 285 andevolution reliable. of architectural technology from a more comprehensive and macroscopic perspective. This is inseparable from a large number of historical documents and practical case analysis and induction. This 286 Authorpaper combines Contributions: the existing Conceptualization, factors of natural Methodology, environment J.W., and H.W.; science Investigation, and technology J.W., L.Pto acknowledge.; Manuscript 287 preptheiraration support and and writing, promotion J.W., of building technology. However, for the sudden changes that cannot be 288 Funding:explained This by traditional research was studies, funded the by considerationNational Key Research of building and system Development and concept Program consciousness of China, grant is 289 number2017YFC0702404increased, which can more-03. accurately and reasonably evaluate the evolution of building technology. The evolution of building technology varies from region to region. Taking Sichuan as an example, 290 Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. the unique regional environment, human history and contemporary background have created the development of contemporary regional building technology. Compared with traditional methods that 291 References only consider the objective factors of building technology, this method is more rigorous and reliable. 292 1. Wu, H.J. Modern Western Architecture, 1st ed.; China Building Industry Press: Beijing, China, 1997. 293 Author2. Nikolaus Contributions: Pevsner. PioneersConceptualization, of Modern Design: Methodology, From William J.W., Morris H.W.; to Investigation, Walter Gropius J.W.,; Penguin L.P.; ManuscriptBooks Ltd.: preparation and writing, J.W. 294 London, UK, 1991. 295 3.Funding: LeonardoThis Benevolo. research was Space, funded History by of National Modern Architecture Key Research; Routledge and Development & Kegan Paul Program Ltd.: ofAbingdon, China, grant UK, number 2017YFC0702404-03. 296 1971. 297 4.Conflicts Kiel ofMoe. Interest: InsulatingThe Modernism: authors declare Isolated no conflictand Non of-Isolated interest. Thermodynamics in Architecture; Birkhauser Verlag 298 AG: Basel, Switzerland, 2014. 299 5.References Kenneth Frampton. Modern Architecture: A Critical History, 4th ed.; Thames and Hudson Ltd: London, UK, 300 1. 2007.Wu, H.J. Modern Western Architecture, 1st ed.; China Building Industry Press: Beijing, China, 1997.

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