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AP ART HISTORY--Unit 5 Study Guide (Non Western Art or Art Beyond the European Tradition) Ms. Kraft

BUDDHISM

Important Chronology in the Study of Gautama Sakyamuni born ca. 567 BCE Buddhism germinates in the Ganges Valley ca. 487-275 BCE Reign of King ca. 272-232 BCE First Indian Buddha image ca. 1-200 CE First known Chinese Buddha 338 CE First known So. China Buddha image 437 CE

The Four Noble Truthsi 1. Life means . Life is full of suffering, full of sickness and unhappiness. Although there are passing pleasures, they vanish in time. 2. The origin of suffering is attachment. People suffer for one simple reason: they desire things. It is greed and self-centeredness that bring about suffering. Desire is never satisfied. 3. The cessation of suffering is attainable. It is possible to end suffering if one is aware of his or her own desires and puts and end to them. This awareness will open the door to lasting peace. 4. The path to the cessation of suffering. By changing one’s thinking and behavior, a new awakening can be reached by following the Eightfold Path.

Holy Eightfold Pathii The principles are • Right Understanding • Right Intention • Right Speech • Right Action • Right Livelihood • Right Effort • Right Awareness • Right Concentration Following the Eightfold Path will lead to or salvation from the cycle of .

Iconography of the Buddhaiii The image of the Buddha is distinguished in various different ways. The Buddha is usually shown in a stylized pose or asana. Also important are the 32 lakshanas or special bodily features or birthmarks.

Lakshanas Some of these birthmarks symbolize aspects of the Buddha's spiritual character whilst others draw attention to the concept that his beautiful and perfectly proportioned body is an outer reflection of inner spiritual power.

01. Well-placed flat-footed feet 02. Mark of the Wheel of Law on soles of feet or palms of hands 03. Soles and palms more tender and soft than in most people 04. Long toes and fingers 05. Webbed fingers and toes 06. Feet well set on the ground 07. Ankle bones that are hardly noticeable 08. Lower legs like those of an antelope 09. Body frame tall and straight 10. Arms that reach to the knees when standing 11. Genitalia withdrawn 12. Hairs on the head and arranged in soft curls that point to the right. Blue hairs grow from the pores of the Buddha’s skin. 13. Hairs of the body point upwards. 14.Skin smooth and delicate 15. Skin golden. (According to legend the Buddha was born with limbs that shone like the sun) 16. Seven special features: 2 broad heels 2 broad hands 2 broad shoulder blades Broad neck 17. Torso like a lion 18. Shoulders gently curved 19. Chest wide 20. Body circumference has proportions of a fig tree 21. Cheeks like a lion 22. 40 teeth rather than the normal 32 23. Teeth have no gaps 24. Teeth are equal in size 25. Very white teeth 26. An excellent sense of taste 27. A long tongue that can reach his ears 28. A strong and attractive voice like that of the Hindu god Brahma 29. Eyes the color of sapphire 30. Long eyelashes 31. Tuft of hair or between his eyebrows (urna). This symbolizes spiritual insight.

32. A bump on the top of the head known as ushnisha, which symbolizes wisdom and spirituality and his attainment of enlightenment.

Other symbols regularly found in images of the Buddha include:

Elongated ears

One feature that is regularly used but is not considered a Lakshana is showing the Buddha with elongated earlobes: these are to remind us that the Buddha was once a prince who wore a great deal of jewelry including heavy earrings which stretched out his earlobes. Although he gave up the wearing of any jewelry when he gave up his life of luxury, his earlobes remained elongated.

Lotus flowers

Lotus flowers often appear in images of the Buddha. It is a symbol of things that are pure and good. A lotus is a flower that begins its life in the mud at the bottom of a pond and then rises to the surface to flower. It therefore reminds people that in the same way, people can rise above their problems and achieve enlightenment.

The Wheel of Law The Wheel of Law, or chakra, can sometimes be found marked on the soles of the Buddha's feet and the palms of his hand. It has eight spokes to remind followers that the Buddha taught of the , which outlined eight ways of living. The Wheel itself is a reminder of the cycle of birth, death and rebirth.

The Snail Martyrs

There is a later legend that when the Buddha was sitting under the Bodhi tree he was so deep in meditation that he was unaware that it was extremely hot. A group of snails saw him and realizing the importance of his thoughts, crawled up to cover and protect his head with their bodies. The snails died from exposure to the hot sun and became honored as martyrs who had died to protect the Buddha. In some images of the Buddha, his hair curls do indeed resemble snails to remind people of this story.

The White Elephant The White Elephant symbolizes the birth of Prince Siddhartha. The Prince’s mother, Queen Maya, dreamt that a bright elephant of light descended upon her—a sign that her son would be great among men.

The Bodhi Tree The Bodhi Tree in Bodh-Gaya is sacred to Buddhists for it was here Prince Siddhartha attained nirvana. It is a symbol of enlightenment.

Principle Styles of Buddhist Images Note how the Gandhara Buddha shows the influence of the Greek style from when Alexander the Great had conquered that area (modern-day Pakistan). The Gandhara Buddha wears a toga and has wavy hair, unlike the clingy wet drapery and smooth hair of the Mathura Buddha. The Mathura Buddha follows the indigenous style of the Indus Valley civilizations.

Mudras or Hand Gesturesiv These well-defined gestures have a fixed meaning throughout all styles and periods of Buddha images.

HINDUISM

Origins Hinduism, unlike most major religions, does not have a central figure upon whom it is founded. Its roots stem back five thousand years to the people of the Indus Valley, now part of Pakistan. When Aryan tribes of Persia invaded the Indus Valley around 1700 BCE, the groups’ beliefs merged and Hinduism began to form.

The oldest and most popular of the Hindu written thought system is the Rig Veda, a collection of hymns that may date back as early as 5000 BCE. It tells of 33 gods, all whom are born of one creator, Brahma. Complementing Brahma are Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer. The three—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—comprise the Hindu Trinity.

Hindu Beliefs , or law, stands for the ultimate moral balance.

Karma stands for the belief that a person experiences the affects of his or her actions— that every act or though has consequences.

Samara, or reincarnation, represents the cycle of life, death and rebirth in which a person carries his or her own Karma.

Moksha, like Heaven for Christians, is a state of changeless bliss. It is the ultimate reward—to be released from samsara and achieve union with God. Ch. 6: India & SE before 1200 Important terms to define:

1. Bodhi Tree 2. 3. Buddha 4. Chakra 5. Dharma 6. Eightfold Path 7. 8. Karma 9. Lakshana 10. Mandorla 11. Moksha 12. 13. Nimbus 14. Nirvana 15. Sakyamuni 16. Samsara 17. Shiva 18. Siddhartha Gautama 19. 20. Urna 21. Ushnisha 22. Vishnu 23. Hinduism began in the Indus Valley. What are the two most important excavated sites in the Indus Valley and what object found there might have been a Shiva prototype? 24. Who was Ashoka and what was the significance of the pillars he erected throughout his kingdom? 25. How did Siddhartha Gautama become the Buddha? Tell his history. 26. What is usually contained in a stupa? 27. Describe the architectural characteristics of the Great Stupa at Sanchi, India. Be sure to include the definitions and/or meaning of the following terms: the anda (or stupa dome), chatras, yasti, torana, harmika, jatakas, chakras, yakshis. 28. Describe the characteristics of the torana. 29. What is a chaitya hall? Give an example of one. 30. What culture provided artistic models for the images of the Seated Buddha and the frieze from Gandhara (Figs 6-9 & 6-10)? 31. List 3 stylistic characteristics of the Mathura Buddha (Fig 6-11). 32. Look carefully at the Buddha from the Gupta period shown in Fig 6-12 and describe how it combined the styles of Gandara and Mathura. 33. What was the goal of Hinduism? 34. According to your textbook authors, who are the three most important Hindu deities? 35. What is Shiva’s role? 36. What is Vishnu’s role? Name some of Vishnu’s avatars. 37. What was the primary function of a Hindu temple? 38. What was the significance of bathing, feeding and clothing an image like the Shiva Nataraja shown in Fig 6-24? 39. Describe the Stupa at Borobudur in terms of location, size, objects founds there and the intended meaning of the monument. 40. To whom (which gods) was Angkor dedicated? Why did the king build Angkor Wat (what function did it have for the king posthumously)? 41. What could be found at Angkor Thom and what religious function did it have? Ch. 25: South and Southeast Asia after 1200 42. What was the purpose of the Taj Mahal? What is thought to have been its symbolic meaning? What aesthetic effect does it create? Ch. 7: Early China & Korea Important terms to define: 43. Confucianism 44. Daoism 45. Beam 46. Strut 47. Purlin 48. Clustered brackets 49. Rafter 50. Eave 51. What is the major artistic art form of the Yangshao culture? 52. When was the potter’s wheel invented? 53. What is the difference between earthenware, stoneware and porcelain? 54. How were Shang bronzes cast and assembled? 55. What is the symbolism of the bi disk? 56. Who was the first emperor of China, during what dynasty did he rule, and what major legacies of his still exist today? 57. What was found in the excavations around the tomb mound of Emperor Shi Huangdi at Shaanxi? 58. What was the Silk Road and what effect did it have on Chinese culture and art? 59. When does Buddhism reach China? 60. How does the Shakyamuni Buddha (Fig 7-9) recall Gandharan prototypes and how does it differ? 61. How does traditional Chinese architecture distinguish itself from that of Egypt and Greece? 62. What does the popularity of horse during the Tang dynasty indicate? 63. Describe the technique and religious philosophy expressed in Fan Kuan’s Travelers among Mountains and Streams (Fig 7-18). 64. Describe the function of the and how it evolved from the stupa. 65. How did the beliefs of the Chan (Japanese ) sect of Buddhism influence art? Ch. 26: Later China & Korea 66. What do the dragon and the phoenix symbolize? 67. What type of art form was most popular during the Ming dynasty? 68. What is the difference between underglaze and overglaze? 69. What was the function of the Forbidden City, Beijing, China? Ch. 8: Early Japan Define or identify: 70. Haniwa 71. Kami 72. Mortise and tenon 73. Ridge pole 74. Shinto 75. Amida 76. Mandorla 77. Handscroll 78. Tale of Genjii 79. What was the main art form of the Jomon culture? 80. How do Jomon vessels differ from Neolithic Chinese examples? 81. How do the haniwa function in relation to the tumuli? 82. Name the largest and most important Shinto shrine in Japan. 83. How did the Shinto shrine function? 84. What Japanese custom assures us that the present building looks pretty much like the first and original one? 85. How does the architectural style of the Horyuji kondo (Fig 8-6) differ from the Ise Shrine (Fig 8-5)? 86. Why was the Phoenix Hall (Fig 8-12) built and what symbolism did the phoenixes on its ridgepoles have? 87. What is the Tale of Genji? 88. List 3 characteristics of the yamato-e style seen in the Genji scrolls (Fig 8-13). Ch. 27: Later Japan Define or identify: 89. shogun 90. Shogunate 91. Samurai 92. Zen 93. Tatami 94. Tokonoma 95. Ukiyo-e 96. What about Zen appealed to the samurai? 97. What was the purpose of the dry garden at Saihoje (Fig 27-1)? 98. Describe Toyo Sesshu’s “broken” or “splashed ink” technique. 99. What do the terms wabi and sabi refer to? 100. Describe the space where the tea ceremony occurred. 101. How does Hokusai’s Great Wave off Kanagawa, from Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji reflect both Western and Japanese pictorial traditions? ANCIENT MESOAMERICAN ART

The ancient art of is often referred to as “pre-Columbian” in reference to Christopher Columbus’s arrival in the in 1492. Most of the civilizations who created these works had collapsed by the sixteenth century when Spanish conquistadores, or conquerors, “discovered” what is now . This land became known as the “.” Mesoamerica consists of present-day Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and the Pacific Coast of El Salvador. We will study artworks from the Preclassic, Classic, and Postclassic periods.

I. Preclassic (2000 B.C.E. to 300 C.E.) A. The Olmec: The “Mother Culture” 1. Lived in the Gulf Coast , in the present-day states of Veracruz and Tabasco. 2. Many religious, social, and artistic traditions can be traced to the Olmec. 3. The mass of the population was food-producing farmers who lived in the hinterlands. 4. Society was a caste system with a hierarchy of rulers, priests, functionaries and artisans. 5. The non-farming population lived according to rank within precincts that served ceremonial, administrative, and residential functions. B. Olmec Art 1. Colossal head, La Venta, Mexico, 900-400 B.C.E. Basalt, 8’ high.

2. Olmec Colossal Head 3. Four colossal heads like these face out from a plaza. These huge stones had to transported across sixty miles of swampland from the nearest know basalt source. Identities are uncertain but their features are individualized where each one wears distinctive headgear and ear ornaments, which suggests each head was a ruler’s portrait. The Olmecs mutilated their own monuments, possible at the end of a ruler’s reign.

II. Classic (300 to 900 C.E.) A. Teotihuacán (modern day Mexico City) was a large, densely populated metropolis was a central civic, economic and religious center for the region. Covers nine square miles, uses a grid pattern, and has pyramids. 1. Grid plan has north-south and east-west axes, each four miles in length. The main north-south axis, Avenue of the Dead, is 130’ wide, and connects the Pyramid of the Moon complex with the Citadel, which houses the Temple of Quetzalcoatl. 2. Pyramid of the Sun faces west on the east side of Avenue of the Dead and is the city’s centerpiece and its largest structure, rising to a height of more than 200’. 3. Pyramids are stepped, like the Egyptian Stepped Pyramid of King Djoser in Saqqara.

4. Avenue of the Dead, Teotihuacán 5. Temple of Quetzalcoatl, the “feathered serpent.” The later Aztecs would consider Quetzalcoatl as a major god associated with wind, rain-bringing clouds, and life. There was a need to sacrifice blood to the god to appease him. a. It was a six-tiered stepped pyramid. On each façade of the tiers, there were sculptures alternating between images of feathered serpents and ophidian creatures, probable the Fire Serpent, bearer of the sun on its daily journey across the heavens. The Fire Serpent has two circles on its headdress, which are also placed on the Teotihuacán sign for the year, is the symbol for war. b. Excavations show that sometimes as many as 200 human sacrifices were made at a time. Young men with their hands tied behind their backs— almost surely warriors. Generally, groups of 18 individuals (the number of the 20-day month in the year) would be found in a burial pit. Such pits were found at the very center of the pyramid’s base, and on the north, east, and south sides. A single slain captive was placed at each of the pyramid’s four corners, which were oriented to the cardinal directions.

c. Images of Quetzalcoatl and Fire Serpent

d. Feathered Serpent detail

e. Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl B. Mayan Civilization stems from the Olmec and Teotihuacán. The Mayan occupied Belize, southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras. They had a hierarchical autocratic society with hereditary rulers and ranked nobility. 1. Mayan architecture stressed the power of the rulers, who appropriated their power from the gods. Religion and kingship were unified firmly. 2. Like Egyptian hieroglyphics, Mayan script has been decoded. Many glyphs are numbers, dates, and some astronomical information. Mayans were obsessed with time, religion, and events. Also, the Maya depicted their rulers, rather than gods or anonymous priests, and noted their rulers’ achievements in their texts. Mayan writing is phonetic made up of signs representing sounds. The Mayan language is still spoken today in the Yucatan region. 3. Mayan calendars were astonishingly accurate yet radically different than the Western calendar.

4. Mayan Calendar or Sun Stone. Relates to El Tajin, a work of architecture developed according to a calendar. Has seven flights or levels (like days of week) and 364 windows plus one window on top (365 days of year). Mayan calendar aligns itself with ours every 52 years.

5. El Tajin, Veracruz 6. The Mesoamerican Ballgame. Ullamaliztli. The ball represents the sun and in the game the ball is in constant motion, like the sun. Along a long, narrow court, shaped like an “I” or a “T”, players hit a solid rubber ball, using only their hips and elbows. The game had political and religious significance, winning was everything. The losing captain’s head would sometimes be used as a ball. Similar games still exist today.

7. Temple I (Temple of the Giant Jaguar), Maya, Tikal, Peten, Guatemala, ca. 700. Temple was originally painted with colored stucco and plaster. Why built? It duplicates the concept of the sacred mountain. The huge plaza in front symbolizes the great sea. Temple is like the great mountain that rises from the sea like in the Mayan creation myth. The pyramid was a temple-mausoleum of a Tikal ruler, whose body was placed in a vaulted chamber under the pyramid’s base. The structure is made up of nine sharply inclining platforms and a narrow stairway. At the summit was a three-chambered temple. The roof is surmounted with a roof comb, a vertical architectural projection which bore the ruler’s giant portrait modeled in stucco. a. In Mayan culture artists have a high social status in society. b. Stele in the courtyard were carved and colored. c. The clothing shown on the stele is still worn in Chiapas today. d. Tikal not a grid, like Teotihuacán. e. Much is written by the Mayan and known about the Mayan through their codices. The Maya epic Popul Vuh (Council Book) was written in Spanish during the colonial period. It recorded the story of the ballgame. 8. Mayan story of creation: Life on earth began with a flash of light. Then, the creation of a sacred mountain, then jungles, plants, animals. Gods were displeased, wanted a form of life that gave homage to them so they made the first humans. The gods made mistakes when creating the humans… first they made people from wood, who were the monkeys, then from gold, who had no emotion, then all the animals met on the sacred mountain and combined their blood to create the first humans. The gods breathed into their eyes so they couldn’t see into the future (like the gods). C. In the year 900, Teotihuacán (Mexico City) was deserted, the Zapotec empire dissolves, and the Mayan disperse.

III. Post-Classic (900-1521 C.E.) A. The Aztecs. The Aztecs have many different codices which discuss ritual objects. The Aztecs were a group of conquerors from the north who invaded the Toltec territory. Their capital was Tenochtitlan (built on Teotihuacán which had been long abandoned), modern-day Mexico City. The called themselves the Mexica or Mejica. The Spanish conqueror Cortés invaded this settlement. The Spanish documented this culture extensively. 1. The Horizontal Cosmos: Created by the Mejica to relate the four cardinal points to colors, gods, and goddesses. Four cardinal directions: a. Huitzilopochtli: Sun god of East. Red. Male god who defeated moon god, his sister of the west, and has strength. Needs blood… requires human sacrifice and bloodletting. Also the god of war and symbolized as a hummingbird. b. Coyolxauhqui: Moon goddess and sister of sun god. West, woman, white, moon. Symbol for the oppression of women. c. Descatlypoca: God of darkness, ruled over warriors. North. Black. d. Quetzalcoatl: Feathered serpent. God of South. Associated with rebirth. Green or blue. Associated with Cortes. 2. The Vertical Cosmos: Made up of three realms--the Heavens, the Earth and the Underworld. 3. Duality: The belief that life is a series of balances that must be observed in order to live a fruitful life. Life-death, man-woman, rain-drought, agony- ecstasy. Similar to the Yin-Yang of Asian philosophies. 4. Mictlan: The place of eternal rest for the Mejica. All souls eventually went here. The Mayas called it Xibalba. This place of the dead is not an underground place but final resting place. How you died is more important than how you live. The soul needed a guide, a dog, and a spirit with the soul of a human to direct it to Mictlan. The soul came upon many trials… similar to Greeks… it had to cross a river, then reached a place of rocks, Mictlan, a place of eternal rest. This passage, the celebration of death, is on many murals. There are a few direct ways to Mictlan (and not have to undergo all of the voyage and trials). One could die as (1) a woman in childbirth, (2) as a young child, (3) as a warrior, or (4) as a sacrifice to the gods and go directly to Mictlan. 5. Syncretism: The blending or merging of two distinct religious beliefs. The syncretism of Catholicism and the belief in Mictlan create what we know as Day of the Dead celebrations. The syncretism of Catholicism and Yoruba beliefs of the Black slaves created Santeria (homeopathic, herbal medical practices). a. Dia de los Muertos Altars are an example of such syncretism. Altars have several things in common: (1) the color yellow (the color of death to the ancient Mejica), often found in marigolds; (2) images of the deceased; (3) a glass of water and a favorite food for the thirsty soul after their long journey from Mictlan to reunite with family and loved ones. B. Tenochtitlan was laid out in a grid plan, with communication and transportation via canals and waterways (like Venice in Italy). The Templo Mayor or Great Temple was a temple-pyramid dedicated to Huitzilipochtli and the rain god Tlaloc. The Great Temple is an example of superimposition, where there are seven shells of the architectural walls. Today, only the two inner layers are visible.

C. Coyolxauhqui Stone, found at the base of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan, late 15th century. Coyolxauhqui was the Moon goddess according the Aztec mythology. Her name means "Golden Bells." She was the daughter of the Earth goddess, Coatlicue and the sister of the Sun god, Huitzilopochtli. Coyolxauhqui encouraged her four hundred sisters and brothers to kill their dishonored mother. Coatlicue gave birth to Huitzilopochtli after a ball of feathers fell into the temple where she was sweeping and touched her. Huitzilopochtli sprang out of his mother as an adult fully armed and saver her. Coatlicue regretted such violence. Thus, Huitzilopochtli cut off Coyolxauhqui's head and threw it into the sky to form the Moon. Her dismembered body was thrown down the steps of the Templo Mayor and thus this stone was found at the base of the temple.

Visit the Museum of Natural History, Los Angeles, to see Mesoamerican art in person.

Ch. 14: Native Arts of the Before 1300 102. What Mesoamerican culture is often referred to as the “mother culture” of the region? 103. Where was the ancient city of Teotihuacán located? What sort of plan was used to lay it out? What names were given to the two largest pyramids? What originally stood on top of the pyramids? 104. What was found under the Temple of Quetzalcoatl at Teotihuacán and what is its significance? 105. What where two important things learned about the Maya as a result of the ability to read their glyphs? 106. What were some of the accomplishments of the Mayans? 107. What was the ritual meaning of the ball game in Pre-Columbian life? 108. Briefly describe the structure and style of the Temple of Giant Jaguar (Fig. 14-9). 109. Describe the content and the style of the Bonampak murals. 110. What are the Nasca lines and what explanations have been given for their creation? 111. What is an effigy mound? 112. What group of people was first thought to have created the Serpent Mound shown in Fig. 14-28? What changed, and whom do scholars now believe is responsible? 113. What is most significant about the Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde (14-31)? Ch. 30: Native Arts of the Americas After 1300 114. Where did the Aztecs establish their capital and what was it called? 115. Describe the layout of the Aztec capital? 116. What was the center of the Aztec capital and what did it symbolize? 117. Describe the myth of Coyolxauqui’s dismembered body. 118. Describe the Inka engineering, record-keeping and clothing traditions. 119. What was the capital of the Inka Empire? 120. What is impressive about Machu Picchu? 121. What is a kiva? Ch. 15: Early African Art 122. List at least three core beliefs or practices shared by many African societies that give rise to art images. 123. In what way does being nomadic or settled farmers influence the type of art people produce? 124. What material did Nok sculptors use? List 3 stylistic characteristics of their sculpture. 125. Define: oba. 126. Where was the Ivory Belt Mask of a Queen Mother worn, by whom, and what was its significance? Ch. 32: Later African Art 127. What was the purpose of the Seated Couple carving (Fig 32-6)? How does the artist treat the human body? Why is the image called “conceptual” rather than “perceptual”? Ch. 31: The Art of 128. Name 3 cultural areas of Oceania. 129. What are the oldest dates assigned to human populations in and New ? 130. What was the purpose of tattoos in ? What stylistic tendencies of Polynesian art are represented by tattoo patterns? 131. Describe the Australia Aborigine concept of Dreaming.

i http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html ii http://www.ancientindia.co.uk/staff/resources/background/bg11/bg11pdf.pdf iii http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/asia_features/buddhism/iconography/index.html iv http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/mudra.html