DOCSLIB.ORG

How Veterans Like Major-General Dan Spry

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
How Veterans Like Major-General Dan Spry WARTIME LESSONS, PEACETIME ACTIONS: HOW VETERANS LIKE MAJOR-GENERAL DAN SPRY INFLUENCED CANADIAN SOCIETY AFTER 1945 By Gordon Christopher Case Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the PhD degree in History Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa © Gordon Christopher Case, Ottawa, Canada, 2017 ABSTRACT WARTIME LESSONS, PEACETIME ACTIONS: HOW VETERANS LIKE MAJOR-GENERAL DAN SPRY INFLUENCED CANADIAN SOCIETY AFTER 1945 Gordon Christopher Case Supervisor: University of Ottawa, 2017 Professor Serge Durflinger This study examines some of the ways in which Second World War veterans helped shape Canadian society in the years after 1945 by using the life experience of one of their number, Major-General Daniel Charles Spry, as an interpretive model. Just over one million Canadian men and women re-entered civil life after their wartime military service. Representing approximately 35 per cent of Canada’s adult male population aged 25 to 49 in 1951, and found in nearly every facet of Canadian life, Second World War veterans possessed social importance that extended far beyond their experience of the Veterans Charter. Using Dan Spry’s documented thoughts and actions in war and peace, this study argues that a number of these individuals learned lessons regarding leadership, character, citizenship, and internationalism during their wartime military service and – finding them useful – applied such lessons to various aspects of their lives after the war’s end. In so doing, Second World War veterans helped to influence the character of postwar Canada’s institutions, workplaces, and the lives of many Canadians by providing societal leadership, moulding children’s character, developing future citizens, and trying to build a better world. Appreciating their varied contributions provides new insight into both veterans’ attitudes and the sort of place that Canada was after the guns fell silent in 1945. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This examination of the varied ways in which Second World War veterans like Major- General Daniel Charles Spry helped shape Canadian society in the years after 1945 has been produced with the assistance of many people. First and foremost of these is my dissertation advisor, Dr. Serge Durflinger. A talented scholar, Serge challenged me to question the evidence, listened patiently when I encountered problems, and he rejoiced with me when I made new discoveries. Serge encouraged me to develop my own thoughts, to which he offered well- founded and constructive criticism. I am a better historian for it. Equally valuable has been the support of General Spry’s children, Margot and Toby, who permitted me to use their father’s papers that remain in their possession, such as letters, photos, and, most importantly, a binder containing nearly four dozen of their father’s postwar speeches. They also granted interviews which helped to fill in certain gaps in the documentary record. Had it not been their unfailing willingness to assist me in my scholarly endeavours, this dissertation would have been nearly impossible to write. Since our first meeting in October 2013 Toby has become a friend with whom I often meet. Toby and Margot, thank you for everything. There were, of course, many others who have helped me along the way. Those who assisted in locating files and documents or granted access to archival sources include Ilene McKenna, at Library and Archives Canada; Captain Tim Robinson, the Regimental Adjutant of The Royal Canadian Regiment; Dan Smith, at the Royal Canadian Legion; Gord Kelly, curator of the Scouts Canada Museum; and Jacqueline Paschoud, the Senior Assistant, Information Services at the World Scout Bureau Global Support Centre in Geneva, Switzerland. Jim Buckland, an enthusiastic unofficial historian of Scouts Canada, provided me with valuable information from his collection. Dr. Steve Harris, the Director of History and Heritage in the iii Department of National Defence, allowed me to use J.L. Granatstein’s interview notes from his work, The Generals (which were published in August 2016 under the title The Weight of Command: Voices of Canada’s Second World War Generals and Those Who Knew Them), as well as maps from the Canadian Army’s official history of the Second World War. Mark Zuehlke, who has published several books on Canada’s military history, provided me with letters and interview notes from various veterans. Fellow scholar Jamie Trepanier loaned an advance copy of his PhD study regarding the Boy Scouts’ role in the building of Canadian boyhoods. Several individuals also granted interviews. Prior to commencing my doctoral studies, I had the privilege to speak and correspond with Sheridan (“Sherry”) Atkinson, the late Tom Burdett, and the late John (“Spin”) Reid, all of whom served in The Royal Canadian Regiment with Dan Spry before and during the Second World War. They gave me valuable insights into the manner in which Spry conducted himself as a regimental officer. The late Colonel Ernest Côté, who worked closely with General Spry in the headquarters of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division, shed light on how Spry ran large and complex military organizations in battle. From Colonel (retired) Joe Aitchison, I learned aspects of Spry’s honorary service as Colonel of The Royal Canadian Regiment. The University of Ottawa Office of Research Ethics and Integrity approved my conduct of interviews in support of this project after it was formally approved. I must also acknowledge the late Richard Holt, a talented historian and author of the recently-published Filling the Ranks: Manpower in the Canadian Expeditionary Force, 1914- 1918, a former military superior, and friend whose personal example in taking up graduate studies later in life inspired me to follow a similar path. Lastly, and most importantly, I owe my wife, Natasha, and our two daughters, Annemarie and Sara, a debt that I will never be able to fully repay. Without their loving encouragement and support, this study would not exist. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ v List of Figures and Tables............................................................................................................. vii List of Maps ................................................................................................................................. viii List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... ix Major-General Daniel Charles Spry, CBE, DSO, CD in 1945 ...................................................... xi INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1 THE FOUNDATIONS OF UPBRINGING .....................................................26 CHAPTER 2 TRAINING OVERSEAS: EARLY WARTIME LESSONS ............................50 CHAPTER 3 BATTLEFIELD LESSONS (I) ........................................................................76 CHAPTER 4 BATTLEFIELD LESSONS (II) .......................................................................95 CHAPTER 5 TRANSITIONS: WAR TO PEACE, SOLDIER TO CIVILIAN ...................141 CHAPTER 6 PROVIDING POSTWAR LEADERSHIP .....................................................174 CHAPTER 7 SHAPING CHILDREN’S CHARACTER .....................................................229 CHAPTER 8 TEACHING AND PRACTISING DEMOCRATIC CITIZENSHIP .............277 CHAPTER 9 BUILDING A BETTER POSTWAR WORLD .............................................330 CONCLUSION: VETERANS IN POSTWAR CANADA ........................................................ 375 Appendices: Appendix 1 The Boy Scout Promise and Law, 1919...............................................................399 Appendix 2 Canadian Army Organizational Hierarchy, 1939-1945 .......................................400 Appendix 3 Personnel Intake and Strengths of the Canadian Forces, 1939-1945 ...................401 Appendix 4 Distribution of Canadian Second World War Veterans, 1951 .............................402 Appendix 5 Leading Second World War Veterans in Canadian Society, 1971-1972 .............403 Appendix 6 Second World War Veterans in the House of Commons, 1945-2001 .................404 Appendix 7 Second World War Veterans in the Senate, 1945-2001 ......................................405 Appendix 8 Second World War Veterans in Federal Cabinets, 1935-1993 ............................406 Appendix 9 Second World War Veterans as Federal Department Ministers, 1935-1993 .......407 Appendix 10 Second World War Veterans in the Federal Civil Service, 1945-1962 ...............408 Appendix 11 Second World War Veterans in the Supreme Court of Canada, 1956-1990 .......409 v Appendix 12 University of Ottawa Ethics Approval Notice .....................................................410 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................... 411 I. Primary Sources .............................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • (June 1941) and the Development of the British Tactical Air Doctrine
    Journal of Military and Strategic VOLUME 14, ISSUE 1, FALL 2011 Studies A Stepping Stone to Success: Operation Battleaxe (June 1941) and the Development of the British Tactical Air Doctrine Mike Bechthold On 16 February 1943 a meeting was held in Tripoli attended by senior American and British officers to discuss the various lessons learned during the Libyan campaign. The focus of the meeting was a presentation by General Bernard Montgomery. This "gospel according to Montgomery," as it was referred to by Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder, set out very clearly Monty's beliefs on how air power should be used to support the army.1 Among the tenets Montgomery articulated was his conviction of the importance of air power: "Any officer who aspires to hold high command in war must understand clearly certain principles regarding the use of air power." Montgomery also believed that flexibility was the greatest asset of air power. This allowed it to be applied as a "battle-winning factor of the first importance." As well, he fully endorsed the air force view of centralized control: "Nothing could be more fatal to successful results than to dissipate the air resource into small packets placed under the control of army formation commanders, with each packet working on its own plan. The soldier must not expect, or wish, to exercise direct command over air striking forces." Montgomery concluded his discussion by stating that it was of prime importance for the army and air 1 Arthur Tedder, With Prejudice: The war memoirs of Marshal of the Royal Air Force, Lord Tedder (London: Cassell, 1966), p.
    [Show full text]
  • HTST 526 – the Canadian Military in the Second World War COURSE
    HTST 526 – The Canadian Military in the Second World War Fall 2018 – University of Calgary Seminar Hours: Thursday, 1400-1645 Room: SS623 Professor: Dr. D. J. Bercuson Email: [email protected] Office Telephone: 403-220-4038 Office Hours: Thursday 1300-1400 Office: SS 856B COURSE DESCRIPTION This seminar will explore Second World War officer leadership in the Canadian Army. To begin, students must read On the Psychology of Military Incompetence (entire book), Crerar’s Lieutenants (entire book) The Generals (Chapters 1-7, Conclusion). These required texts are located at the University of Calgary bookstore, history area. Once students have read and discussed these readings – providing a contextual foundation for what it is that makes a successful commander – the course will begin by critically analyzing the legacy left by the Canadian Corps and General Sir Arthur Currie. Next, students will focus on subjects such as officer selection, education, and training prior to and during the Second World War. By investigating Canadian organizational, tactical, and operational successes and failures, students will ultimately determine if Canada produced any actual or potential “Arthur Curries” during the Second World War. Throughout the seminar and specific to the presentations, students should consider the following questions: What is it that “makes” a successful commander? How should leadership be measured? What is the relationship between a leader and subordinates? What is the difference between management and leadership? This is a senior undergraduate/graduate seminar with graduate students also participating. It involves considerable reading and self-study as well as active class discussion. Students who feel themselves unable to engage in such seminar discussion should carefully review their grade expectations in this course.
    [Show full text]
  • York University Archives & Special Collections (CTASC) Finding
    York University Archives & Special Collections (CTASC) Finding Aid - Richard Jarrell fonds (F0721) Generated by Access to Memory (AtoM) 2.5.3 Printed: December 16, 2019 Language of description: English York University Archives & Special Collections (CTASC) 305 Scott Library, 4700 Keele Street, York University Toronto Ontario Canada M3J 1P3 Telephone: 416-736-5442 Fax: 416-650-8039 Email: [email protected] http://www.library.yorku.ca/ccm/ArchivesSpecialCollections/index.htm https://atom.library.yorku.ca//index.php/richard-jarrell-fonds Richard Jarrell fonds Table of contents Summary information .................................................................................................................................... 10 Administrative history / Biographical sketch ................................................................................................ 10 Scope and content ......................................................................................................................................... 11 Arrangement .................................................................................................................................................. 12 Notes .............................................................................................................................................................. 11 Access points ................................................................................................................................................. 12 Collection holdings .......................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Canadian Cadet Movement and the Boy Scouts of Canada in the Twentieth Century
    “No Mere Child’s Play”: The Canadian Cadet Movement and the Boy Scouts of Canada in the Twentieth Century by Kevin Woodger A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto © Copyright by Kevin Woodger 2020 “No Mere Child’s Play”: The Canadian Cadet Movement and the Boy Scouts of Canada in the Twentieth Century Kevin Woodger Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto Abstract This dissertation examines the Canadian Cadet Movement and Boy Scouts Association of Canada, seeking to put Canada’s two largest uniformed youth movements for boys into sustained conversation. It does this in order to analyse the ways in which both movements sought to form masculine national and imperial subjects from their adolescent members. Between the end of the First World War and the late 1960s, the Cadets and Scouts shared a number of ideals that formed the basis of their similar, yet distinct, youth training programs. These ideals included loyalty and service, including military service, to the nation and Empire. The men that scouts and cadets were to grow up to become, as far as their adult leaders envisioned, would be disciplined and law-abiding citizens and workers, who would willingly and happily accept their place in Canadian society. However, these adult-led movements were not always successful in their shared mission of turning boys into their ideal-type of men. The active participation and complicity of their teenaged members, as peer leaders, disciplinary subjects, and as recipients of youth training, was central to their success.
    [Show full text]
  • Rustin Military Collection
    Richard Rustin Military Books Donated 3 October 2009 THE RUSTIN MILITARY COLLECTION The Rustin Military Collection consists of nearly a thousand military books and periodicals collected by Richard E. Rustin during his lifetime. His wife, Ginette Rustin, donated this collection from his estate to the Archive Center and Genealogy Department, Indian River County Main Library, in October 2009 – April 2010. Richard E. Rustin passed away July, 2008. His wife considered him a genius regarding military history. He was a brilliant writer, a former reporter, manager and assistant chief of the New York news bureau. He edited coverage at the heart of the Wall Street Journal’s financial and economic news operations. He served in the U. S. Navy as an officer from 1956 to 1959. The focus of his collection centered on World War I and World War II. The collection also includes books on the Revolutionary War, Civil War, Mexican War, Korean War, and Viet Nam War, among others. Regimental histories and books of detailed campaigns, military science, military equipment and biography predominate. The library is very fortunate to have such a magnificent research collection containing many rare, out of print and hard to find volumes. It should be of great interest to anyone exploring military history. To date, the complete collection has been processed and is available to the public in the Genealogy Department. Use the online catalog at http://www.irclibrary.org or browse the list below. Title Author Publ Date 106th Cavalry Group in Europe J. P. Himmer Co. 1945 10th Royal Hussars in the Second World War 1939-45 Dawnay, D., etc.
    [Show full text]
  • Canadian Official Historians and the Writing of the World Wars Tim Cook
    Canadian Official Historians and the Writing of the World Wars Tim Cook BA Hons (Trent), War Studies (RMC) This thesis is submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Humanities and Social Sciences UNSW@ADFA 2005 Acknowledgements Sir Winston Churchill described the act of writing a book as to surviving a long and debilitating illness. As with all illnesses, the afflicted are forced to rely heavily on many to see them through their suffering. Thanks must go to my joint supervisors, Dr. Jeffrey Grey and Dr. Steve Harris. Dr. Grey agreed to supervise the thesis having only met me briefly at a conference. With the unenviable task of working with a student more than 10,000 kilometres away, he was harassed by far too many lengthy emails emanating from Canada. He allowed me to carve out the thesis topic and research with little constraints, but eventually reined me in and helped tighten and cut down the thesis to an acceptable length. Closer to home, Dr. Harris has offered significant support over several years, leading back to my first book, to which he provided careful editorial and historical advice. He has supported a host of other historians over the last two decades, and is the finest public historian working in Canada. His expertise at balancing the trials of writing official history and managing ongoing crises at the Directorate of History and Heritage are a model for other historians in public institutions, and he took this dissertation on as one more burden. I am a far better historian for having known him.
    [Show full text]
  • The Search for Continental Security
    THE SEARCH FOR CONTINENTAL SECURITY: The Development of the North American Air Defence System, 1949 to 1956 By MATTHEW PAUL TRUDGEN A thesis submitted to the Department of History in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada September 12, 2011 Copyright © Matthew Paul Trudgen, 2011 Abstract This dissertation examines the development of the North American air defence system from the beginning of the Cold War until 1956. It focuses on the political and diplomatic dynamics behind the emergence of these defences, which included several radar lines such as the Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line as well as a number of initiatives to enhance co-operation between the United States Air Force (USAF) and the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF). This thesis argues that these measures were shaped by two historical factors. The first was several different conceptions of what policy on air defence best served the Canadian national interest held by the Cabinet, the Department of External Affairs, the RCAF and the Other Government Departments (OGDs), namely Transport, Defence Production and Northern Affairs. For the Cabinet and External Affairs, their approach to air defence was motivated by the need to balance working with the Americans to defend the continent with the avoidance of any political fallout that would endanger the government‘s chance of reelection. Nationalist sentiments and the desire to ensure that Canada both benefited from these projects and that its sovereignty in the Arctic was protected further influenced these two groups. On the other hand, the RCAF was driven by a more functional approach to this issue, as they sought to work with the USAF to develop the best air defence system possible.
    [Show full text]
  • The Order of Military Merit to Corporal R
    Chapter Three The Order Comes to Life: Appointments, Refinements and Change His Excellency has asked me to write to inform you that, with the approval of The Queen, Sovereign of the Order, he has appointed you a Member. Esmond Butler, Secretary General of the Order of Military Merit to Corporal R. L. Mailloux, I 3 December 1972 nlike the Order of Canada, which underwent a significant structural change five years after being established, the changes made to the Order of Military U Merit since 1972 have been largely administrative. Following the Order of Canada structure and general ethos has served the Order of Military Merit well. Other developments, such as the change in insignia worn on undress ribbons, the adoption of a motto for the Order and the creation of the Order of Military Merit paperweight, are examined in Chapter Four. With the ink on the Letters Patent and Constitution of the Order dry, The Queen and Prime Minister having signed in the appropriate places, and the Great Seal affixed thereunto, the Order had come into being, but not to life. In the beginning, the Order consisted of the Sovereign and two members: the Governor General as Chancellor and a Commander of the Order, and the Chief of the Defence Staff as Principal Commander and a similarly newly minted Commander of the Order. The first act of Governor General Roland Michener as Chancellor of the Order was to appoint his Secretary, Esmond Butler, to serve "as a member of the Advisory Committee of the Order." 127 Butler would continue to play a significant role in the early development of the Order, along with future Chief of the Defence Staff General Jacques A.
    [Show full text]
  • The US Army Air Forces in WWII
    DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE HEADQUARTERS UNITED STATES AIR FORCE Air Force Historical Studies Office 28 June 2011 Errata Sheet for the Air Force History and Museum Program publication: With Courage: the United States Army Air Forces in WWII, 1994, by Bernard C. Nalty, John F. Shiner, and George M. Watson. Page 215 Correct: Second Lieutenant Lloyd D. Hughes To: Second Lieutenant Lloyd H. Hughes Page 218 Correct Lieutenant Hughes To: Second Lieutenant Lloyd H. Hughes Page 357 Correct Hughes, Lloyd D., 215, 218 To: Hughes, Lloyd H., 215, 218 Foreword In the last decade of the twentieth century, the United States Air Force commemorates two significant benchmarks in its heritage. The first is the occasion for the publication of this book, a tribute to the men and women who served in the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War 11. The four years between 1991 and 1995 mark the fiftieth anniversary cycle of events in which the nation raised and trained an air armada and com- mitted it to operations on a scale unknown to that time. With Courage: U.S.Army Air Forces in World War ZZ retells the story of sacrifice, valor, and achievements in air campaigns against tough, determined adversaries. It describes the development of a uniquely American doctrine for the application of air power against an opponent's key industries and centers of national life, a doctrine whose legacy today is the Global Reach - Global Power strategic planning framework of the modern U.S. Air Force. The narrative integrates aspects of strategic intelligence, logistics, technology, and leadership to offer a full yet concise account of the contributions of American air power to victory in that war.
    [Show full text]
  • 49Er1950no050
    -L'MBER SO 1850 nary, 1950 THE FORTY-NINER Important Services OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMIC AFFAIRS A new arm of the Government, the Department of Economic Affairs, was established at the regular session of the Legislature in 1945. Functions of the Department, according: to the authorizing Act, were to "further and encourage orderly, economic, cultural and social de- velopment for the betterment of the people of the Province in accord- ance with the principles and requirements of a democracy, and to assist in and advance the proper rehabilitation of men and women returning to the Province from the Armed Services of Canada and from war industries. @ Cultural Activities Branch to stimu- @ Agent General in London whose par- late interest in the fine arts in par- ticular concern is immigration and ticular and recreation generally. makes final selection of applicants for immigration to the Province. @ Industrial Development and Economic Research Branch for the purpose of solving technical problems relating to @ Film and Photographic Branch @ industries coming to Alberta, etc. Supplying pictorial matter to illus- trate newspaper and magazine arti- @ Public Relations Office to establish cles publicizing Alberta. and maintain good will between the public and various departments of the @ Southern Alberta Branch @ Situated Government. in Calgary. Handling all business of @ Publicity Bureau handling advertis- the department and its branches in ing, news and features publicizing Southern Alberta. Alberta. @ Alberta Travel Bureau promoting in- @ Iimmigr.ation Branch to look after the terest in Alberta's Tourist attractions screening of applicants, welfare of in the local, national and internation- immigrants, etc. al fields.
    [Show full text]
  • Office of Strategic Services Versus Special Operations Executive
    Office of Strategic Services versus Special Operations Executive Competition for the Italian Resistance, 1943–1945 ✣ Tommaso Piffer Drawing on recently declassified records, this article explores the relationship between the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) and the U.S. Office of Strategic Services (OSS)—the wartime intelligence agencies responsible for espionage, subversion, and other covert activities—in the Italian campaign during World War II.1 Until recently, the extensive Anglo-American literature on OSS-SOE rela- tions focused mainly on the two agencies’ wartime activities in the Balkans and France. The Italian theater received relatively little attention.2 The reasons for 1. The official history of SOE in Italy was published in David Stafford, Mission Accomplished (London: Bodley Head, 2011). In English, see also Christopher Woods, “SOE in Italy,” in Mark Seaman, ed., Special Operations Executive: A New Instrument of War (London: Routledge, 2006), pp. 91–102; Charles Delzell, “The American OSS and the Italian Armed Resistance,” in Renzo Amedeo, ed., Le missioni alleate e le formazioni dei partigiani autonomi nella Resistenza piemontese (Cuneo, Italy: L’Arciere, 1980), pp. 353–375; and Julie Le Gac, “From Suspicious Observation to Ambiguous Collaboration: The Allies and Italian Partisans, 1943–1944,” Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. XXXI, No. 5 (October 2008), pp. 721–742. The most important scholarly accounts in Italian are Elena Aga Rossi, “Alleati e resistenza in Italia,” in Elena Aga Rossi, L’Italia nella sconfitta: Politica interna e situazione internazionale durante la seconda guerra mondiale (Naples: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 1985), pp. 191–230; and Massimo de Leonardis, La Gran Bretagna e la resistenza partigiana in Italia: 1943–1945 (Naples: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 1988).
    [Show full text]
  • Operation Market Garden WWII
    Operation Market Garden WWII Operation Market Garden (17–25 September 1944) was an Allied military operation, fought in the Netherlands and Germany in the Second World War. It was the largest airborne operation up to that time. The operation plan's strategic context required the seizure of bridges across the Maas (Meuse River) and two arms of the Rhine (the Waal and the Lower Rhine) as well as several smaller canals and tributaries. Crossing the Lower Rhine would allow the Allies to outflank the Siegfried Line and encircle the Ruhr, Germany's industrial heartland. It made large-scale use of airborne forces, whose tactical objectives were to secure a series of bridges over the main rivers of the German- occupied Netherlands and allow a rapid advance by armored units into Northern Germany. Initially, the operation was marginally successful and several bridges between Eindhoven and Nijmegen were captured. However, Gen. Horrocks XXX Corps ground force's advance was delayed by the demolition of a bridge over the Wilhelmina Canal, as well as an extremely overstretched supply line, at Son, delaying the capture of the main road bridge over the Meuse until 20 September. At Arnhem, the British 1st Airborne Division encountered far stronger resistance than anticipated. In the ensuing battle, only a small force managed to hold one end of the Arnhem road bridge and after the ground forces failed to relieve them, they were overrun on 21 September. The rest of the division, trapped in a small pocket west of the bridge, had to be evacuated on 25 September. The Allies had failed to cross the Rhine in sufficient force and the river remained a barrier to their advance until the offensives at Remagen, Oppenheim, Rees and Wesel in March 1945.
    [Show full text]