Insights Into the Speleogenesis of Ejulve Cave (Iberian Range, NE Spain): Quaternary Hydrothermal Karstifcation?

Journal of Iberian Geology (2019) 45:511–527 https://doi.org/10.1007/s41513-019-00107-x

RESEARCH PAPER

Insights into the speleogenesis of Ejulve cave (Iberian Range, NE Spain): quaternary hydrothermal karstifcation?

Carlos Pérez‑Mejías1,2 · Carlos Sancho2 · Fernando Gázquez3 · Ana Moreno1 · Miguel Bartolomé1,4 · M. Cinta Osácar2 · Hai Cheng5,6

Received: 13 December 2018 / Accepted: 17 May 2019 / Published online: 11 June 2019 © Universidad Complutense de Madrid 2019

Abstract We provide frst insights into the speleogenesis of Ejulve cave (Teruel province, Iberian Range, NE Spain) by studying cave morphologies and cave deposits, combined with regional geomorphological and hydrothermal observations. Three main hydrogeomorphic evolutionary stages can be distinguised to explain the origin and evolution of the Ejulve endokarstic system. Cave pattern and cave solutional features (calcite vein fllings, tubes with rising ceiling cupolas, pendants and cusps, spongework and micro-corrosion features) suggest that the cave generated in a phreatic environment by ascending water. Cave morphologies and regional hydrothermal springs in this region suggest, but not prove, the involvement of thermal waters and related convection and condensation-corrosion mechanisms in the origin of the cave. Subsequently, the cave underwent a change to epigenic conditions driven by denudation, as a result of regional uplift. Once the karstic system was exhumated, carbonate speleothems formed in a vadose environment. Mineralogical, petrographic, isotopic and chronological (U-series dating) analyses of carbonate speleothems (i.e. stalagmites, fowstones, botryoids, spars, acicular crystals and farmed carbonate) are provided. Calcite, high-Mg calcite and aragonite are the most common minerals, whereas columnar, dendritic, micrite, mosaics and fans are the main fabrics. Mean δ18O values of − 7.3‰ and δ13C values of − 9.1‰ indicate carbonate precipitation from meteoric waters without a hydrothermal origin. Carbonate deposits formed at least since 650 ka BP. Our study suggests that hydrothermal fuid fow may explain, although the evidences are not fully conclusive, the speleogenesis of this cave.

Keywords Speleogenesis · Cave morphologies · Carbonate speleothems · Meteoric regime · Iberian range

Resumen Se aportan las primeras evidencias sobre la espeleogénesis de Ejulve (Teruel, Cordillera Ibérica, NE España) a través del estudio de morfologías y depósitos, junto a geomorfología regional y observaciones hidrotermales. Así, se pueden establecer tres etapas en la evolución hidro-geomórfca para explicar el origen y evolución del sistema endokárstico de Ejulve. El patrón de la cueva y las morfologías (venas de calcita, tubos con cúpulas ascendentes, pendants y cusps, spongework y rasgos de microcorrosión) sugieren que la cueva se ha generado en ambiente freático debido a aguas ascendentes. Las morfologías de la cueva y el hidrotermalismo regional en la región sugieren, aunque no prueban, la implicación de aguas termales y mecanismos de convección y condensación-corrosión en el origen de la cueva. Posteriormente, la cueva experimentó un

Deceased: Carlos Sancho.

* Carlos Pérez‑Mejías [email protected]

1 Department of Geoenvironmental Processes and Global Change, Pyrenean Institute of Ecology-CSIC, Avenida 4 Geology Department. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Montañana 1005, 50059 Saragossa, Spain C/José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain 2 Earth Sciences Department, University of Zaragoza, Pedro 5 Institute of Global Environmental Change, Xi’an Jiaotong Cerbuna 12, 50009 Saragossa, Spain University, Xi’an 710049, China 3 Department of Biology and Geology, Universidad de 6 State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s.n, La Cañada de San Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy Urbano, 04120 Almería, Spain of Sciences, Xi’an 710075, China

Vol.:(0123456789)1 3 512 Journal of Iberian Geology (2019) 45:511–527 cambio a condiciones epigénicas conducido por un proceso de denudación, como resultado de la elevación regional. Una vez que el sistema kárstico ha sido exhumado, se formaron los espeleotemas en un ambiente vadoso. Asimismo, se ofrecen análisis mineralógicos, petrográfcos, isotópicos y cronológicos (series de uranio) en diferentes espeleotemas (estalagmitas, coladas, botroides, spar, cristales aciculares y carbonato precipitado). Las mineralogías más comunes son calcita, calcita con alto contenido en Mg y aragonito, mientras que las fábricas más comunes son columnar, dendrítica, micrítica, mosaicos y abanicos. Los valores medios de δ18O son de − 7.3‰ y δ13C de − 9.1‰, indicando precipitación de carbonato procedente de aguas meteóricas sin un origen hidrotermal. Los depósitos se formaron al menos desde hace 650 ka. Este estudio sugiere que fuidos hidrotermales pueden explicar, aunque las evidencias no son totalmente conclusivas, la espeleogénesis de esta cueva.

Palabras clave espeleogénesis · morfologías · espeleotemas · régimen meteórico · Cordillera Ibérica

1 Introduction (Gràcia et al. 2011; Ginés et al. 2017). Most endokarstic systems correspond to meteoric caves even though some Quaternary karst dynamics in the southeastern sector of the of them in Betic Mountain Range and Balearic Islands are Iberian Range (NE Iberian Peninsula) derived large felds associated to hydrothermal activity (Gázquez et al. 2016, of exokarstic landforms, mainly dolines and poljes, super- 2017; Ginés et al. 2017), according the classifcation of karst imposed on the extensive Pliocene Main Erosive Surface solution caves by Ford and Williams (2007). of the Iberian Range (Peña et al. 1984), mostly developed This study aims at providing frst insights into the spe- on Mesozoic limestone bedrock (Gutiérrez and Peña 1994). leogenesis (processes and timing) of Ejulve cave by (1) the Also, the external morphosedimentary response to Quater- study of cave morphologies, (2) the analysis of carbonate spe- nary karst dynamics, as evidenced by fuvial tufa records, is leothems, including mineralogical, petrographic, isotopic and a well-known landscape feature on a regional scale (Sancho chronological characteristics, and (3) framing of the cave in et al. 2015). In contrast to this intensive exokarstic activ- the regional geomorphological and hydrogeological context. ity, only very scarce endokarstic features, including caves, are known in this region (Castellano et al. 2015). Changing regional landscape related to a Miocene–Pliocene-Quater- 2 Study area nary extensional regime (Simón et al. 2002; Gutiérrez et al. 2008) and fuvial incision did not promote the formation of Ejulve cave (40°45′34″N; 0°35′07″W; 1240 m a.s.l.) is a extensive endokarstic systems. cavity located in the southeastern sector (Maestrazgo Unit) In this geomorphological karstic setting, Ejulve cave of the Iberian Range (Teruel province) (Fig. 1a), a moun- (also known as El Recuenco Cave) in the southeastern Ibe- tain range in northeastern Iberia, representing the uplift rian Range stand out, because of its comparatively large and compressive inversion of a Mesozoic extensional basin size (~ 800 m long). In general, all caves in this region are (Álvaro et al. 1979; Simón et al. 2002; Sopeña 2004). Meso- characterized by small sizes and a high vertical/horizontal zoic sedimentary sequences are grouped in two evolution- development index ratio. Some of them (e.g. Molinos and ary cycles, Late Permian–Middle Jurassic and Late Juras- Ejulve caves) were selected for regional paleoclimate studies sic–Late Cretaceous (Simón et al. 2002; Sopeña 2004). using stalagmite records (Moreno et al. 2017; Pérez-Mejías Subsequent convergence of the Iberian and European plates et al. 2017). Nevertheless, the regional morphogenesis of caused the switch from extensional to compressional tecton- the endokarst in this sector of the Iberian Range remains ics. Consequently, Mesozoic sedimentary rocks are afected underinvestigated. Speleogenesis deals with the origin and by NW–SE and NE–SW trending folds, thrusts and faults development of cave systems (Klimchouk et al. 2000; Ford (Simón et al. 2002) (Fig. 2a). Ejulve cave is developed in and Williams 2007) and is based on cave morphologies as Upper Cretaceous dolomitic limestones and dolostones of well as the analysis of speleothem deposits. the Mosqueruela Fm (Canérot 1982) which is 90 m thick. Previous speleogenetic investigations have been con- Jurassic rocks including impermeable marls (30 m thick) are ducted on cave systems in the main calcareous mountains thrusted above the dolomitic Upper Cretaceous sequence ranges of the northern Iberia (Cantabrian Mountains, Pyr- (Fig. 2b). Oligocene and Miocene syn- and post-orogenic enees and northwestern Iberian Range) (e.g. Ortega et al. conglomerates, sandstones and claystones top this Mesozoic 2013; Aranburu et al. 2015; Ballesteros et al. 2015; Barto- sequence. Mesozoic and Oligocene deposits are afected by lomé et al. 2015; Dodero et al. 2015), southern Iberia (Betic the Portalrubio-Vandellós thrust system (Guimerà 1988; Mountain Range) (Durán et al. 1993; Calaforra and Berrocal Liesa 1998; Simón et al. 2002). 2008; Gázquez et al. 2016, 2017) and the Balearic Islands

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Fig. 1 a Study area. b, c Location of the Ejulve cave, Ariño and Baños de Segura thermal springs are also shown

The landscape in this area is relatively fat, dominated 2008), followed by fuvial incision (Scotti et al. 2014). The by extensive high-altitude platforms and planation surfaces Ejulve area belongs to the Sant Just-Castellote mountainous (1000–1600 m a.s.l.). At a regional scale, the occurrence of unit, dominated by remnants of planation surfaces and struc- the extensive Main Erosive Surface formed during the Upper- tural landforms related to the incision of the drainage network Miocene and Pliocene is remarkable (Peña et al. 1984; Gutiér- guided by the Guadalope River (Peña et al. 1984). The cave’s rez and Peña 1994). In addition, the landscape appears par- bedrock is afected by intense denudation processes (Fig. 2c). titioned by Mio-Pliocene–Quaternary, multi-story tectonic In fact, geomorphological analyses revealed the presence of a grabens related to an extensional tectonic regime guided by gently sloping planation surface from 1300 to 1100 m, extend- the Valencia trough rifting (Simón et al. 2002; Gutiérrez et al. ing from the foothills of Majalinos Mountain to the north of

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Fig. 2 Geological setting of Ejulve cave. Geological map (a), cross section (b) and main geological and geomorphological features (c)

Ejulve village. Pailhé (1984) interpreted this sloping surface The climate in the study area is Mediterranean with as a piedmont planation, while Peña et al. (1984) and Simón strong continentality and high seasonal contrast. Mean (1984) suggested that it corresponds to the deformed Main annual temperature is 8.5 °C and mean annual precipita- Erosive Surface of the Iberian Range. The deformation of this tion is ca. 431 mm, occurring between fall and spring. planation surface is guided by postorogenic regional uplift This temperature, recorded at the Majalinos weather sta- (Giachetta et al. 2015). tion (located at 1601 m.a.s.l. and 2 km far from the cave) is lower than the mean temperature of the cave (11.3 °C)

1 3 Journal of Iberian Geology (2019) 45:511–527 515 during the period 2013–2016 (Pérez-Mejías et al. 2018). analyses (6 samples) were performed using a MC-ICP-MS Soils are scarce and poorly developed, and support a (Thermo-Finnigan Neptune) at Xi’an Jiaotong University degraded vegetation cover dominated by diverse helio- (China) following the methodology described in Cheng et al. phytic shrubs, holm and semi-deciduous oaks (Angosto (2013). Also, a selection of carbonate samples was micro- and Latorre 2000). scopically studied by thin sections, some of those were red stained for the identifcation of dolomite. The fabrics were described according the terminology of Frisia et al. (2000), Frisia and Borsato (2010) and Frisia (2015). 3 Materials and methods

3.1 Survey and sampling 4 Results

A detailed cave recognition was carried out using the cave 4.1 Cave morphology topographic maps produced by Gisbert and Carvajal (1993) and Castellano et al. (2015). Some cave morphologies, dif- 4.1.1 Cave pattern ferent types of speleothems, major fault planes and large collapse breccias are elements identifed in the cave. Mor- Ejulve cave is located very close to the current topographic phological features including cave geometry and solutional surface and the uppermost ceiling, near the entrance, is over- features were identifed and described at diferent scales lain only by around 10 m of carbonate bedrock. The cave is following criteria by Ford and Williams (2007). In order to composed of 794 m of galleries, reaching a maximum depth evaluate the role of the faults on the cave geometry, a total of 55 m (data from Castellano et al. 2015). The galleries of 31 major fractures were measured and represented in a display a maze network of irregular chambers interconnected rose diagram using Stereonet software (Allmendinger et al. by intricate passages. The three-dimensional pattern shows 2011; Cardozo and Allmendinger 2013). Several samples dominant NW–SE and NE–SW trends forming an angular were collected and identifed in Table 1, as follows. Carbon- grid of connected passages (Fig. 3a) controlled by major ate blades projecting from the cave wall as boxwork were faults. The dominant fractures run NW–SE, while second- sampled (ID#1–10 in Table 1). Additionally, carbonate spe- ary fractures are NE–SW and W–E oriented (Fig. 3a, b). leothems including stalagmites (ART and HOR) and farmed The fracture network is complemented with nearly horizon- carbonate (ID#11–25), fowstones (ID#26–36), botryoidal tal faults (Fig. 3b) controlling the shape and size of some deposits (ID#37–44), carbonate spar (ID#45–50) and acicu- chambers. The dimensions (height × length × width) of the lar crystals (ID#51–57) were collected (Table 1). Finally, the two largest chambers are 31 × 16 × 9 m and 15 × 23 × 10 m dolomitic host rock (ID#58–66) was also sampled. Details of according to Gisbert and Carvajal (1993). The initial cave samples and subsamples are reported in Table 1. size was subsequently modifed due to collapse processes guided by faults as evidenced by large blocks detached from 3.2 Analytical techniques the ceiling and accumulated on the foor of the rooms. Talus deposits related to cataclastic fault breccias have also been Powdered subsamples for X-ray difraction (XRD), stable identifed in chambers of the lower levels of the cave. isotope analysis and U-Th dating were retrieved using a microdrill. The semiquantitative mineralogical composition 4.1.2 Cave solutional features was determined by XRD using the DIFFRACplus evaluation package. The analyses were performed at the Jaume Alm- In the central areas of the cave, some vertical tubes sev- era Institute (ICTJA-CSIC, Barcelona) with a Bruker AXS eral meters long with decimetric subcircular sections have D5005 using a theta-2theta geometry, with a Cu X-ray tube been identifed on chamber ceilings, connecting diferent operating at up to 2.2 kW. A total of 56 samples were ana- nearby chambers (Fig. 4b). Occasionally, these tubes dis- lyzed for their stable isotope composition (δ18O and δ13C) at play a succession of small ceiling cupolas. Other remark- the University of Barcelona (Scientifc-Technical Services) able morphologies common in this cave are pendants and using a Finnigan-MAT 252 mass spectrometer coupled to a cusps projected downwards from chamber ceilings. The Kiel Carbonate Device I. Samples were heated 4 min up to shapes of bedrock projections, decimetric-to-metric in 70 °C, therefore, the isotopic composition corresponds to scale, vary from irregular and rounded (pendants) (Fig. 4c, bulk carbonates. Standards were run every 6 samples with d) to pointed angular (cusps) (Fig. 4e). The surface of a reproducibility better than 0.03‰ for δ13C and 0.06‰ the cusps is normally coated by carbonate speleothems. for δ18O. Isotope values are reported as ‰ with respect to Among the dissolution morphologies identifed in Eju- the V-PDB (Vienna-Pee Dee Belemnite) standard. U-Th lve cave, spongework stands out. It consists of irregular

1 3 516 Journal of Iberian Geology (2019) 45:511–527 449 ± 17 639 ± 160 5.0 ± 0.1 3.9 ± 0.1 2.9 ± 0.1 6.1 ± 0.1 6.1 ± 0.2 218.2 ± 2.0 262.7 ± 3.2 236.7 ± 2.7 233.9 ± 2.5 239.3 ± 2.2 Age (ka) Age C 13 − 9.2 − 9.9 − 9.9 − 10.1 − 9.7 − 9.6 − 7.9 − 7.9 − 8.7 − 10.8 − 10.6 − 10.7 − 10.3 − 9.7 − 9.2 − 9.1 − 9.2 − 9.7 − 9.0 − 9.6 − 9.0 − 10.6 − 9.6 − 9.1 − 7.2 − 6.4 − 8.5 − 8.1 − 6.2 − 5.3 − 4.5 − 5.6 − 6.0 − 6.1 ‰ VPDB δ O 18 − 7.1 − 7.2 − 7.1 − 7.6 − 7.8 − 7.9 − 7.8 − 7.8 − 7.1 − 8.2 − 8.6 − 8.4 − 7.9 − 8.5 − 7.4 − 7.6 − 7.4 − 6.6 − 7.2 − 6.8 − 7.1 − 7.5 − 7.0 − 8.5 − 7.2 − 4.9 − 7.0 − 6.7 − 5.9 − 4.3 − 6.5 − 7.2 − 5.6 − 6.4 ‰ VPDB δ 4 5 6 Kaolinite 37 34 12 13 52 54 20 Dolomite Aragonite 100 100 100 100 100 100 Mg-calcite 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 59 61 88 81 48 46 80 Calcite Mineralogy (‰) Mineralogy Columnar (elongated, microcrystalline), mosaic Columnar (elongated, Columnar (feathered, elongated), micrite elongated), Columnar (feathered, Columnar (feathered, elongated), micrite, elongated), mosaic Columnar (feathered, Columnar (elongated, microcrystalline), mosaic Columnar (elongated, Columnar (elongated, microcrystalline), dentriticColumnar (elongated, Columnar (elongated, microcrystalline) Columnar (elongated, Columnar (elongated, microcrystalline) Columnar (elongated, Columnar (elongated) Columnar (elongated) Columnar (microcrystalline) Fabric Flowstone Flowstone Flowstone Flowstone Flowstone Flowstone Flowstone Flowstone Flowstone Farmed calcite Farmed calcite Farmed calcite Farmed calcite Farmed calcite Stalagmite Stalagmite Stalagmite Stalagmite Stalagmite Stalagmite Stalagmite Stalagmite Stalagmite Stalagmite Boxwork Boxwork Boxwork Boxwork Boxwork Boxwork Boxwork Boxwork Boxwork Boxwork Type a b a c b a c b a e d c b a e d c b a b a d c b a Sub Characteristics of boxwork and meteoric carbonate precipitates Characteristics of boxwork H9 H6 H6 H4 H4 H4 H1 H1 H1 EJ-67b EJ-60 EJ-20 EJ-17 EJ-1 HOR HOR HOR HOR HOR ART ART ART ART ART HUE-3 HUE-2 HOJ HOJ GOT-2 GOT-1 EJ-RA EJ-RA EJ-RA EJ-RA Sample 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ID 1 Table

1 3 Journal of Iberian Geology (2019) 45:511–527 517 - 155.9 ± 2.2 551.1 ± 77 169.8 ± 2.3 238.2 ± 2 Age (ka) Age C 13 − 1.8 − 2.4 − 2.7 − 0.7 − 1.1 − 3.8 − 3.5 − 3.9 − 3.9 − 8.5 − 8.5 − 8.7 − 8.5 − 8.8 − 9.7 − 7.7 − 7.4 − 8.9 − 8.5 − 8.8 − 9.8 − 8.8 ‰ VPDB δ O 18 − 2.6 − 3.2 − 2.6 − 1.4 − 1.2 − 2.9 − 2.9 − 3.3 − 3.2 − 7.2 − 7.4 − 6.9 − 6.6 − 7.2 − 7.8 − 6.4 − 6.9 − 7.1 − 6.7 − 7.1 − 7.6 − 7.2 ‰ VPDB δ Kaolinite 4 12 35 4 4 4 Dolomite 60 70 16 35 26 78 Aragonite 40 80 65 62 100 96 96 100 100 100 Mg-calcite 100 30 19 100 100 96 100 100 100 100 Calcite Mineralogy (‰) Mineralogy Fans (rays, circular) (rays, Fans Fans (rays, circular) (rays, Fans Fans (rays, circular) (rays, Fans Columnar (elongated, microcrystalline) Columnar (elongated, Columnar (elongated, microcrystalline) Columnar (elongated, Columnar (elongated, microcrystalline) Columnar (elongated, Columnar (elongated, microcrystalline) Columnar (elongated, Columnar (elongated, microcrystalline) Columnar (elongated, Columnar (elongated, microcrystalline) Columnar (elongated, Columnar (feathered, elongated), micrite elongated), Columnar (feathered, Columnar (feathered, elongated), micrite elongated), Columnar (feathered, Columnar (feathered, elongated), micrite elongated), Columnar (feathered, Columnar (feathered, elongated), micrite elongated), Columnar (feathered, Columnar (feathered, elongated), micrite elongated), Columnar (feathered, Columnar (elongated), micriteColumnar (elongated), Columnar (feathered, elongated), micrite elongated), Columnar (feathered, Fabric Host rock Host Host rock Host Host rock Host Host rock Host Host rock Host Host rock Host Host rock Host Host rock Host Host rock Host Acicular Acicular Acicular Acicular Acicular Acicular Acicular Spar Spar Spar Spar Spar Spar Botryoid Botryoid Botryoid Botryoid Botryoid Botryoid Botryoid Botryoid Flowstone Flowstone Type b a b a c b a b a c b Sub (continued) dol-H9 dol-H9 dol-H3 dol-H2 dol-H2 dol-4 dol-3 dol-2 dol-1 EJMa-19 EJMa-16 EJMa-15 EJMa-5 EJMa-4 EJMa-3 EJMa-1 EJM-18 H5 H5 H5 H3 H2 EJM-19 EJM-9 EJM-15 EJM-1 Rossetta HR H8 H8 H9 H9 Sample 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 Samples of stalagmites ART and HOR belongs to previous paleoclimate studies (Moreno et al. (Moreno et al. paleoclimate studies 2017 ; Pérez-Mejías pertain previous 2017 ) while the and HOR belongs to of farmed-calcite samples of stalagmites ART Samples a monitoring to sur 1 Table 2018 ) et al. (Pérez-Mejías vey ID

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Fig. 3 Ejulve cave plan view and selected cave cross sections. The distribution of speleothems is also shown (a). Diagram of fault orientations (b) decimetric frameworks formed in the dolomitic bedrock surfaces (Fig. 4a) widely distributed throughout Ejulve that are composed by a cluster of irregular interconnected cave. The blades are composed of calcite-dolomite crys- voids (Fig. 4f). In addition, rare bubble trails and pockets tals and kaolinite, with pores lined with calcite and dolo- are also present. Finally, microcorrosion features (rills) mite crystals (Table 1). Texturally, a wide-open fabric afecting the bedrock surface were commonly observed made of micro-blades and large pores has been identi- in polished slabs and thick sections, usually covered by fied (Fig. 5a). The average δ18O value of the analyzed carbonate speleothems (Fig. 4g). On the other hand, cir- carbonates (see mineralogical composition in Table 1) is cular–elliptical and vertically elongated passage cross- − 6.4‰, ranging from − 5.6 to − 7.2‰. The average δ13C sections and scallops are absent in Ejulve cave. value of the analyzed carbonates is − 5.6‰, ranging from − 4.5 to − 6.1‰ (Table 1; Fig. 6). 4.2 Boxwork 4.3 Carbonate precipitates Bedrock exposed in passages and chambers shows boxwork (Palmer 1991) constituting a centimetric-to-deci- Ejulve cave is moderately decorated with speleothems metric network of mineral blades projected from bedrock (Fig. 7a). Stalagmites, stalactites (Fig. 7a), curtains and

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Fig. 4 Boxwork (a). Cave solutional features: tubes with rising ceiling cupolas -view from above- (b), pendants (c, d), cusps coated with botryoidal carbonate deposits (e), spongework (f), and microcorrosion features on dolomitic bedrock lined with botryoidal laminated carbonate (g)

fowstones are frequent in the upper chambers and gal- and dendritic fabrics. Samples of stalagmites ART (Pérez- leries of the cave. Several stages of stalagmite growth Mejías et al. 2017) and HOR (Moreno et al. 2017) exhibit have been identifed: MIS 8 to MIS 7e (stalagmite ART) mean δ18O values of − 7.4‰ and − 7.2‰ for ART and (Pérez-Mejías et al. 2017), MIS 5 to MIS 3, and Holocene HOR, respectively (Table 1; Fig. 6). The mean δ13C values (stalagmite HOR) (Moreno et al. 2017). Stalagmites are are − 9.6‰ and − 9.2‰ for ART and HOR, respectively. made of calcite and high-Mg calcite (Table 1), displaying Flowstones are centimetric coatings (up to 6 cm thick) a wide variety of columnar (short, elongated columnar, covering cave walls and irregular bedrock morphologies microcrystalline, radiaxial and fascicular types) (Fig. 5b) with mammillary shape in surface (Fig. 7b). The internal laminae are occasionally merged in microstratigraphic units

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Fig. 5 a Open framework of boxwork blades consisting of calcite (red dyed) and dolomite (white). Crossed polars. b Elongated columnar calcite fabric of a stalagmite (crossed polars) (ID#16, Table 1). c Feathered columnar fabric in the nucleus of a spherulite (botryoid) (crossed polars) (ID#37, Table 1). d Elongated columnar fabric of the laminated coating of a spherulitic growth (botryoid) (crossed polars) (ID#41, Table 1). e Fan ray fabric made of aragonite needles (paral- lel polars) (ID#57, Table 1). f Rhombohedral calcite spar (par- allel polars) (ID#45, Table 1)

separated by unconformities. Coatings are made of calcite minor dolomite and show nucleus of columnar feathered and high-magnesium calcite, displaying columnar (short, fabric (Fig. 5c) surrounded by laminae of alternate micrite elongated and microcrystalline) and mosaic fabrics. Sparse and columnar elongated fabrics (Fig. 5d). The botryoidal dolomite has been also identifed. The mean δ18O value is deposits of Ejulve cave exhibit mean δ18O values of − 7.0‰, − 7.5‰, ranging from − 7.1 to − 7.9‰ (Table 1; Fig. 6). The ranging from − 6.4 to − 7.8‰. The average δ13C value is mean δ13C value is − 9.2‰, ranging from − 7.9 to − 10.1‰. − 8.5‰, ranging from − 7.4 to − 9.7‰ (Table 1; Fig. 6). The age of one fowstone sample is 639 ± 160 ka (Tables 1 The ages of three botryoidal speleothems are 449 ± 17.5 ka, and 2). 238.2 ± 1.9 ka and 155.9 ± 2.2 ka (Tables 1 and 2). The presence of other cave precipitates is also signifcant Acicular crystals (crystalline needles) are millimetric in in Ejulve cave. Botryoidal deposits, acicular crystals and size and grow on the bedrock but also on botryoidal deposits carbonate spars are very common and distributed through- (Fig. 7f, g). They are mostly made of aragonite, although out the cave (Fig. 3). Botryoidal deposits (coralloid or calcite, high-magnesium calcite and dolomite have been popcorn) are commonly centimetric in size, globular pre- identifed as minor components (Table 1). Microfabric of cipitates on the bedrock and sometimes on pendants, that grouped needles is made of fans (rays and acicular) (Fig. 5e). appear in chambers and passages in the mid-to-upper sec- Carbonate spars are present as crystals, millimetric-to- tions of the cave (Figs. 4e, 7c–e). Botryoids are principally centimetric in size, with rhombohedral or nail-head devel- made of calcite and high-magnesium calcite (Table 1), with opments that mainly grow on the bedrock or on collapsed

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Williams 2007). On the other hand, reticulate mazes of small passages related to joints have also been identifed in caves related to confned circulation and basal injection of meteoric waters (Ford and Williams 2007). Finally, maze patterns are also common in hypogene cave systems, related to ascending fows (Bakalowicz et al. 1987; Palmer 1991; Klimchouk 2009; Dublyansky 2013). Cave solutional features (vertical ceiling tubes, ceiling cupolas, pendants and cusps, spongework and rills) (Fig. 4) identifed in Ejulve cave might have formed under epigene conditions, although they are very common in hypogenic hydrothermal caves. Rising fow under confned conditions could be responsible for the development of ceiling rising channels with associated chains of cupolas (Klimchouk 2009; Dublyansky 2013). Bedrock partitions including ceiling pendants and cusps could develop by either enlargement of adjacent cavities by water convection or/and condensation corrosion in more recent subaerial conditions (Dublyansky 2013). Regarding the smaller-scale morphological features, Fig. 6 Stable isotope composition of meteoric speleothems (mainly such as spongework (Palmer 2011; Dublyansky 2013) and calcite and high-Mg calcite), boxwork blades (calcite and dolomite) bubble trails (Audra et al. 2002; Forti et al. 2002; Gázquez and dolomite bedrock et al. 2015), they normally occur in a subaqueous setting, whereas rills features (Palmer 1991) form under subaerial conditions. In addition, dissolution morphologies (e.g. ellip- breccias, and usually are linked to botryoids (Fig. 7h). They tic passage cross-sections and scallops) related to phreatic are common in the foors of the mid-to-lower sectors of and vadose water fow, commonly found in caves of epigenic the cave. Although the spars are mostly composed of cal- origin, are absent in Ejulve cave. Notably, signifcant isotope cite, small amounts of dolomite have also been identifed alteration of the dolomite host rock related to circulation of (Table 1). Spar crystals are made of columnar elongated and thermal water (Dublyansky 2012, 2013) is not recognized columnar microcrystalline fabrics (Fig. 5f). The mean δ18O in Ejulve cave. value is − 7.1‰, ranging from − 6.6 to − 7.4‰ (Table 1; Both the pattern of the cave and the solutional features Fig. 6). The mean δ13C value is − 8.7‰, with − 8.5‰ suggest that the initial formation stages of Ejulve cave maximum and − 8.9‰ minimum values. The ages of two might have been controlled by ascending thermal water carbonate spar samples are 551.1 ± 77 ka and 169.8 ± 2 ka under confned and/or unconfned conditions. Although (Tables 1 and 2). In addition, modern calcite precipitates this hypothesis is not conclusively supported, the presence were analyzed in this cave, which show mean δ18O value of modern regional thermal springs reinforce this model of − 8.3‰, ranging from − 7.3 to − 9.3‰, and mean δ13C (Bakalowicz et al. 1987; Ford and Williams 2007; Dub- value of − 9.9‰, ranging from − 7.2 to − 11.5‰ (Pérez- lyansky 2013). Low-temperature hydrothermal anomalies Mejías et al. 2018). have been reported by Sánchez et al. (2004) at Virgen de Ariño (22.7 °C) and Segura de los Baños (24 °C) spa resorts, located 29 km and 38 km from Ejulve cave, respectively 5 Discussion (Fig. 1b, c). Virgen de Ariño water is SO4–HCO3–Ca type, while Segura de los Baños is HCO 3–Ca type (data from 5.1 Speleogenesis of Ejulve cave http://www.chebro.es). Current geothermal fow in the southeastern sector of 5.1.1 Cave morphology Iberian Range derives from infltrated meteoric water and emerges driven by hydraulic gradients. The fast water circu- Correct identifcation of morphological features is key to lation occurs through high-permeability vertical structures assess the origin of caves (Palmer 2011). The maze net- that afect mainly hydrostratigraphic favorable units. These work of Ejulve cave follows an angular grid (Fig. 3), and units can contain water and other fuids with the potential for it is difcult to assign this pattern type to a specifc karstic thermal fuid fow, such as Triassic–Jurassic dolomite brec- environment. Angular patterns controlled by joints and faults cias and cellular dolostones (Sánchez et al. 2004). Meteoric are common in unconfned meteoric water caves (Ford and infltrated water would increase its temperature due to the

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Fig. 7 Epigenic cave deposits identifed in Ejulve cave. Stalag- mites, stalactites, soda-straws and gours (a), fowstones (b), botryoidal deposits (c, d, e), crystalline acicules formed mostly by high-Mg calcite and aragonite (f, g) and spar (h)

crustal geothermal gradient (Sánchez et al. 2004). Conse- Cave formation occurred before the fnal phase of the quently, a meteoric fow regime (Klimchouk 2017) could development of the Main Erosive Surface (Peña et al. 1984; be suggested to explain the low-temperature regional ther- Gutiérrez and Peña 1994). The current position of the cave malism. Ascending water reaching the surface is also sup- near the topographic surface clearly indicates intensive den- ported by the occurrence of travertine mounds (Sierra 2016) udation processes related to the development of this plana- deposited along fssures (Ford and Pedley 1996), related to tion surface. active faults in the vicinities of Ejulve cave (Sierra 2016).

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Table 2 230Th dating results of some meteoric carbonate precipitates

238 232 230 232 234 a 230 238 230 234 b 230 Sample U (ppb) Th (ppt) Th/ Th δ U (meas- Th/ U Th age (year) δ UInitial Th age (year number (atomic × 10−6) ured) (activity) (uncorrected) (cor- BP)c (corrected) rected)

H2 63.8 ± 0.0 6745 ± 135 135 ± 3 74.1 ± 1.4 0.8659 ± 0.0020 172609 ± 1136 120 ± 2 169761 ± 2258 H4 56.8 ± 0.0 294 ± 6 3278 ± 70 22.8 ± 1.4 1.0295 ± 0.0029 639314 ± 161162 138 ± 81 639084 ± 160696 H5 38.1 ± 0.0 3037 ± 61 211 ± 4 18.4 ± 1.6 1.0195 ± 0.0038 553323 ± 78417 87 ± 22 551089 ± 76602 H9 70.8 ± 0.1 18983 ± 380 64 ± 1 37.2 ± 1.2 1.0356 ± 0.0023 456165 ± 17809 132 ± 8 448985 ± 17453 EJM-15 92.0 ± 0.1 140 ± 3 10151 ± 228 45.8 ± 1.1 0.9391 ± 0.0018 238288 ± 1949 90 ± 2 238181 ± 1948 EJM-18 47.9 ± 0.0 5740 ± 115 131 ± 3 206.4 ± 1.4 0.9558 ± 0.0032 158643 ± 1220 320 ± 3 155904 ± 2236

Sample names are indicated in Table 1 230 Th dating results. The error is 2σ. Sample number are referred to mm from base Corrected 230Th ages assume the initial 230Th/232Th atomic ratio of 4.4 ± 2.2 × 10−6. Those are the values for a material at secular equilibrium, with the bulk earth 232Th/238U value of 3.8. The errors are arbitrarily assumed to be 50% a 234 234 238 δ U = ([ U/ U]activity – 1) × 1000 b 234 230 234 234 λ234×T δ Uinitial was calculated based on Th age (T), i.e., δ Uinitial = δ Umeasured × e c B.P. stands for “Before Present” where the “Present” is defned as the year 1950 A.D.

5.1.2 Boxwork meteoric water under epigenic conditions (Moreno et al. 2017; Pérez-Mejías et al. 2017). The origin and the isotopic composition of boxwork can Other precipitates such as botryoidal calcite (coralloids) contribute to the understanding of the early stages of Ejulve are very common in this cave, as are aragonite and calcite cave formation. The blades forming the boxwork precipi- spars (Fig. 7). These carbonates appear frequently in epi- tated in discontinuities and joints of the dolomitic bedrock. genic subaerial and subaqueous karstic environments (e.g. The isotopic composition shows higher mean values of δ18O White 1988; Ford and Williams 2007). Specifcally, Caddeo (− 6.2‰) and δ13C (− 6.4‰) than other speleothems in Eju- et al. (2015) explains the formation of coralloids as the result lve, but lower than dolomite host rock (mean value δ18O of of degassing, evaporation and difusion, and Vanghi et al. − 2.6‰ and δ13C of − 2.6‰) (Fig. 6). These isotopic val- (2017) proposed that hydroaerosols produced by dripping ues correspond to the samples that had signifcant amounts water and evaporation played a key role in their formation. of dolomite (Table 1), a mineral always with more posi- Coralloids also occur in shallow hydrothermal karst envi- tive values in δ18O than calcite (O’Neil and Epstein 1966). ronments formed from saturated water vapor in subaerial Therefore, dolomite may be responsible, at least partially, environments and from ascending warm water saturated with of the higher δ18O values of boxwork. Besides, comparison respect to calcite in low hydrodynamic subaqueous condi- between the isotopic composition of blades from Ejulve cave tions (Bakalowicz et al. 1987; Audra et al. 2002; Gradziński and hydrothermal carbonates from other caves allows dis- et al. 2011; Leél-Őssy et al. 2011; Dublyansky 2012). carding the substantial role of high-temperature hydrother- The stable isotope composition of botryoidal deposits and malism in the precipitation of these carbonate blades (Baka- spars (Fig. 6) which only contain insignifcant amount of lowicz et al. 1987; Orvošová et al. 2004; Spötl et al. 2009; dolomite, is useful to distinguish between the epigenic and Gradziński et al. 2011; Gázquez et al. 2018). The presence of hydrothermal origin (Ford and Williams 2007). Mean δ18O detrital minerals, such as kaolinite, permits not to exclude a values are − 7.0‰ (botryoids) and − 7.1‰ (spars) and mean detrital origin coming from the dolomite host rock for some δ13C values are − 8.5‰ (botryoids) and − 8.7‰ (spars). of the dolomite detected in the boxwork. The petrography These values are very close to those obtained from calcite does not ofer any conclusive features. formed at relatively low temperature (fowstones show mean δ18O values of − 7.5‰ and δ13C values of − 9.2‰) and stalagmites formed during MIS 8 to MIS 7e (Pérez-Mejías 5.1.3 Carbonate precipitates et al. 2017), while the Holocene yielded similar mean values of δ18O = − 7.2‰ and δ13C = − 9.2‰ (Moreno et al. Ejulve cave hosts a wide variety of carbonate speleothems, 2017). The small diferences in δ18O between the various but lacks autochthonous or allochthonous fuvial deposits. speleothem types can be explained by calcite precipitation In contrast, collapse breccias are frequent. Stalagmites rang- under non-equilibrium conditions because of evaporation ing in age from MIS 8 to MIS 1 record the infltration of and/or enhanced CO 2 degassing (Fairchild et al. 2006). A

1 3 524 Journal of Iberian Geology (2019) 45:511–527 comparison with isotopic data of hydrothermal carbonates with respect to calcite (Spötl et al. 2016). Dolomite has been from systems worldwide (typically δ18O < − 10‰) also sug- identifed from XRD analyses in acicular, botryoid and spar gests a non-hydrothermal origin of the Ejulve’s precipitates precipitates but is not quantitatively relevant. In spite of the (Bakalowicz et al. 1987; Orvošová et al. 2004; Spötl et al. dolomite formation recorded in other caves (Alonso-Zarza 2009; Gradziński et al. 2011; Gázquez et al. 2018). Finally, and Martín-Pérez 2008; Jones 2010), its origin in Ejulve it is remarkable that precipitation of fowstones, botryoids, cave precipitates is still not clear. and carbonate spar aggregates occurred from 639.1 ± 160.7 to 155.9 ± 2.2 ka (Table 2), simultaneously to the growth of some speleothems from MIS 8 to the present (Moreno et al. 5.2 Geomorphic evolution of Ejulve cave 2017; Pérez-Mejías et al. 2017, 2018) (Table 1). To sum up, oxygen isotopic composition of calcite deposits indicates an Successive stages in the speleogenesis of Ejulve cave isotopic signal in agreement with meteoric waters with no (Fig. 8) can be diferentiated based on the morphochro- infuence of hydrothermal rising fow. nological relationship between the cave and the regional The presence of newly formed minerals (high-Mg cal- landscape as well as the morphostratigraphic relationship cite and aragonite, Table 1) which commonly precipitate between cave morphologies and cave deposits. from Mg-rich solutions, as well as the most common fabrics During the frst stage, a network maze of passages and (Fig. 5) of Ejulve speleothems suggest that they formed from chambers and solutional features (boxwork, tubes with waters enriched in Mg derived from the dolomite bedrock. A rising ceiling cupolas, pendants and cusps, spongework high Mg/Ca ratio in the water favors the formation of arago- and microcorrosion features) probably formed during the nite (Gonzalez and Lohmann 1988). Aragonite precipitates main early speleogenetic phase. Although some morpholo- in caves from Mg-rich waters exhibit low supersaturation gies (e.g. tubes with rising cupolas, pendants) could have

Fig. 8 Schematic evolution of Ejulve cave. Successive stages from ascending to descending water fow conditions in a meteoric circulation regime are diferentiated and related to regional landscape evolution. Scale is not adjusted

1 3 Journal of Iberian Geology (2019) 45:511–527 525 generated later under epigenic subaqueous conditions, the stage of transition between them occurred before 650 ka absence of fuvial deposits and dissolution morphologies BP and was driven by denudation, tectonic uplift and fu- related to vadose water fow in the cave (e.g. notches cre- vial incision. ated by subterraneous water rivers), support the hypoth- Ascending water fow conducted to the development esis of confned or semi-confned water fows, with water of a maze network pattern and gave rise to various cave convection and condensation-corrosion processes prob- solutional features such as tubes with rising ceiling cupo- ably involved. Likewise, this hypothesis would explain las, pendants and cusps, spongework and microcorrosion. both the cave pattern and all the morphologies presented. Water convection and condensation-corrosion processes Quaternary travertine mounds along faults near Ejulve related to the water may have played a role in the hypo- cave (Sierra 2016) and modern warm springs (Sánchez thetical hypogene speleogenesis. The formation of the cave et al. 2004) support the model of warm, upwelling waters occurred probably before the Upper Pliocene. forming caves in this region. To sum up, cave formation During the more recent vadose stage (at least since likely occurred in a low-temperature hydrothermal setting 650 ka BP), carbonate speleothems formed, including (Klimchouk 2017) simultaneous with the development of stalagmites, fowstones, botryoids, and spar. The stable the Main Erosive Surface of the Iberian Range probably isotope composition of these speleothems suggests crystal- during Mio-Pliocene times (Peña et al. 1984; Gutiérrez lization under low-temperature conditions. and Peña 1994). The second stage coincides with the fnal phase shap- Acknowledgements We acknowledge the predoctoral research Grant from the Government of Aragón (B158/13) and CTM2013-48639-C2- ing the Main Erosive Surface of the Iberian Range (Upper 2-R (OPERA) and CGL2016-77479-R (SPYRIT) projects for fund- Pliocene) (Peña et al. 1984). Lowering of the surface by ing. Fernando Gázquez was fnancially supported by the “HIPATIA” denudation brought the cave to the current position close research program of the University of Almeria. This is a contribu- to the topographic surface. Subsequent landscape parti- tion of “Procesos geoambientales y cambio global” group (E02_17R). We are also grateful to Belén Oliva-Urcía for her help in the fault tion was driven by extensional tectonics (Simón et al. measurements, Alfonso Meléndez for feld examination of bedrock 2002; Gutiérrez et al. 2008) and fuvial incision related stratigraphy, Josep Elvira and Joaquin Perona for XRD analyses and to regional uplifting started around 3 Ma ago (Scotti et al. stable isotope analyses, respectively. We also acknowledge the Ejulve 2014; Giachetta et al. 2015), causing the onset of the low- Council for cave management, the use of Servicio General de Apoyo a la Investigación-SAI (University of Zaragoza), and the editor and two ering of the ground water table. anonymous reviewers that improved the paper. This article is dedicated During the third stage, a regional Quaternary fuvial to the memory of Professor Carlos Sancho. incision occurred, with a rate of ~ 0.6 mm/year related to uplift proposed by Scotti et al. (2014). 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