DOCSLIB.ORG

Ethical Aspects of Animal Experiments and the Principle of Solidarity

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Ethical Aspects of Animal Experiments and the Principle of Solidarity Animal experiments & animal protection: An ethical balance Ethical aspects of animal experiments and the principle of solidarity Karin Blumer he question of the ethical acceptabil- which assume, for example, that nature is ity of scientific animal experiments was “animated”. The Nobel Peace Prize winner Tfirst systematically discussed in philo- Albert Schweitzer developed the concept of sophical ethics in the 1970s. The discussion radical biocentrism, which includes all forms was mainly triggered by the writings of the of life in the moral community. Although this Australian philosopher Peter Singer, who laid appears plausible at first sight, it is based on the foundation for the new movement on an- an extremely deontological standard. It for- imal protection with his 1976 work - Animal bids the damage of all forms of life - whether Liberation. Philosophy has been occupied for animal, plant or bacterium - and thus places centuries with the question of man’s respon- the active agent before irresolvable dilem- sibility for non-human life. Philosophers have mas. used various theoretical approaches to ad- Finally, pathocentrism, as propagated by dress the complex theme of the relationship Peter Singer and many other proponents of between animals and man. animal protection, is incapable of provid- In classical anthropocentrism, animals ing a clear proof as to why only animals with have no inherent value at all; this can now an intact central nervous system may pos- be regarded as out-dated. It was traditionally sess an inherent moral value. What however supported by such important philosophers as is a much greater problem is the proposal by Aristoteles and Immanuel Kant, together with many pathocentrics that some animals should the Christian moral theologians. Its basic as- be declared to be “persons” and to refuse to sumption is that only man is worth protection, accept the personality of some humans. Pe- as only man is a rational and reasonable be- ter Singer has been particularly prominent ing (or in the image of God). This led to the on this issue. For him, great apes, whales and Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965) justified accusation of speciesism, first made dolphins are certainly, and all other mammals His radical biocentrism includes by Jeremy Bentham in 1789. Bentham proved very probably, persons, whereas newborn ba- that this was egoistic group behaviour, as bies, persons with severe mental handicaps all living creatures in the moral solely the membership of the biological spe- and comatose persons are degraded to “mere order. According to this, harm to cies Homo sapiens served as the ground for members of the species Homo sapiens”. any form of life - whether ani- justification. At least since the general ac- “Moderate biocentrism” or “moderate mal, plant, parasite or bacterium ceptance of the theory of evolution in the mid anthropocentrism” is a moral theory which – is forbidden. 19th century, the thesis of man’s biological might be widely acceptable and plausible uniqueness can no longer be maintained. these days. Both theories ascribe a moral sta- However, many other ethical positions tus to all forms of life, although the binding on the relationship between animals and inherent value of this increases with the po- man are equally unsatisfactory. Thus, ho- sition of the species on the evolutionary lad- lism, which demands an independent right of der (hierarchy of the organisms). Thus, for ex- existence for even mountains or rivers, suf- ample, there would be more reason to protect fers from its highly metaphysical premises, the health of a dog than of a hamster or of a 27 Animal experiments & animal protection: An ethical balance worm. However, the human being retains a } The increase in knowledge can be achieved special position even within “moderate bio- in no other manner. Alternative methods centrism” or “moderate anthropocentrism”. cannot be used. A principle objective of philosophical } This is not an unjustified repeated experi- ethics is to develop standards for human ac- ment. } No more animals are used than is abso- tions and to provide reasons to justify these. lutely necessary. On the basis of formal guidelines, every vio- } The animals used are as low on the evolu- lation of animal interests must be justified by tionary ladder as possible. a balanced consideration of values. This does } No avoidable harm is inflicted on the ani- not only apply to animal experiments, but to mals. This particularly applies to care, hus- all actions in which animals are used for hu- bandry and possible use of analgesia. man requirements. Committees on animal protection comply Animal experiments have a special sta- with these guidelines when approving ani- tus in the discussions of the relationship be- mal experiments. tween animals and man. This is not only This argumentation is also both permissi- because many people regard them more crit- ble and necessary for animal experiments in ically than, for example, slaughter of animals basic research. The fact is often overlooked for meat or the specific breeding of beauti- that the balanced evaluation does not sim- ply compare the interest of the animals with ful but anatomically or physiologically sick the increase in knowledge as an aim in it- races. A much more important consideration self. It is rather the case that the interests is that the motive of the scientific animal ex- must be included of the innumerable peo- periment is to increase knowledge. This in- ple who suffer from diseases which cannot crease in knowledge is by no means an end in be treated or cannot be treated adequately. itself, but has a concrete objective: the main- With these premises, a massive restriction tenance and furtherance of the health and in biomedical research, as is sometimes de- According to Aristoteles quality of life of men and animals and the in- manded, becomes ethically indefensible, as (384-322 B.C.) possess both a crease in the knowledge of nature. Although not only actions, but their omission, must be “vegetative” and an “animalistic” this goal cannot be attained in each indi- morally justified. It would only be conceiv- able to dispense with animal experiments soul. They are capable of fulfilling vidual experiment, philosophical considera- completely, if increases in scientific knowl- their own needs in a deliberate tions indicate that it possesses greater value than, for example, excessive supplies of ani- edge in wide areas of biomedical research manner, but cannot act could be sacrificed. This sacrifice would be of mal proteins to people in industrial countries reasonably. Arthur possible therapies for many diseases, which or the aesthetic demands of the owners of do- Schopenhauer (1788-1860) are not peripheral phenomena, but very com- mestic dogs or cats. As in our society an in- considered that animals possess mon. These include cancer, HIV infection and crease in knowledge possesses a high moral AIDS, cystic fibrosis, cardiovascular diseases the same characteristics as man. value, animal experiments can be justified if and Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. This means that they are capable the following conditions are fulfilled: A complete prohibition of experimental of suffering and feeling. } The increase in knowledge is essential and animal research would also be in conflict with serves ethically justifiable objectives. another valid fundamental moral standard, 28 Animal experiments & animal protection: An ethical balance the solidarity principle. This describes the sions when we are compelled to violate one principle of providing the best possible sup- obligation. As long as it is scientifically im- port to all those requiring help - the weak and possible to unravel complex causal activity the sick. The solidarity principle is not only relationships in living animals without ani- one of the many preconditions for life in hu- mal research, this conflict between obliga- man communities; it is a special characteris- tions will remain the theme of ethical discus- tic of man as a morally responsible being ca- sions. There will never be a general answer pable of solidarity. to the question of whether an animal experi- People who perform animal experiments ment is justified. Only specific individual an- always experience conflict between two ob- swers are possible. 3 ligations. The first of these is positive and is the obligation to use one’s own knowl- edge and abilities to reduce human and ani- mal suffering. In contrast, the negative obli- from: Animals Experiments in Research – gation is not to inflict avoidable suffering on Thea brochure author is issued a veterinary by the physician,German Research has a doc- other creatures. In the context of human ac- torateFoundation in philosophy DFG and currently works in the tivity, we often find it difficult to reach deci- pharmaceutical industry. 29.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Biocentrism in Environmental Ethics: Questions of Inherent Worth, Etiology, and Teleofunctional Interests David Lewis Rice III University of Arkansas, Fayetteville
    University of Arkansas, Fayetteville ScholarWorks@UARK Theses and Dissertations 8-2016 Biocentrism in Environmental Ethics: Questions of Inherent Worth, Etiology, and Teleofunctional Interests David Lewis Rice III University of Arkansas, Fayetteville Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd Part of the Ethics and Political Philosophy Commons Recommended Citation Rice, David Lewis III, "Biocentrism in Environmental Ethics: Questions of Inherent Worth, Etiology, and Teleofunctional Interests" (2016). Theses and Dissertations. 1650. http://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd/1650 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UARK. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UARK. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. Biocentrism in Environmental Ethics: Questions of Inherent Worth, Etiology, and Teleofunctional Interests A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Philosophy by David Rice Delta State University Bachelor of Science in Biology, 1994 Delta State University Master of Science in Natural Sciences in Biology, 1999 University of Mississippi Master of Arts in Philosophy, 2009 August 2016 University of Arkansas This dissertation is approved for recommendation to the Graduate Council. ____________________________________ Dr. Richard Lee Dissertation Director ____________________________________ ____________________________________ Dr. Warren Herold Dr. Tom Senor Committee Member Committee Member Abstract Some biocentrists argue that all living things have "inherent worth". Anything that has inherent worth has interests that provide a reason for why all moral agents should care about it in and of itself. There are, however, some difficulties for biocentric individualist arguments which claim that all living things have inherent worth.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction: the Emerging Alliance of World Religions and Ecology
    Emerging Alliance of World Religions and Ecology 1 Mary Evelyn Tucker and John A. Grim Introduction: The Emerging Alliance of World Religions and Ecology HIS ISSUE OF DÆDALUS brings together for the first time diverse perspectives from the world’s religious traditions T regarding attitudes toward nature with reflections from the fields of science, public policy, and ethics. The scholars of religion in this volume identify symbolic, scriptural, and ethical dimensions within particular religions in their relations with the natural world. They examine these dimensions both historically and in response to contemporary environmental problems. Our Dædalus planning conference in October of 1999 fo- cused on climate change as a planetary environmental con- cern.1 As Bill McKibben alerted us more than a decade ago, global warming may well be signaling “the end of nature” as we have come to know it.2 It may prove to be one of our most challenging issues in the century ahead, certainly one that will need the involvement of the world’s religions in addressing its causes and alleviating its symptoms. The State of the World 2000 report cites climate change (along with population) as the critical challenge of the new century. It notes that in solving this problem, “all of society’s institutions—from organized re- ligion to corporations—have a role to play.”3 That religions have a role to play along with other institutions and academic disciplines is also the premise of this issue of Dædalus. The call for the involvement of religion begins with the lead essays by a scientist, a policy expert, and an ethicist.
    [Show full text]
  • Attfield, Robin, "Sylvan, Fox and Deep Ecology: a View from the Continental Shelf." Environmental Values 2, No
    The White Horse Press Full citation: Attfield, Robin, "Sylvan, Fox and Deep Ecology: A View from the Continental Shelf." Environmental Values 2, no. 1, (1993): 21-32. http://www.environmentandsociety.org/node/5486 Rights: All rights reserved. © The White Horse Press 1993. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of criticism or review, no part of this article may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, including photocopying or recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission from the publishers. For further information please see http://www.whpress.co.uk. Sylvan, Fox and Deep Ecology: A View from the Continental Shelf ROBIN ATTFIELD School of English Studies, Journalism and Philosophy University of Wales College of Cardiff PO Box 94, Cardiff CF1 3XB, UK ABSTRACT: Both Richard Sylvan’s trenchant critique of Deep Ecology and Warwick Fox’s illuminating reinterpretation and defence are presented and appraised. Besides throwing light on the nature and the prospects of the defence of Deep Ecology and of its diverse axiological, epistemological and metaphysi- cal strands, the appraisal discloses the range of normative positions open to those who reject anthropocentrism, of which Deep Ecology is no more than one (and, if Fox’s account of its nature is right, may not be one at all). A position intermediate between Deep Ecology and anthropocentrism is advocated, which has been called by Wayne Sumner “middle-depth environmentalism – a kind of continental shelf between the shallow and deep extremes”. KEYWORDS: Deep Ecology, impartiality, value-theory, identification, self- realization, biocentrism My aim is to discuss and sift a key moment in the debate concerning the nature and merits of Deep Ecology.
    [Show full text]
  • Red Biocentrism for the Anthropocene
    Red Biocentrism for the Anthropocene Abstract If the dawn of the Anthropocene heralds the collapse of the natural and social sciences into a single geostory, then why not also a radical synthesis of the anthropocentrism of Marxist theorising with the biocentrism of Deep Ecology? This article proposes just such a unification for theorising education. Firstly, those on the educational left who wish to develop a fundamental unity between red and green should perhaps unearth the roots of Deep Ecological thinking and delve into the long and manifold history of socialist movements with the aim of identifying where, between the deep red and deep green, might lie some shared origins in common ground. The flawed but nevertheless distinctive monism of the first philosopher of Marxism, Joseph Dietzgen offers a philosophy which both prefigures the cosmology of Deep Ecology and suggests means of reconciling the narrative of human toil and ‘progress’ with that of human ‘nestedness’. The task facing the socialist looking to explore such a possibility needs to be located principally at the level of ‘cosmic’, rather than ‘social’ ontology, and this article sketches the outlines of such a unity project. Secondly, from this synthesis flows a set of implications for education and human growth. As the article explains, themes such as alienation and subjectification which cross- pollinate the theoretical perspectives might serve as central motifs in a red biocentric educational project fit for the Anthropocene. It is not solely environmental education, but approaches to education more broadly that require reconceptualisation for the Anthropocene. Keywords: Marxism, biocentrism, Anthropocene, Eros, Deep Ecology, pedagogy Introduction A spectre still haunts Europe.
    [Show full text]
  • Survival Ethics Theory: to Be Good Is First to Be
    AUTHOR: CHARLES C. VERHAREN/DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY/ HOWARD UNIVERSITY EXCERPT FROM AUTHORS’ ACCEPTED VERSION OF “INTRODUCING SURVIVAL ETHICS INTO ENGINEERING EDUCATION AND PRACTICE,” SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING ETHICS. AUTHORS: VERHAREN, CHARLES C; THARAKAN, JOHN; MIDDENDORF, GEORGE; CASTRO-SITIRICHE, MARCEL; KADODA, GADA. DOI 10.1007/s11948-011-9332-9, RECEIVED: 22 JUNE 2011 / ACCEPTED: 24 NOVEMBER 2011 SURVIVAL ETHICS THEORY: TO BE GOOD IS FIRST TO BE Ethical systems specify life’s basic values and appropriate means to achieve them. Haidt (2007) claimed that although ethical systems vary culturally, they all include a set of basic values: fairness, loyalty, respect for authority and spiritual purity. While agreeing on the importance of these values, we suggest an alternative approach that recognizes a more fundamental set of values justified by their direct survival utility. Renowned thinkers have singled out these values, and cultures through the ages have exhibited dependence on them. Principles like Haidt’s fairness and loyalty may be derived from this foundational set. There are two basic values in this survival ethics system. The first is survival itself: To be good is first to be—both for individuals and the communities to which they belong. All other values follow from this first principle because no other values exist in the absence of life itself. The second value is flourishing, inasmuch as survival is better achieved when life flourishes. Values such as rationality, community bonding, pleasure, freedom, and introspection or meditation define flourishing. The fact that survival is the pre-condition for all other values does not mean that survival of self is the most important value.
    [Show full text]
  • Finding Hope in the End: an Ecocritical Analysis of the Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
    Finding Hope in the End: An Ecocritical Analysis of The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement Angie McAdam Georgia State University ~ [email protected] Abstract Our planet is experiencing climate change, drastic losses in biodiversity, and many other environmental issues. While many individuals may be struggling to find ways in which they can do something to help address the current ecological crisis, one movement presents a radical option. The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement, which advocates for extinction of humankind by simply choosing not to reproduce, represents a resolute and surprising spirit of hopefulness in the face of environmental crisis. For this paper, I studied The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement (VHMET) website and identified the organization’s beliefs and values. I then analyzed them from an ecocritical perspective, drawing on deep ecology and ecofeminist thought. To do this, I performed a discourse analysis of the website to locate language that expressed values and beliefs. After conducting my analysis, I discovered that VHMET clearly expresses several core values, including: biocentrism, freedom, voluntariness, unity, responsibility, and hope. I conclude that VHEMT does reflect the ecological values and takes these values to a radical, but nonviolent, conclusion. The sincerity of its biocentrism perspective allows members to see positivity and hope in the vision of a human-free planet. Ultimately, I do not think VHEMT will ever reach its goal. I believe that VHEMT members know and accept this. However, I argue that this social movement organization represents a sincere and passionate response to climate change that our society desperately needs, offering a fresh, albeit challenging, perspective on what the actions of humanity should be in the face of climate change.
    [Show full text]
  • Radical Environmentalism and Religion
    W&M ScholarWorks Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects 1996 Radical Environmentalism and Religion Evelyn Louise Bush College of William & Mary - Arts & Sciences Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wm.edu/etd Part of the Environmental Policy Commons, Environmental Sciences Commons, and the Religion Commons Recommended Citation Bush, Evelyn Louise, "Radical Environmentalism and Religion" (1996). Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects. Paper 1539626083. https://dx.doi.org/doi:10.21220/s2-nqvx-fb44 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects at W&M ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects by an authorized administrator of W&M ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. RADICAL ENVIRONMENTALISM AND RELIGION A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of the Department of Sociology The College of William and Mary in Virgina In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts by Evelyn L. Bush , 1996 APPROVAL SHEET thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts aVelyn L. Bush Approved, June 1996 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv ABSTRACT v INTRODUCTION 2 CHAPTER I. RELIGION AND ENVIRONMENTALISM: A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 7 CHAPTER II. THE LYNN WHITE THESIS 33 CHAPTER III. LITERATURE REVIEW: PART ONE 46 CHAPTER IV. LITERATURE REVIEW: PART TWO 60 CHAPTER V. DEEP ECOLOGY 70 CHAPTER VI. SOCIAL ECOLOGY 87 CHAPTER VII. TWO REFORMIST MOVEMENTS 114 CONCLUSION 13 8 APPENDIX 147 NOTES 148 BIBLIOGRAPHY 150 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express appreciation to Professor Edwin H.
    [Show full text]
  • Christian Environmentalism the Impact of Anthropocentrism On
    Christian Environmentalism Dialogue & Nexus | Fall 2015-Spring 2016 |Volume 3 The Impact of Anthropocentrism on Christian Environmentalism Alexis Grasse Department of Biology; College of Arts and Sciences Abilene Christian University This paper will discuss the effects of anthropocentrism in Christian theology, doctrine, and environmentalism. The development and history of Christian environmentalism will be examined, with emphasis on the time since the 1960s, when environmentalism came to the forefront in the Western world. Alternative interpretations and worldviews, mainly ecocentrism and biocentrism, will be considered and compared to the prevalent anthropocentric view. I will close with a presentation of two possible means for developing a Christian ecological theology without anthropocentrism. An environmental position most coherent with Christian principles will be left open to the reader; my purpose is to examine the impact of anthropocentrism and to present alternatives that have the potential to create a Christian ethic which values and supports environmental efforts more effectively and purposefully than currently done. Visiting a typical American Christian think and act towards the environment in church on a Sunday morning, one might light of their faith. We will see that the rise expect a sermon on spiritual disciplines, of the environmentalism movement in the politics, and even personal finances. But United States demanded a response from chances are that one would not typically Christians, but that the resulting responses hear a sermon on environmentalism or the were still highly anthropocentric and interconnectedness of God, nature, and man; resulted in relatively little change in most pastors have likely not thought much Christian involvement in environmental about such matters, much less preached a efforts.
    [Show full text]
  • Toward the Universal Declaration of Rights of Nature Thoughts for Action
    Toward the Universal Declaration of Rights of Nature Thoughts for action Alberto Acosta1 Article for the AFESE journal 24 August, 2010 "Nature still has much to say and it is high time we, its children, stopped playing deaf. And maybe even God will hear the call coming from this Andean country Ecuador and add the eleventh commandment forgotten in the instructions given to us from Mount Sinai, “Thou shalt love Nature, of which thou art part”." Eduardo Galeano (18 April, 2008) The materialistic –mechanistic and endless—accumulation of goods considered as progress has no future. The limits implicit in the lifestyles based on the ideological vision of anthropocentric progress are increasingly marked and a cause for concern. If we want the absorption capacity and resilience of the earth not to collapse, we must stop considering natural resources a condition for economic growth or a mere object of development policies. Additionally, we should accept that mankind is crystallized within a community context, together and as related to other human beings, as an integral part of Nature, without intending to dominate it. This leads us to accept that Nature, being a social construct, that is, as a term conceptualized by humans, must be wholly reinterpreted and revised if we intend to preserve the life of human beings on the planet. To begin any reflection, let us accept that mankind is not outside Nature and that Nature has its limits. We must admit, without denying science's valuable contributions, that the voracity to amass resources the capitalist system has forced human societies to subordinate Nature; although we cannot ignore several pre-capitalist cases of downfall of entire societies as a result of disrespecting Nature (Diamond 2006).
    [Show full text]
  • The Direction of Ecological Insurrections: Political Ecology Comes to Daggers with Fukuoka
    The direction of ecological insurrections: political ecology comes to daggers with Fukuoka Alexander Dunlap1 University of Oslo, Norway Abstract This article proposes a political ecology of resistance. This is done by putting forward insurrectionary political ecology as a lens of research and struggle, through the confluence of the complementary "political" practice of insurrectionary anarchism and the "ecological" method of "no-till natural farming." While seemingly different, the article argues that these practices are compatible, animating a political ecology of resistance around anti- authoritarian political and ecological lifeways. This direction, or compass, of insurrectionary political ecology is discussed in relation to other autonomous tendencies, as it complements and strengthens existing critical schools of thought heavily influenced by political ecology, such as (decolonial) degrowth, environmental justice and post-development. Insurrectionary political ecology deepens connections with scholarly rebels in political and ecological struggles outside—and rejecting—the university system. The article includes discussions of research ethics, various conceptions of "activism", autonomous tendencies and existing differences between the concepts of "revolution" and "insurrection", in order to debate notions of "counter-hegemony" and "duel- power." The overall purpose here is to offer a theoretical ethos for a political ecology of resistance that invigorates political praxis to subvert the ongoing socio-ecological catastrophes. Keywords: Resistance; insurrectionary political ecology; post-development; decolonization; degrowth; insurrectionary ecology; environmental justice Résumé Cet article propose une écologie politique de la résistance. Cela se fait en proposant «l'écologie politique insurrectionnelle» comme un prisme de recherche et de lutte, à travers la confluence de la pratique politique de l'anarchisme insurrectionnel et de la méthode «écologique» de «l'agriculture naturelle sans labour».
    [Show full text]
  • Env 121: Conservation of Biodiversity
    Env 121: Conservation of Biodiversity Lecture 2: Introduction to Conservation 3 April 2007 Professor Victoria Sork 1 What is conservation biology? Definition How is it studied? 1. The study of biodiversity 1. Application of theories and 2. Study of threatened and concepts of basic biology. endangered species • Ecology, evolution, 3. Study of ecological and population genetics, evolutionary processes that systematics, underlie preservation biogeography 2. Incorporation of economics, sociology, anthropology, philosophy, public policy 4 April 2007 2 1 Conservation biology as a crisis discipline 1. Population: human population growth and disturbance is threatening biodiversity 2. Affluence: Unequal use of human resources 3. Technology 4 April 2007 3 Framework & Solutions • Stewardship of natural biodiversity • Environmental education • Interaction of good science and good policy • Environmentally sustainable development 4 April 2007 4 2 Contemporary threats to biodiversity 4 April 2007 5 Ethical Principles of Conservation • Diversity of species and biological communities should be preserved • Untimely extinctions of populations and species should be prevented • Ecological complexity should be maintained • Evolution should continue • Biological diversity has intrinsic value 4 April 2007 6 3 History of conservation in the US, I Romantic-Transcendental Conservation Ethic • Mid 1800’s: Quasi-religious • Ralph Waldo Emerson: Nature is a temple to commune with spiritual world • David Henry Thoreau: Walden published in 1854 – Give up materialism • John Muir (1838-1914): preservation ethic; spiritual value of nature 4 April 2007 Photo: John Muir with Teddy 7 Roosevelt at Yosemite in 1903 History: Resource Conservation Ethic • “natural resource” • “greatest good for the greatest number for the longest time” • Gifford Pinchot (1865-1946, – First head of US Forest Service • Precursor to today’s version of sustainable development • Government bodies are needed to manage and control natural resources.
    [Show full text]
  • The Green Movement: Implications for Animals
    THE GREEN MOVEMENT: IMPLICATIONS FOR ANIMALS Ronnie Z. Hawkins PO. Box 13253 Gainesville, Florida 32604 Introduction The Green movement, a newly emerging political movement that is both global in scope and firmly anchored to each local region at the grassroots level, is destined to be of great import to those concerned with the status of nonhuman animals in our society. Closely allied with deep ecology and bioregionalism, Green thinking embodies an alteration in our perception of the human organism: no longer seen as separate from and superior to all the other components of the ecosystem, our species is placed in context as one among many interdependent forms of life, with the attainment of a sustainable balance among all life forms being the desired goal in designing our human activities. Translation of this viewpoint into political action is the challenge of Green organi­ zations on several continents today. Green political organizations are springing up in one form or another all around the globe, including here in North America, but the West German die Grunen, the Greens, are perhaps the best known and have generated a detailed platform that will provide a helpful model for an examination of Green politics and its ramifications with regard to animal issues. Briefly, the policies of die Grunen are based on four fundamental principles: ecology, social responsibility, grassroots demo­ cracy, and nonviolence. The principle of ecology entails holistic thinking as well as ecological science, and deep ecology (to be discussed in greater detail shortly) as opposed to a shallow environmentalism which seeks ecosystem protection solely out of human-centered concern.
    [Show full text]