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Radical Environmentalism and Religion W&M ScholarWorks Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects 1996 Radical Environmentalism and Religion Evelyn Louise Bush College of William & Mary - Arts & Sciences Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wm.edu/etd Part of the Environmental Policy Commons, Environmental Sciences Commons, and the Religion Commons Recommended Citation Bush, Evelyn Louise, "Radical Environmentalism and Religion" (1996). Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects. Paper 1539626083. https://dx.doi.org/doi:10.21220/s2-nqvx-fb44 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects at W&M ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects by an authorized administrator of W&M ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. RADICAL ENVIRONMENTALISM AND RELIGION A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of the Department of Sociology The College of William and Mary in Virgina In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts by Evelyn L. Bush , 1996 APPROVAL SHEET thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts aVelyn L. Bush Approved, June 1996 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv ABSTRACT v INTRODUCTION 2 CHAPTER I. RELIGION AND ENVIRONMENTALISM: A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 7 CHAPTER II. THE LYNN WHITE THESIS 33 CHAPTER III. LITERATURE REVIEW: PART ONE 46 CHAPTER IV. LITERATURE REVIEW: PART TWO 60 CHAPTER V. DEEP ECOLOGY 70 CHAPTER VI. SOCIAL ECOLOGY 87 CHAPTER VII. TWO REFORMIST MOVEMENTS 114 CONCLUSION 13 8 APPENDIX 147 NOTES 148 BIBLIOGRAPHY 150 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express appreciation to Professor Edwin H. Rhyne, for patiently and persistently reading numerous drafts of this paper and providing guidance with regard to its organization. His continuous encouragement to stand firm on some of its more controversial aspects is also appreciated. Thanks also to Professors Jon S. Kerner and Kathleen F. Slevin for their helpful suggestions and criticism. iv ABSTRACT This paper explores the relationship between religion and environmentalism within environmental movements. Particular attention is given to how that relationship varies according to the radical or reformist nature of each particular movement. Two main arguments are presented. First, much of the previous research exploring the relationship between religion and environmentalism has failed to acknowledge the historical and structural nature of that relationship. Second, evidence of a relationship between religious belief and environmental behavior is likely to be found within radical environmental movements and not likely to be found within reformist environmental movements due to variance within these movements with regard to the degree to which they espouse lifestyles that significantly go against the grain of contemporary culture. Literature written by the founders of two radical environmental movements, Deep Ecology and Social Ecology, and literature published by two reformist environmental organizations, Friends of the Earth and the National Wildlife Federation, are analyzed for content that demonstrates that these movements require of their adherents either acceptance or rejection of religious axioms. As expected, literature from radical environmental movements strongly suggests that environmental behaviors within those movements are inspired by ideas that are religious in character. This was not found to be the case within reformist environmental movements. v RADICAL ENVIRONMENTALISM AND RELIGION INTRODUCTION The following paper explores the relationship between religion and environmentalism within environmental movements. Particular attention is given to that relationship as it exists within radical, in contrast to reformist, environmental movements. I initially chose this topic after reading "The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis" by Lynn White Jr. (1967), in which White makes the argument that modern science and technology, which have made our current "ecological crisis" possible, were highly influenced during their development by Judeo-Christian religion. From this he concludes that, "Christianity bears a huge burden of guilt" and calls for us to either, "find a new religion or rethink our old one" (White 1967; p. 1206). My initial intention was to explore White's thesis using an approach similar to that which has been used by many social researchers who have explored it, i.e. through survey research targeting variation in environmental attitudes as a function of religious affiliation. However, after reviewing several of such studies previously conducted and after returning to White's article multiple times, I gradually came to the conclusion that this type of survey research, when applied to White's thesis, 2 3 misses the point. In retrospect, the reasons for this should have been obvious from the start. First, to conduct a survey aimed at finding a negative relationship between Judeo-Christian religion and environmentalism on the basis of Lynn White's argument is akin to attempting to find a correlation between Protestant church attendance and Capitalist entrepreneurship within contemporary society on the basis of Weber's Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. White's argument is very historical and very structural. He points out that the elements of Judeo-Christian ideology that shaped the developments of science and technology have become embedded in our contemporary secular institutions and are not upheld exclusively by Judeo-Christians. Although the axioms which guide environmental behavior may have historical foundations in Judeo-Christian religion, they have become secularized. Members of mainstream Western society may still adhere to these axioms, but they probably do so independent of personal religious beliefs. Second, such research assumes that individuals who do not practice environmentalism have particular beliefs that actively keep them from doing so. In reality, no reason is needed not to practice environment-friendly behaviors. In contemporary society, to maintain environmentally damaging daily practices requires little effort. It is among those who do practice environment-friendly behaviors, since such 4 behaviors do require effort, that we may be more likely to find ideas that motivate people to act, especially if their actions deviate from that which is considered ordinary within our culture. Furthermore, if environmentalism is practiced within the context of a lifestyle which differs radically from that of mainstream culture, these ideas may have a religious character. However, it may or may not be Judeo-Christian religion in which they are founded. Therefore, when trying to locate these beliefs, it is necessary to use a definition of religion that encompasses both Judeo-Christian and non-Judeo-Christian religions. The definitions of religion used for this paper are derived from Emile Durkheim's The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. Convinced that it is among environmentalists, as opposed to non-environmentalists, that religious motivation for environmental behavior may be found, I chose to begin with environmental movements themselves and to search for religious ideology within those movements. This is in contrast to previous research, which begins by locating Judeo-Christians and surveying to find differences among them and between them and non-Judeo-Christians with regard to environmental attitudes and behaviors. However, in the same sense that term "religion" denotes something much more complex than the distinction between Judeo-Christian and non-Judeo-Christian, the term "environmentalist" does not simply refer to one broad category 5 of people who "care about the environment." There are many types of environmentalism and they vary considerably. At one end of the spectrum, we may find those who value the environment strictly for recreational purposes and whose environmental behaviors do not extend beyond purchasing high quality camping and recreational gear. At the other end, wemay find those who intentionally practice ascetic, subsistence-based lives which sharply go against the grain of contemporary culture. Countless shades of environmentalism exist between the two. Since different levels of * environmentalism can be expected to require different levels of personal effort and commitment, the type of ideology which maintains environmental behaviors, and the extent to which it is pertinent, may also vary. For this reason I chose to distinguish between radical and reformist environmental movements. It is specifically within radical environmental movements that I expected religion to be a motivational force. It is within these movements that members advocate and attempt to lead lifestyles that, within the structure of contemporary society, require intense levels of commitment - so intense, that religious ideology may play an integral role in sustaining them. Therefore, literature from two radical environmental movements, deep ecology and social ecology, was analyzed for content to demonstrate that this is indeed the case. I have also included analyses of literature from two 6 reformist movements to provide contrast with the radical movements. As expected, literature from the radical environmental movements strongly suggested that environmental behaviors within those movements are inspired by ideas that are religious in character. This was not found to be case within reformist environmental
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