Christian Environmentalism Dialogue & Nexus | Fall 2015-Spring 2016 |Volume 3 The Impact of on Christian Environmentalism Alexis Grasse Department of Biology; College of Arts and Sciences Abilene Christian University

This paper will discuss the effects of anthropocentrism in Christian theology, doctrine, and environmentalism. The development and history of Christian environmentalism will be examined, with emphasis on the time since the 1960s, when environmentalism came to the forefront in the Western world. Alternative interpretations and , mainly and biocentrism, will be considered and compared to the prevalent anthropocentric view. I will close with a presentation of two possible means for developing a Christian ecological theology without anthropocentrism. An environmental position most coherent with Christian principles will be left open to the reader; my purpose is to examine the impact of anthropocentrism and to present alternatives that have the potential to create a Christian ethic which values and supports environmental efforts more effectively and purposefully than currently done.

Visiting a typical American Christian think and act towards the environment in church on a Sunday morning, one might light of their faith. We will see that the rise expect a sermon on spiritual disciplines, of the environmentalism movement in the , and even personal finances. But United States demanded a response from chances are that one would not typically Christians, but that the resulting responses hear a sermon on environmentalism or the were still highly anthropocentric and interconnectedness of , , and man; resulted in relatively little change in most pastors have likely not thought much Christian involvement in environmental about such matters, much less preached a efforts. Although no concrete conclusion sermon on the topics. Yet if Christianity will be reached, we will end by exploring applies to all parts of life, as most two ways in which Christians could reframe Christians would agree, why should there their ecological outlook that could serve as not be sermons on how to view and respect promising alternatives to the traditional the ? Why has the Christian church as a anthropocentric view of nature. whole been largely absent from the discussion on environmental issues? Anthropocentrism Defined An investigation into the influence of Since anthropocentrism is central to one belief, anthropocentrism, on Christian this discussion, we will begin with an theology may help explain these questions. explanation of anthropocentrism as a belief To begin this investigation, and social construct, and then to examine anthropocentrism must be defined and where it is embedded within traditional contrasted with two other important Christian doctrine and how this could affect viewpoints – ecocentrism and biocentrism. an ecological theology developed from the Then, we will examine anthropocentrism Christian perspective. By dictionary within Christian doctrine and how this has definition (Merriam-Webster’s), affected the formation of Christian anthropocentrism is the belief that ecological theology and how Christians are the superior beings on earth or in the

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Christian Environmentalism Dialogue & Nexus | Fall 2015-Spring 2016 |Volume 3 universe; to put it more crudely, the world some alternatives to anthropocentrism must does indeed revolve around humankind. An be explained. As the effects of human anthropocentric view, then, is one that degradation of the earth have come to the evaluates the universe by human standards forefront of politics and culture with the and values. Anthropocentrism is not in itself growth of the environmentalist movement, a complete belief system, but rather a view an entire field of study, environmental that can be seen interwoven throughout , has developed from the need to many different worldviews and cultures. To identify and categorize the ethical and a certain extent, all human thinking is philosophical roots of the different beliefs naturally anthropocentric, and this should humans have regarding their relationship to not come as a surprise. Human values and the earth. experiences are the only basis humankind Joseph DesJardins introduces two has by which to measure and understand the views that will be of interest to this universe around them, and it is very discussion for comparison against difficult, if not impossible, to separate anthropocentrism: ecocentrism and oneself from ones’ own experiences and biocentrism. Ecocentrism is the belief that values. Thus it is reasonable to conclude that all of nature, both biotic and abiotic any human must be somewhat components, has intrinsic value and anthropocentric, that everyone builds their interconnectedness. No one species is way of thinking starting from a level of superior or has higher moral status than “default anthropocentrism.”1 another. The deep movement, However, the component of which is prominent among anthropocentrism that will be most relevant environmentalists and stems from for this paper is the idea that humankind is ecocentrism, is characterized best by the the most significant entity in the universe, purpose of “rejecting the ‘man-in- which is not impossible to separate from environment image’ in favor of a more one’s thinking. This is what Martinelli refers holistic and non-anthropocentric approach.”4 to as “qualitative anthropocentrism” and A key point of is that humans “quantitative anthropocentrism,” or the level do not have the right to interfere in nature of anthropocentric reasoning that seeks out outside of satisfying vital needs. the differences between humankind and The second view to consider in other species, and seeks to create a hierarchy opposition to anthropocentrism is based on those differences.2 There is a social biocentrism. Any biocentric ethic is one that aspect to this level of anthropocentrism – it considers all living beings to be intrinsically gives humankind a sense of group identity valuable. Notice that this is slightly different as opposed to other groups (or species), from ecocentrism, which also ascribes which may offer insight into why Western inherent worth to non-living entities. culture is so rich in anthropocentric Because all living beings have inherent thought.3 worth, a respect for nature becomes the most important moral determinant, according to Alternatives to Anthropocentrism Paul Taylor, a biocentric ethicist.5 Even Before moving into the identification from these brief descriptions of biocentrism of anthropocentrism within Christianity,

1 Martinelli, 2008, p. 80 4 DesJardins, 1993, p. 215 2 Ibid. 5 Ibid. p. 153 3 Ibid. pp. 80-81

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Christian Environmentalism Dialogue & Nexus | Fall 2015-Spring 2016 |Volume 3 and ecocentrism, it is plain that they are this is part of nature’s intended purpose.6 radically different from anthropocentrism. The main debate among theologians has been over how Christians should use natural Anthropocentrism in Traditional , not calling into question the belief Christianity that they are entitled to do so.7 In fact, this Now, keeping our basic, but idea of dominion over nature is also an sufficient, understanding of implication of anthropocentrism outside of anthropocentrism in mind, we will see, upon Christianity. If humanity is the most examination, that anthropocentrism is important species, we automatically have the deeply embedded within the major authority to use nature for our own benefit. traditional teachings of Christianity. It is Nature has instrumental value, but is not important to note that I will make some guaranteed intrinsic value.8 generalizations here for the sake of brevity; Another Christian idea that has some branches of Christianity may not fully anthropocentric implications is the ascribe to all or even some of the following traditional interpretation of the biblical view beliefs as part of their doctrine. However, of the wilderness and land.9 One of the main they are indisputably teachings across the sagas of the Old Testament is the journey to majority of denominations and the history of the Promised Land, during which the Christianity. Some of Christian doctrine is Israelites are sent into the wilderness for quite obviously anthropocentric, but other forty years as punishment, and they suffer parts require consideration of their greatly during this time. The wilderness is implications to understand their their enemy against whom they struggle for anthropocentricity. survival. Similarly, in the New Testament, In one of the biblical creation Jesus spends forty days in the wilderness accounts, Genesis 1:27, provides the and this is where he endures great foundation for two key anthropocentric temptation. There are many other stories in beliefs among Christians: the doctrine of Scripture which portray a similar scenario – imago dei and the doctrine of dominion over nature against man, as a threat to man. This creation. The belief that humans have God- view of the wilderness is not directly given dominion over creation is clearly anthropocentric, but one can see where it anthropocentric – all of nature is under the contributes to the belief that man is set apart authority of humankind according to this from and above nature. view. The doctrine of imago dei further One additional major tenant of establishes this special, elevated status of Christian doctrine that has become tinged humanity. No other species is specifically with anthropocentrism is that of salvation said to be made in the likeness of God; this and redemption from sin. There is a huge reinforces the idea that humankind is emphasis on the salvation of mankind, most superior to the rest of creation. How to clearly in modern evangelical theology, but interpret what exactly “dominion” means hearkening back to the rise of Protestantism has been a source of controversy, but the during the Reformation age.10 Very little is general consensus in Christianity throughout taught regarding the redemption of any other history has been that humans have the right part of creation, apart from the apocalyptic to use nature to meet their needs, and that teachings that the earth will be destroyed

6 Ibid. pp. 43, 45 9 Op. cit. ref. 4, p. 155 7 Santmire, 1985, pp. 4-5 10 Op. cit. ref. 7, pp. 122-123 8 Op. cit. ref. 1, p. 79

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Christian Environmentalism Dialogue & Nexus | Fall 2015-Spring 2016 |Volume 3 and a new earth will be created. the ecological motif. These motifs depend Additionally, in order to achieve salvation on which view the Christian holds regarding and restore a relationship with God, the relationships between God, nature, and traditional doctrine paints the picture of man. The three main views, or metaphors, of ascent – that humans must rely on Jesus to these relationships are the metaphors of rise above this fallen world to reach ascent, fecundity, and migration to the good harmony with God. The world is repeatedly land.12 The metaphor of ascent and the referred to as sinful, fallen, dark, and not of metaphor of fecundity both propose that in God. This has translated to an underlying, order to reach true communion with God, and perhaps unrealized, attitude of humankind must rise above the world, superiority or apathy towards nature. The similar to climbing a mountain and earth may have purpose, beauty, and achieving a grander and higher perspective. usefulness, but ultimately it is not the true However, they differ in that in the metaphor home for humans and not as important as the of ascent, man leaves nature and the world salvation of souls. These are only a few behind completely in his ascension, examples of the many aspects of Christian implying that God is not in the world or doctrine that are saturated with an nature, but in the metaphor of fecundity, the anthropocentric perspective. purpose of reaching this higher perspective Having established the is to realize that God is within the earth and anthropocentrism ingrained in Christianity, to find one’s solidarity with earth and God the focus now turns to how this together. The metaphor of fecundity aligns anthropocentrism has influenced Christian more closely with the metaphor of migration ecological theology and involvement in to a good land, which is the idea that environmentalism. To begin this humans are connected and rooted to the examination, it will be helpful to look at earth, and although they are on a journey to how Christians in the past have thought a better land (communion with God), they about nature. Developing an ecological do not have to ascend to reach the theology has not been a priority for many destination because God is within nature. In church leaders and prominent Christian fact, they cannot ascend, as humankind is so thinkers, but most of their teachings, ideas, closely intertwined with nature. If one holds and theologies have clear implications about to the metaphors of migration to a good land how to view nature. Paul Santmire explores or fecundity, this will lead them to the the ecological motifs in the teachings of ecological motif, or the theme of finding several significant Christian leaders God and his goodness all throughout throughout the history of the church; creation, and looking to the restoration of outlining his work will be particularly the earth as well as humankind. The worthwhile to this discussion and to metaphor of ascent leads to the spiritual understanding the place that nature has been motif, which emphasizes rising above the given in Christian theology over time.11 fallen world to achieve harmony with God. Nature is not necessarily going to be A Brief History of the Development of redeemed as man will, and in most cases, Christian Ecological Theory theologians who employ the spiritual motif Santmire proposes that the theologies ascribe more instrumental value than of every Christian leader employs one of intrinsic value to nature and believe it will two motifs, or themes: the spiritual motif or simply cease to exist following the return of

11 Ibid. 12 Ibid. pp. 14-16

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Christian Environmentalism Dialogue & Nexus | Fall 2015-Spring 2016 |Volume 3 Christ and the redemption of humankind. ways. One hugely influential criticism that This focus on the redemption of humankind created much controversy, but also led to the and desire to detach from the world is increased scholarly interest in religious undoubtedly anthropocentric. environmentalism, was Lynn White’s 1967 After establishing these motifs and essay.16 White, who was himself a Christian, metaphors, Santmire gives a thorough identifies Judeo-Christian religion as the description of the theology and life of culprit for the ecological crisis - the careless several prominent Christian figures, use and abuse of the earth by humans that beginning in the days of the early church had led to the degradation of earth and its with Irenaeus and Origen, and ending with .17 His logic is not unlike Kierkegaard and moving into the twentieth Santmire’s; the way humans view century, and points out the motif visible in themselves in relation to the world around their theologies.13 With the notable them determines their ecological thought, exceptions of St. Augustine and St. Francis and that Christianity was too focused on of Assisi (and Irenaeus, somewhat), the humanity – too anthropocentric. His driving spiritual motif dominates the theologies of point was that in order to produce change, these leaders, and therefore so does the religious thinking about the earth and anthropocentrism, to an extent. Especially environment must be restructured. after the Protestant Reformation, with the Essentially, “White had laid down a establishment of the Protestant work ethic gauntlet; theological orthodoxy and and the emphasis on salvation, nature and environmental progress were said to be at earth are not prevailing themes among odds.”18 Christians began to respond to the Christian teachings. Cultural movements negative backlash from White’s article and also played a role in shaping their ideas; for the growing societal prejudices against example, by the time of Kant, the Judeo-Christian religion for being anti- Enlightenment had cultivated a mechanical environmental. view of nature that completely clashes with Initially, the response was only an ecological motif, and Kant.14 The further marginal. Some churches proclaimed an secularization of nature in Western thought ecological commitment, but not much continued into the twenty-first century, until happened outside of that to actually change the environmentalism movement began, and Christian perception and involvement in this enabled Christian theology to largely environmentalism. Scholars and theologians omit any significant ecological component.15 began to debate if it was necessary and how The 1960s marked the advent of the to reframe Christian doctrine to be more modern environmentalist movement in the environmentally-minded, sociologists Western world, and particularly in the sought to test White’s claim that religion United States. American Christians and directly affected environmental action churches were generally uninvolved in this (which they never could conclusively new movement, but as the movement grew provide evidence for), and others simply and its proponents pointed to Christianity as agreed that Judeo-Christian religion is anti- an anti-environmental religion, churches and environmental.19 More practical and less Christians began to respond in different scholarly responses, such as calls to action

13 Ibid. chapters III-VII 17 Ibid. pp. 1206-1207 14 Ibid. p. 135 18 Berry, 2013, p. 455 15 Ibid. pp. 141-142 19 Ibid. p. 456 16 White, 1967

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Christian Environmentalism Dialogue & Nexus | Fall 2015-Spring 2016 |Volume 3 from the Pope or the foundation of Christian and churches continue to mostly ignore environmental organizations such as Au environmental concerns in their ministry and Sable Institute and the Evangelical teachings. New-Age spirituality, indigenous Environmental Network, did not come about religions, and Eastern religions are until the 1980s-2000s.20 considered the more environmentally- As the green movement continued to inclined religions.23 These assumptions and grow across the country and more Christians reputations are not completely false. One engaged with its ideas, three schools of study conducted among U.S. businesses in ecological Christian thought developed, 2013 found that U.S. firms based in regions which still characterize American Christian that are highly religious (predominantly mindsets today: Christian , eco- Christian) were much less likely to make justice, and creation spirituality which pro-environmental management decisions.24 Laurel Kerns describes .21 Christian Although Christian stewardship, eco-justice, stewardship is the most anthropocentric of and creation spirituality are emerging ideas the three; it maintains that humans are the in American Christianity, they are not yet pinnacle beings in creation, and that they translating into daily life practices for many have been charged by God to care for nature of its followers. Whether or not and use it wisely. This view comes directly anthropocentric Christianity is completely to from the doctrine of dominion over nature blame for this reality may be impossible to that was discussed earlier, although there is ascertain, but the anthropocentric trend an added element of responsible use of certainly has had a significant influence over natural resources. The eco-justice theory is centuries of Christian theological evolution. also anthropocentric, but in a less obvious In order for Christianity to embrace a more manner. Eco-justice is focused on a environmentally-promising mindset, there sustainable use of natural resources that may need to be a shift in theology and where ensures fair distribution across all the centricity lies. humankind. It prioritizes environmental welfare more so than stewardship, but still Reforming Christian Ecological for the purpose of human welfare. The third Theology: Santmire view, creation spirituality, is the most liberal To accomplish a less anthropocentric and the least popular and can be classified as Christian ecological theology, there are two biocentric rather than anthropocentric. plausible options: reinterpret Scripture and Creation spiritualists believe that humans reframe doctrine in light of new are not superior to the rest of creation and interpretation, or set out to establish a should work to sustain the whole of nature.22 Christian ecological theology outside of The state of Christian ecological theology Scripture. Consideration of the first option today can be seen through these three brings us back to Santmire, who proposes beliefs, two of which are clearly that an ecological reading of the Bible is anthropocentric. possible and may lead to a more balanced Although Christians have become and less anthropocentric ecological somewhat involved in environmental efforts, theology. Looking at the Old Testament, he the anti-environmental reputation of points to the importance of the land, Christianity in mainstream society remains, especially in the book of Deuteronomy.25

20 Ibid. 2013, p. 459 23 Op. cit. ref. 7, p. 1 21 Kearns, 1996, p. 57 24 Cui, et. al, 2015, p. 226 22 Ibid. p. 60-61 25 Op. cit. ref. 7, p. 190

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Christian Environmentalism Dialogue & Nexus | Fall 2015-Spring 2016 |Volume 3 The land does not belong to Israel, but is a inclusion of “all things,” not just humans, gift from God and a sign of his faithfulness being restored to perfection and unity with to the Israelites, and God is the provider of God in several passages, most notably in 1 the fertility of the land and continuing cycles Corinthians 15.29 Jesus also becomes “an of nature. The land is strongly tied to the ecological figure as well as an identity of Israel, and this has theological eschatological figure,” because his identity implications, as Santmire notes: “Likewise, as son of God means he is not only the God as Israel could not think of itself apart from of people, but “also the Maker of Heaven the land, neither could it finally think of and Earth, the gracious and powerful human creatures in general apart from Creator and Consummator of the whole earth…the very self, the naphesh, permeates creation.”30 Accordingly, we see Jesus speak the land.”26 He also explores the beliefs of of the new heaven and new earth, and of the Israelites and Psalmists that saw God as how God cares for each part of creation. the creator of earth who has a relationship Jesus represents God descending not only to with earth apart from humanity. Before they his people, but to his earth. Using knew of him as Creator or Redeemer, He ecological lenses, the Bible has many was the God who had power over all nature promising ideas and references to nature that and used that power throughout the earth to suggest a less anthropocentric view of the display his majesty, not just to deliver his earth as more than just the backdrop for the people.27 Both humankind and nature human story. together are portrayed worshipping God together in the Psalms, and some Psalms, Reforming Christian Ecological such as Psalm 29 and 104, praise God or his Theology: Nash glory in ruling over and caring for nature, The second option, which rejects the with no focus on humankind whatsoever.28 notion that the Bible should be used to Prophets referring to apocalyptic times establish an environmental position, is best frequently foretold of the restoration of the characterized by the ideas of James Nash, a land, not just man. This ecological reading Christian ecologist and ethicist.31 Nash reveals themes that align with the metaphor argues that the Bible as a whole is far too of fecundity and provides a theocentric ambiguous to be able to develop any ecological perspective, rather than an semblance of a concrete ecological anthropocentric. When seeing the grander theology.32 Santmire echoes this sentiment ways in which God exercises his power and several times throughout his book, but moves throughout the entire creation, the believes the ambiguity lies more within how traditional interpretations appear much Christian theology developed and how narrower. Scripture and classical Christian thought has In the New Testament, the been interpreted, rather than within Scripture prophetic-apocalyptic renewal of all creation itself.33 To Nash, it is almost ridiculous to is a continuing theme, especially in Paul’s attempt to form a moral ecological view works, which are filled with references to from the Bible. It is “a continuing source of the complete redemption of all things and all illumination, inspiration, and empowerment, people through Christ. He emphasizes the but it should never be asked to perform

26 Ibid. p. 191 30 Ibid. p. 201 27 Ibid. pp. 191-192 31 Nash, 2009 28 Ibid. p. 195 32 Ibid. p. 225 29 Ibid. p. 202 33 Op. cit. ref. 7, p. 7-9, 13-14, 188-189

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Christian Environmentalism Dialogue & Nexus | Fall 2015-Spring 2016 |Volume 3 tricks that are beyond its powers and put, “‘Christian ethics is not synonymous dignity.”34 The ambiguity and contradictions with biblical ethics.’”36 within the Bible does not trouble Nash, what troubles him is the fact that Christians have Conclusion attempted to find authoritative ecological There are, of course, different doctrine from a text that cannot, in his challenges and criticisms for both of these opinion, be used for such a purpose. options. However, it is worth considering, To develop an ecological theology, especially in light of the current Nash supports the use of Christian principles environmental issues facing our society that come from the Bible, such as love and today, how the effects of anthropocentric justice. If love guides Christian action thought have narrowed or led astray towards the environment, they will treat it Christian ecological theology. with care and respect. Instead of relying on Anthropocentrism is not necessarily Psalms and other passages that, when taken a negative force, but its far-reaching together, often seem to present conflicting implications must be realized and kept in views of nature and the wilderness, he turns check. One of the ways to accomplish this is to simple verses such as Psalm 145:9 – “The to engage with ideas outside of Lord is good to all, and his compassion is anthropocentrism, as we have done in this over all that he has made.”35 The love and discussion, in hopes of finding a balanced compassion God has for his creation should understanding of the relationships between be echoed by his followers. He claims that humankind, the earth, and God. this is how most moral issues facing Perhaps our Sunday morning Christians today should be handled, as the sermons should sometimes remind us that Bible contains a variety of moral stances and humans are not the axis around which the perspectives that are far too diverse to be world turns, but that we have a role to play used to establish firm answers and does not in the grand scheme of the universe that contain sufficient content for complete requires more from us than apathy. development of an ethical position. Briefly

Literature Cited Berry, E. (2013). Religious environmentalism and environmental religion in America. Religion Compass, 7(10), 454. doi:10.1111/rec3.12065 Cui, J., Jo, H., & Velasquez, M. (2015). The influence of Christian religiosity on managerial decisions concerning the environment. Journal of Business Ethics, 132, 203. doi:10.1007/s10551-014-2306-5 DesJardins, J. R. (1993). : An introduction to . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Kearns, L. (1996). Saving the creation: Christian environmentalism in the United States. Sociology of Religion, (1). 55. http://www.acu.edu:2112/stable/3712004 Martinelli, D. (2008). Anthropocentrism as a social phenomenon: semiotic and ethical implications. Social Semiotics, 18(1), 79-99. doi:10.1080/10350330701838951

34 Op. cit. ref. 31, p. 225 36 Ibid. p. 226 35 Ibid. p. 221

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Christian Environmentalism Dialogue & Nexus | Fall 2015-Spring 2016 |Volume 3 Nash, J. A. (2009). The Bible vs. biodiversity: The case against moral argument from scripture. Journal for The Study of Religion, Nature and Culture, 3(2), 213-237. doi:10.1558/jsrnc.v3i2.213 Santmire, H. P. (1985). The travail of nature: The ambiguous ecological promise of Christian theology. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. White Jr., L. (1967). The historical roots of our ecologic crisis. Science, 155(3767), 1203-1207.

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