El Camino Real De Los Tejas National Historic Trail Louisiana • Texas

National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior

El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail Louisiana • Texas

ElEl CaminoCamino RealReal dede loslos TejasTejas NationalNational HistoricHistoric TrailTrail Comprehensive Management Plan/Environmental Assessment Photo Credits (All photos by Christopher Talbot):

Front Cover, Clockwise from top: Los Adaes State Historic Site, Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana Conquista Crossing, Karnes County, Texas Fort Jesup State Historic Site, Sabine Parish, Louisiana Mission San José y San Miguel de Aguayo, Bexar County, Texas Paso de las Islas, Maverick County, Texas Mission Tejas State Park Trail Segment, Houston County, Texas El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail

Comprehensive Management Plan/Environmental Assessment

NATIONAL TRAILS INTERMOUNTAIN REGION

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

September 2011

Comprehensive Management Plan/Environmental Assessment El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail U.S. Department of the Interior – National Park Service September 2011

The purpose of this plan is to establish the administrative objectives, policies, processes, and management guidelines necessary to fulfill preservation and public-use goals for El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail, which the U.S. Congress added to the National Trails System on October 18, 2004. The legislation authorizing El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail identified approximately 2,580 miles of trail, extending from the Río Grande near Eagle Pass and Laredo, Texas, to Natchitoches, Louisiana. The designation of El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail commemorates significant historic routes extending from the United States-Mexico international border at the Río Grande to the eastern boundary of the Spanish province of Texas in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana.

This plan provides a framework for the administration of the trail and a vision to be fulfilled through future, more specific resource studies and site and segment management plans. The plan was developed in consultation with state and local government agencies; interested parties, including landowners; federally recognized American Indian tribes; area residents; trail-user organizations; National Park Service program managers and resources staff; and the general public.

This document also includes a programmatic environmental assessment, which considers, at a general qualitative level, the impacts that the two alternatives could have on trail development. The environmental assessment sets the framework for future compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act and the National Historic Preservation Act for the significant resources associated with the trail. The environmental assessment also assists decision makers and the public in evaluating the relative merits and impacts of each alternative.

This plan presents two alternatives and their respective environmental consequences. Under alternative A, the no-action alternative, there would be no federal action except for what is required under the National Trails System Act. The adoption of alternative A would not mean that present management activities would stop, but that the National Trails Intermountain Region and on-the-ground site and segment managers and owners would respond to future needs and problems in a manner similar to the way in which they are currently operating.

Under alternative B, the preferred alternative, the National Trails Intermountain Region would collaborate with partners to provide the public the opportunity to enjoy and appreciate significant trail resources through high quality visitor programs while at the same time supporting research efforts to ensure that significant trail resources are identified and protected.

Partners would work cooperatively to achieve the purpose of the trail designation—to commemorate the historic development of a network of trails, based upon American Indian routes, which linked Spanish missions, presidios, and trading posts in a travel corridor from the Río Grande to Louisiana. Much of the implementation of strategies would rest with those members of the trail community willing to take the lead in proposing projects and programs that identify and protect significant trail resources and their

Page i accurate interpretation. The National Trails Intermountain Region would provide technical assistance and a certain level of funding, as it becomes available, to eligible applications to facilitate the initiatives suggested by the trail community. It would also work closely with volunteers to achieve the purpose of the trail. Projects most likely to receive support would focus on the identification and protection of authentic resources and their interpretation. There would also be ample recreational and educational programs to provide trail users the opportunity to enjoy and understand the authentic character of the nationally significant resources associated with El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail.

Page ii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The National Park Service administers This Comprehensive Management Plan/ El Camino Real de los Tejas National Environmental Assessment provides a Historic Trail, which was added to framework for the administration of the the National Trails System by the U.S. trail and a vision to be fulfilled through Congress on October 18, 2004. The future, more specific resource studies legislation authorizing El Camino Real and site and segment management plans. de los Tejas National Historic Trail Administrative staff at the National Trails identified approximately 2,580 miles of Intermountain Region developed the trail extending from the Río Grande plan in consultation with state and local near Eagle Pass and Laredo, Texas, to government agencies; interested parties, Natchitoches, Louisiana. The designation including landowners; federally recognized of El Camino Real de los Tejas National American Indian tribes; area residents; Historic Trail commemorates significant trail-user organizations; National Park historic routes extending from the United Service program managers and resources States-Mexico border at the Río Grande staff; and the general public. A mutually to the eastern boundary of the Spanish agreed-on plan facilitates the work of province of Texas in Natchitoches Parish, partners in accomplishing specific goals. Louisiana. Although the period of historic This document also includes a significance for El Camino Real de los programmatic environmental assessment, Tejas National Historic Trail dates from which considers, at a general level, 1680 to 1845—spanning Spanish, Mexican, the impacts that the two alternatives and early American use—this plan focuses could have on trail development. The primarily on the network of roads that had environmental assessment sets the been developed by the end of the Spanish framework for future compliance with the Colonial period in 1821. Trail routes, as well National Environmental Policy Act and as sites along the trail, are associated with the National Historic Preservation Act events that made significant contributions for the significant resources associated to broad patterns of our nation’s history. with the trail. The environmental The purpose of this Comprehensive assessment also assists decision makers Management Plan/Environmental and the public in assessing the relative Assessment is to establish the merits and impacts of each alternative. administrative objectives, policies, processes, and management guidelines necessary to fulfill preservation and public-use goals for El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail. Although the act designating El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail does not specifically ask for the development of a plan, Section 5(f) of the National Trails System Act requires that a Comprehensive Management Plan be developed for all designated national historic trails. The National Trails System Act also requires the Secretary of the Interior to consult with appropriate state and local agencies in the planning and development of the trail.

Page iii Executive Summary

PLANNING ISSUES INTERPRETATION, VISITOR The planning team traveled extensively EXPERIENCE, AND USE along the trail in both Texas and Louisiana There is a general lack of coordination to become acquainted with issues central in getting interpretive information to the to the planning process. Eight scoping public. Interpretive facilities along the meetings were conducted, where input designated routes need to explain more from the public, government agency accurately the historic developments along representatives, federally recognized the trail, place them into an appropriate American Indian tribes, trail organizations, context, and provide the public with and individuals was systematically interesting yet relevant and authentic recorded. Other comments by letter materials. Periodic updates of interpretive and/or comment forms and emails information to reflect the latest scholarship were received by the planning team. are needed, along with ways of making academic research information accessible to the general public, to teachers, and ADMINISTRATION AND to students in grades K–12 and beyond. MANAGEMENT Finally, there is a need to foster heritage Although the trail itself is administered tourism programs that draw on and by the National Trails Intermountain protect authentic, documented historic Region, less than 1% of the trail corridor is resources clearly linked to the trail. owned by the federal government. Given that a substantial percentage of resources is in private hands and that only a very ALTERNATIVES small percentage of resources is managed As part of the planning process, by state and local entities, an effective two alternatives were developed. The mechanism needs to be developed to preferred alternative will address stimulate cooperative partnerships among the issues discussed above. the many stakeholders through a range of incentives. A major challenge facing trail administrators is the need for consistent ALTERNATIVE A: CONTINUATION preservation strategies, development, and OF CURRENT CONDITIONS (NO marking of the trail as it passes through a ACTION) variety of jurisdictions; other challenges This alternative is a requirement of include the lack of awareness about National Environmental Policy Act and the trail and poor coordination among serves as a basis for comparison. Federal groups interested in trail development. action would be limited to what is required under the National Trails System Act. Its adoption would not mean that present RESOURCE PROTECTION management activities would stop, but Among the most pressing concerns in that administrative staff at the National protecting resources is the need for the Trails Intermountain Region and on-the- accurate mapping of routes and a systematic ground site and segment managers and ground truthing of trail resources. There owners would respond to future needs is also need for additional research on and problems in a manner similar to the several topics. Diverse ownership of trail way in which they are currently operating. resources (federal, several state entities, Increased federal funding for trail and numerous private landowners) poses administration activities would not occur. a challenge to efforts to develop trailwide strategies to preserve trail resources.

Page iv Executive Summary

ALTERNATIVE B: TRAIL Volunteers would work closely with the DEVELOPMENT THROUGH National Trails Intermountain Region PARTNERSHIPS (PREFERRED to achieve the purpose of the trail. ALTERNATIVE) The National Trails Intermountain Under this alternative, administrative Region would provide technical assistance staff at the National Trails Intermountain and a certain level of funding, as it becomes Region would assist the trail community available, to eligible applications, depending in achieving the purpose of the trail on allocations. Funds from the Challenge designation, which is to commemorate Cost Share Program that fluctuate from the historic development of a network of year to year, and possibly from other trails, based upon American Indian routes, programs, would help support initiatives that linked Spanish missions, presidios, suggested by the trail community. Projects and trading posts in a travel corridor most likely to receive support from the from the Río Grande to Louisiana. National Park Service would focus on the identification and protection of authentic Under this alternative, the trail resources and their interpretation, and community would include, among would offer trail users the opportunity others, the Texas Historical Commission; to enjoy and understand the authentic the Louisiana Department of Culture, character of the nationally significant Recreation, and Tourism; the State of resources associated with El Camino Real Texas Parks and Wildlife Department; de los Tejas National Historic Trail. El Camino Real de los Tejas National Administrative staff at the National Historic Trail Association; other federal Trails Intermountain Region would also entities; federally recognized tribes whose oversee the development of sign and homelands are crossed by the trail in East interpretive standards that can be applied Texas; private organizations; institutions consistently along the trail corridor. of higher learning; museums; visitor Consistency is important because it would centers; private owners of trail resources; heighten awareness of the trail and assist trail scholars; public and private schools; trail users in finding and following the Mexican entities (such as the Instituto designated trail routes and significant Nacional de Antropología e Historia); historic sites. Consistency would also and all others interested in the trail. allow for a more effective development of The National Trails Intermountain recreational experiences around authentic Region would collaborate with partners to resources and interpretive programs. provide the public the opportunity to enjoy and appreciate significant trail resources The National Trails Intermountain through high quality visitor programs Region would place its main emphasis while at the same time supporting research on working with the trail community to efforts to ensure that significant trail expand knowledge about trail resources, resources are identified and protected. in particular significant sites and segments The National Trails Intermountain with a certain degree of historic integrity. Region would serve as an information Investigations leading to more accurate clearinghouse for activities along the and extensive identification of high trail, coordinating efforts to ensure the potential sites and segments and their most efficient use of available resources. location, condition, and priority needs Much of the implementation of strategies will be encouraged. Research projects would rest with those members of the that aim to elucidate important aspects trail community willing to take the lead of trail history or topics that have not in proposing projects and programs yet received adequate attention will that identify and protect significant trail also receive special consideration. resources and their accurate interpretation.

Page v Executive Summary

Under this alternative, there will be an effort to foster awareness among the trail community of the evolving nature of the trail and its associated resources. It has been argued that El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail responds to the changing conditions and the needs of the users. The trail is complex and continually evolving, and has the potential of becoming a very powerful educational tool to attract people of all ages to understand and protect it. The National Trails Intermountain Region would encourage and assist private landowners in protecting significant trail resources and, if possible and appropriate, help such owners to make resources accessible to the public. This is an important component of this alternative because a high proportion of trail resources is privately owned. As landowners become aware of the significance of their resources, they may decide to become more interested in monitoring and protecting them. Under this alternative, the trail community would have the opportunity to become active participants in the development of inclusive interpretive and educational programs that reflect current scholarship and offer a variety of perspectives. There would be special emphasis on compelling stories about people, places, and events, particularly those that represent the heritage of the various ethnic groups, who were central in the development of the trail. Under this alternative, a concerted effort would be made, in cooperation with the trail community, to provide recreational experiences closely linked and compatible with the appreciation of authentic trail resources and their protection. These experiences would be strengthened by the development of a consistent accompanying interpretive program, which places the history of the trail into a broad context from which it can be better understood and appreciated, and by the use of consistent signage to facilitate public awareness of the trail and the location of its resources.

Page vi GLOSSARY Acequia: ditch, aqueduct. LiDAR (Light detection and ranging): optical Adaesano: settler from Los Adaes who remote-sensing technology that measures requested the Spanish government to return properties of scattered light to find range and/ to the area close to their homeland in Los or other information about a distant target. Adaes. Lobanillo: growth covered with bark formed Ayuntamiento: municipal government. either in a branch or trunk of a tree.

Bousillage: mixture of clay and Spanish moss Ojuelo: natural spring. or grass used as plaster to fill the spaces between the structural framing of a house. Paraje: stopping place, camp site.

Bayou: fen, marshland, bog. Presidio: garrison.

Caliche: hardened deposit of calcium Ranchería: Spanish term for American carbonate. Indian villages in this region.

Carretera: highway. Rejoneado: made out of the locally quarried sandstone. Corralitos: small corrals. Sitio: land measurement equal to 4,335 acres. Cuesta: hill, knoll. Troneras: gun ports. Ejido: common lands. Vara: linear measure of approximately 33 Empresario: a land agent or land contractor, inches. a crucial element of the system used by the Mexican government to encourage Villa: small community (village). colonization after independence from Spain. Visita: sub-mission; chapels without a Entrada: an exploring or reconnoitering resident priest. military expedition.

Ethnography: the study and systematic recording of human cultures.

Fundos legales: mission lands.

Guerra de la pulga: war of the flea.

Hacienda: ranch estate.

Isla: island.

Jacal: a pole and daub hut or an adobe hut with a thatch roof.

Justicia: magistrate.

Labor: cultivated field.

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Page viii Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ��iii PLANNING ISSUES ��iv ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT ��iv RESOURCE PROTECTION ��iv INTERPRETATION, VISITOR EXPERIENCE, AND USE ��iv ALTERNATIVES ��iv GLOSSARY �� vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION �� 3 BACKGROUND ��3 PURPOSE OF THE PLAN �� 4 NEED FOR THE PLAN ��5 NEXT STEPS AND PLAN IMPLEMENTATION �� 6 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ��7 PLANNING ISSUES AND CONCERNS ��17 BOUNDARY ADJUSTMENTS �� 18 GUIDANCE FOR PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION �� 19 PURPOSE OF THE TRAIL �� 19 SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTS �� 19 PRIMARY INTERPRETIVE THEMES ��20 HISTORIC RESOURCES ALONG THE TRAIL ��20 HIGH POTENTIAL SITES AND SEGMENTS ��23 GAPS IN INFORMATION AND RESEARCH NEEDS ��24 LEGAL AND POLICY REQUIREMENTS ��25 RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER PLANS ��26 APPROPRIATE USE ��26 IMPACT TOPICS ��26

CHAPTER 2: ALTERNATIVES ��35 INTRODUCTION ��35 ACTIONS COMMON TO ALL ALTERNATIVES ��36

Administration and Management ��36 Administration ��36 Management ��36 Resource Identification, Protection, and Monitoring ��36 Health and Safety �� 37

Page ix Table of Contents

User Capacity ��37 Trail Logo and Marker ��38 INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATIVES ��39

Alternative A: Continuation of Current Conditions (No Action) ��39

Concept ��39 Administration ��39 Resource Identification, Protection & Monitoring ��39 Partnership Certification Program ��39 Trail Use Experience ��39 Orientation �� 41 Costs �� 41 Alternative B: Trail Development through Partnerships (Preferred Alternative) ��42 Trail Use Experience ��47 Recreational Activities �� 51 Orientation ��52 Costs ��53

Alternative B: Trail Development through Partnerships (Preferred Alternative) ��42

Concept ��42 Administration ��43 Resource Identification, Protection & Monitoring ��43

Partnership Certification Program �� 46 User Capacity �� 47 Trail Use Experience ��47 Recreational Activities �� 51 Orientation ��52 Costs ��53 Alternative B: Trail Development through Partnerships (Preferred Alternative) ��42 Trail Use Experience ��47 Recreational Activities �� 51 Orientation ��52 Costs ��53

SUMMARY: ENVIRONMENTALLY PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE ��55

How the Action Alternative Meets the Purpose of the Plan ��55

Page x Table of Contents

Environmentally Preferred Alternative ��55

CHAPTER 3: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT �� 73 INTRODUCTION �� 73 CULTURAL RESOURCES �� 73

Ethnographic Overview �� 73 Historic/Archeological Resources ��88 Previous Research ��88 NATURAL RESOURCES ��94

Vegetation Communities ��95

Geology and Soils ��97 Air Quality and Visual Resources �� 99 Paleontological Resources �� 100 Caves and Karsts �� 101 Water Resources ��102 Special Status Species �� 103 LAND USE ��104 SOCIOECONOMIC CONDITIONS ��105 VISITOR USE AND EXPERIENCE ��107

CHAPTER 4: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES ��113 INTRODUCTION ��113 METHODOLOGY ��113 CUMULATIVE IMPACT SCENARIO ��114 INFORMATION SOURCES AND GAPS ��115 IMPACTS OF THE ALTERNATIVES ��115 UNACCEPTABLE IMPACTS �� 135 IMPAIRMENT �� 137

CHAPTER 5: CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION ��141 INTRODUCTION ��141

APPENDIX A: TRAIL LEGISLATION. ��149 APPENDIX B: CERTIFICATION PROGRAM – PARTNERSHIP CERTIFICATION AGREEMENT ��151

APPENDIX C: SOLICITOR’S OPINION ��153 APPENDIX D: MAPPING HISTORIC RESOURCES ALONG EL CAMINO REAL DE LOS TEJAS NATIONAL HISTORIC TRAIL ��155

APPENDIX E: HIGH POTENTIAL SITES AND SEGMENTS ��161

Page xi APPENDIX F: ADDITIONAL SITES AND SEGMENTS THAT COULD BE ELIGIBLE FOR INCLUSION �� 197

APPENDIX G: SAMPLE COOPERATIVE AGREEMENT ��215 APPENDIX H: POTENTIAL ATTRIBUTE LIST FOR SITE IDENTIFICATION AND MONITORING �� 225

APPENDIX I: POSSIBLE VENUES FOR TRAIL INTERPRETATION ��227 APPENDIX J: SAMPLE TRAIL SIGNS ��231

APPENDIX K: THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES �� 237

APPENDIX L: ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT – MAPS & TABLES �� 241

APPENDIX M: FINDING OF NO SIGNIFICANT IMPACT (FONSI) �� 255

INDEX �� 273

INDEX TO FIGURES, MAPS, & TABLES �� 275

REFERENCES ��277

PLANNING TEAM AND PREPARERS ��289

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION PURPOSE AND NEED three criteria listed in Section 5(b) (11) of FOR THE PLAN the National Trails System Act as follows: El Camino Real de los Tejas National 1) It must be a trail or route established by Historic Trail became part of the National historic use and must be historically Trails System on October 18, 2004. The significant as a result of that use; the route authorizing legislation (Public Law 108-342) need not currently exist as a discernible identifies “approximately 2,580 miles of trail trail to qualify, but its location must be extending from the Río Grande near Eagle sufficiently known to permit evaluation of Pass and Laredo, Texas, to Natchitoches, public recreation and historical interest Louisiana, as depicted on the maps included potential. A designated trail should in the National Historic Trail Feasibility generally accurately follow the historic Study and Environmental Assessment: El route, but may deviate somewhat on Camino Real de los Tejas, Texas and occasion of necessity to avoid difficult Louisiana prepared by the National Park routing through subsequent development, Service and dated July 1998 (see Appendix or to provide some route variations offering A, page 149 and Map 1-1, page 4). a more pleasurable recreational experience;

BACKGROUND 2) It must be of national significance with respect to any of several broad facets of The National Trails System Act of 1968 American history, such as trade and established the National Trails System commerce, exploration, migration and settlement, or military campaigns; to “to provide for the ever-increasing qualify as nationally significant, historic use outdoor recreation needs of an of the trail must have had a far-reaching expanding population and to promote effect on broad patterns of American the preservation of, public access culture; to, travel within, and enjoyment and appreciation of the open air, outdoor 3) It must have significant potential for areas and historic resources of the public recreational use or historic interest Nation.” based in historic interpretation and appreciation; the potential for such use is The National Trails System is composed generally greater along roadless segments of statutorily created national scenic trails developed as historic trails and at historic and national historic trails. In addition, sites associated with the trail; the presence national recreation trails and connecting- of recreation potential not related to and-side trail are recognized through historic appreciation is not sufficient secretarial actions. The National Trails justification for designation under this System Act provides for a lead federal category. Such trails are established by an agency to administer each national scenic act of Congress. Examples include the Trail and national historic trail in cooperation of Tears, Santa Fe, Oregon, California, Nez with a variety of partners, including other Perce (Nee-Me-Poo), and Lewis and Clark federal agencies, state and local agencies, national historic trails. American Indians, local communities, private landowners, and others.

National historic trails identify and commemorate historic and prehistoric routes of travel that are of significance to the entire nation. They must meet all

Page 3 Chapter 1: Introduction

Map 1-1. Congressionally Designated Routes for El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail

PURPOSE OF THE PLAN Comprehensive management plans for Although the act designating El Camino national historic trails are long-term Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail documents that provide a vision for the does not specifically ask for the future of the trail, including a management development of a plan, Section 5(f) of the philosophy and a framework to be used in National Trails System Act requires that a making decisions and solving problems. Comprehensive Management Plan be This Comprehensive Management Plan will developed for all designated national provide guidance for approximately the historic trails. The plan should include, but next 15–20 years. not be limited to the following items: The purpose of this Comprehensive • specific objectives for the National Management Plan is to establish the Park Service, including the administrative objectives, policies, identification of significant processes, and management guidelines ethnographic, archeological, historic, necessary to fulfill preservation and public- and natural resources to be protected; use goals for El Camino Real de los Tejas • specific details of expected National Historic Trail, as established in the cooperative agreements with National Trails Systems Act (16 USC 1244 (a) government agencies or private and Public Law 108-342), titled “An Act to organizations or individuals; Amend the National Historic Trails System • protection strategies for high potential Act to Designate El Camino Real de los sites and segments; Tejas National Historic Trail.” • user-capacity assessment; and • implementation details

Page 4 Chapter 1: Introduction - Purpose of the Plan

In addition, Public Law 108-342 includes of El Camino Real de los Tejas National the following requirements: Historic Trail. The examined alternatives • The Secretary of the Interior shall included (a) the no-action alternative, (b) administer those portions of the trail the designation of routes from Paso de on nonfederal land only with the Francia to Natchitoches, and (c) splitting consent of the owner of such land and the trail into two separately designated when such trail portion qualifies for national historic trails: El Camino Real de certification as an officially los Tejas and the Old San Antonio Road. established component of the trail; The feasibility study recommended the • The designation of the trail does not alternative designating the routes from Paso authorize any person to enter private de Francia to Natchitoches, Louisiana, as El property without the consent of the Camino Real de los Tejas. The National owner; Historic Trail Feasibility Study and • The Secretary shall consult with Environmental Assessment: El Camino Real appropriate state and local agencies in de los Tejas, Texas and Louisiana constituted the planning and development of the the first phase of a planning and trail; environmental review process. This • The Secretary may coordinate with Comprehensive Management Plan, the United States and Mexican public and second phase, is a general and nongovernmental organizations, programmatic document that includes the academic institutions, and in level of information necessary to make consultation with the Secretary of broad policy and planning decisions. State and the government of Mexico and its political subdivisions, for the NEED FOR THE PLAN purpose of exchanging trail This Comprehensive Management Plan information and research, fostering is necessary to provide long-term guidance trail preservation and educational for natural and cultural resources programs, providing technical preservation, education, and trail-use assistance, and working to establish experience along El Camino Real de los an international historic trail with Tejas National Historic Trail. It provides a complementary preservation and framework for the administration of the education programs in each nation; trail and a vision to be fulfilled through and future, more specific resource studies and • The United States shall not acquire for site and segment management plans. It was the trail any land or interest in land developed in consultation with state and outside the exterior boundary of any local government agencies; stakeholders, federally administered area without including landowners; federally recognized the consent of the owner of the land. American Indian tribes; area residents; This Comprehensive Management Plan trail-user organizations; National Park complies with the requirements of the Service program managers and resources National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. staff; and the general public. A mutually It includes a programmatic environmental agreed-upon plan facilitates the work of assessment as a follow-up to the 1998 partners in accomplishing specific goals. National Park Service National Historic The Comprehensive Management Plan Trail Feasibility Study and Environmental describes how the national historic trail will Assessment: El Camino Real de los Tejas, be administered and managed and aims to Texas and Louisiana, on which Congress accomplish the following: based its decision to establish the trail. The feasibility study provided a historic • Confirms the purpose and overview, a statement of significance, and significance of the trail; offered three alternatives for future • Describes resource conditions and protection, interpretation, and management visitor uses and experiences to be

Page 5 Chapter 1: Introduction

achieved; NEXT STEPS AND PLAN • Identifies the need for partnerships to IMPLEMENTATION protect trail resources efficiently and to provide appropriate trail-user The Comprehensive Management Plan is services; and a long-term plan. Both National Park • Provides a frame of reference for Service administrators and partners will National Park Service administrators take incremental steps toward reaching its and its partners when making goals. Additional research and resource decisions about central trail issues. studies and more detailed planning and Federal ownership and management of environmental documentation could be El Camino Real de los Tejas National completed as part of individual site and Historic Trail is limited to a portion of San segment management plans. Antonio Missions National Historical Park Implementation of the Comprehensive in Texas. Less than 1% of the national Management Plan could take many years historic trail is within the boundary of this and will depend upon additional funding national park unit. With the designation of and the National Trails Intermountain El Camino Real de los Tejas National Region’s and partners’ time and effort. Historic Trail, those trail segments within Components of the plan need to be San Antonio Missions National Historical prioritized and implemented as funding Park have become federal protection becomes available. components in compliance with section 3(a) 3 of the National Trails System Act. The Comprehensive Management Plan outlines a process through which nonfederal trail sites and segments may become official components of El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail using specific development plans and implementation strategies (see section on Partnership Certification Program, page 39 and Appendix B: Partnership Certification Agreement, page 151). In compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act, Sections 106 and 110 of the National Historic Preservation Act, the impacts from each ensuing plan, construction project, trail program, and various other projects will be assessed, as required by the implementing regulations set forth in the Code of Federal Regulations and other applicable federal, state, and county regulations. In all cases, planning for the trail and for trail facilities will be carried out in close consultation with landowners, American Indian tribes, trail organizations, community groups, local residents, and state and local governments.

Page 6 Chapter 1: Introduction - Historical Background

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1 systems. In many places, Spanish names for roads and landscape features have been The designation of El Camino Real de retained and often represent the only los Tejas National Historic Trail in 2004 reminder of the Spanish presence. Physical commemorates significant historic routes remains of the trail, such as swales and ruts, extending from the international border at are testimony to the Spanish Colonial the Río Grande to the easternmost extent of heritage and to significant events that the Spanish province of Texas in occurred along the trail. Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. The period of historic significance for El Camino Real Preferred travel routes evolved through de los Tejas National Historic Trail dates time in response to social, cultural, and from 1680 to 1845; however, this plan environmental changes. Topography was a focuses primarily on the network of roads key factor when deciding where to locate that had been developed by the end of the trails: the best routes went through areas of Spanish Colonial period in 1821. Trail dry, solid ground but with sufficient water routes, as well as sites along the trail, are resources to camp and replenish travelers associated with events that contribute and their horses and pack animals. In significantly to our understanding of broad addition, certain routes were used patterns of United States history. seasonally to avoid natural obstacles, such as overflowing rivers and streams. As some It is important to note that after the groups moved, routes that were previously initial period of exploration and favored became less frequently used while colonization the land along the different others gained popularity. Settlements were trail routes became home to various ethnic often relocated in response to colonial groups. These include Spanish (including policies, conflicts, and/or changing social Canary Islanders), French nationals, conditions. Occasionally new routes were Mexicans, African Americans, Anglos, and blazed to steer clear of dangerous obstacles. a variety of different European peoples. Most of them settled along the trail and The Spanish political agenda of the time, managed, to a considerable extent, to retain as well as the existing natural resources and their cultural traditions (see section on cultural conditions among indigenous Ethnographic Resources, page 115). groups, directly influenced the selection of trail routes. Early missions and presidios When Spanish explorers began to travel (late 1600s–early 1700s) were established in into Texas and western Louisiana in the areas near good water resources in places 1680s, they followed already existing where Spain expected to Christianize networks of American Indian trails. potentially “friendly” American Indian Representatives of the Spanish Crown used groups and where they wished to establish these paths to reach areas where they strategic military defenses to counter subsequently established missions and French incursions. As a result, the earliest presidios. Eventually, armies and settlements in Texas were established immigrants followed these routes, which among agriculturist Caddo tribes whose led to Euro-American settlements across sedentary ways of life appealed to the the two states. Many of these roads Spaniards more than the nomadic continued to be used in later years, forming American Indian groups who also the boundaries of early Spanish and populated the area. Mexican land grants. Some of these land grants became part of modern highway Prehistoric American Indian trails linked a complex network of villages and 1 - Information for this section comes principally from important natural resources. Many of these Deirdre Morgan Remley’s Cultural Resource Inventory: American Indian settlements were visited El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail repeatedly by European explorers in the prepared between December 2007 and September 2008 for the National Trails Intermountain Region, Santa Fe, years preceding the first European New Mexico. settlements in Texas. The routes that made

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regional settlement in Texas and western These and other American Indian villages Louisiana largely possible followed are depicted on several early maps, and it is American Indian trails. likely that Luis de Moscoso’s expedition The main contributing factor in party had visited them as early as 1542. A establishing the network of trails that reference to “The Kingdom of the Tejas” by became El Camino Real de los Tejas, a Jumano Indian was recorded in Santa Fe however, was Spain’s attempt to create a in 1683. This may have stirred interest in the buffer against the French from the late American Indian tribes of East Texas—an 1600s on. Spaniards showed little interest in interest that would have been bolstered in settling the area until 1685, when they 1689 when de León and Massanet were told received news that French explorer René that their journey had taken them near this Robert Cavalier Sieur de La Salle had kingdom. The following year (1690), their established a colony in Matagorda Bay. expedition to find the Tejas governor was a Traveling both by overland routes and by success, and marked the beginning of sea, several Spanish parties searched for La missionary efforts and Spanish Colonial Salle’s outpost. Alonso de León made three settlement in East Texas. failed attempts, but finally succeeded in Upon arriving at the village of the Tejas finding La Salle’s settlement in 1689. in 1690, Father Massanet reported that Accompanied by Franciscan friar Damián Spanish missionaries were well received Massanet and guided primarily by a and had constructed a temporary structure member of the Quems Nation, de León’s to hold mass. That same year, they built a party found La Salle’s Fort St. Louis in ruins more permanent log structure nearby: on the banks of Garcitas Creek (on the Mission San Francisco de los Tejas, boundary of Victoria and Jackson probably in Houston County. (For a listing counties)2. The search for La Salle’s outpost of Spanish missions and presidios was the beginning of an ongoing Spanish associated with El Camino Real de los Tejas presence in East Texas, marked by National Historic Trail, see Table 1-1, page 9) expeditions and attempts at colonization. They also established Mission Santísimo Though the French colonization effort at Nombre de María in the same general area, Matagorda Bay was not successful, but it was destroyed by flood in 1692. Even Spaniards responded by increasing their though an expedition brought supplies to presence in East Texas to improve their Mission San Francisco de los Tejas in 1693, ability to monitor and defend against future the mission was soon abandoned due to threats. In the year following the discovery growing hostility from local indigenous 4 of La Salle’s settlement (1690), de León and groups. Although these first attempts to Massanet set out for East Texas again. This found missions in East Texas failed, they time, they planned to contact the mark the beginning of increased travel “governor” of the American Indians known along the Spanish Colonial road network as Los Tejas, to determine if his people that would eventually link major would welcome a Spanish mission. settlements in Texas and Louisiana. The people whom the Spanish called Tejas were the same as those the French referenced as Les Cenis (members and/or leaders of the Hasinai Confederation)3. or ally, rather than referring to an actual tribe or band. The Spanish spelling and pluralization gives us the word Tejas or Texas. Throughout this document, the term 2 - The names of the counties used in this document Tejas is used to refer to the American Indian groups reflect today’s geographic and political boundaries. They noted historically, whereas the spelling “Texas” refers to are meant to serve as geographical references. the state of Texas, unless otherwise noted.

3 - The term Tejas often used to describe the American 4 - Some archeologists suggest that a handful of Indian nation(s) for which the Spanish sought to known archeological sites in Houston County may be establish a mission is a bit of misnomer. The term is associated with these missions (Krieger 1945, Tunnell based on the Caddo word Teija or Teysa meaning friend 1965).

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Table 1-1. Presidios and Missions Between 1700 and 1703, Spanish travel Associated with El Camino Real de los into East Texas was made easier by the Tejas National Historic Trail (1690–1793) founding of three missions (San Juan Bautista, San Francisco Solano, and San 1690 Mission San Francisco de los Tejas Bernardo) and a presidio (San Juan Bautista 1691 Mission Santísimo Nombre de María del Río Grande), all of which were located 1700 Mission San Juan Bautista on the south side of the Río Grande, near 1700 Mission San Francisco Solano Guerrero, Mexico. This new settlement 1702 Mission San Bernardo area created a convenient waypoint in 1703 Presidio San Juan Bautista del Río Grande addition to already known routes across the 1716 Mission Nuestra Señora de la Purísima Río Grande. In 1707, Diego Ramón, Concepción stationed at the Río Grande settlement, 1716 Mission Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe crossed the river into Webb and Dimmit counties to punish raiding American 1716 Mission San José de los Nazonis (de los Nacogdoches) Indians and to gather neophytes for the 1716 Presidio Nuestra Señora de los Dolores missions. In 1709, the Espinosa-Olivares- Aguirre Expedition traveled to the San 1717 Mission San Miguel de los Adaes Antonio River in Bexar County and 1717 Mission Nuestra Señora de los Dolores de recommended that missions be established los Ais there. In 1713, Louis Juchereau de St. Denis, 1718 Presidio San Antonio de Bexar a French explorer and colonist, contacted 1718 Mission San Antonio de Valero the Tejas, then traveled southwestward 1720 Mission San José y San Miguel de Aguayo through the future Bexar County to the 1721 Presidio Nuestra Señora del Pilar settlement area on the south side of the Río 1722 Mission San Francisco Xavier de Nájera Grande. 1722 Mission Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga The Spaniards made no attempts to 1722 Presidio Nuestra Señora de Loreto (La settle East Texas again until 1716, more than Bahía) two decades after Mission San Francisco de 1731 Mission Nuestra Señora de la Purísima los Tejas was abandoned. In 1716, the Concepción de Acuña Ramón-Espinosa Expedition reestablished 1731 Mission San Juan Capistrano Mission San Francisco de los Tejas at a new 1731 Mission San Francisco de la Espada location in Cherokee County, and then 1746 Mission San Francisco Xavier founded three additional missions and one 1749 Mission San Ildefonso presidio in Nacogdoches County. In 1717, two more missions were established—one 1749 Mission Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria in San Augustine County and one in 1749 Mission Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana (then part 1749 Presidio Nuestra Señora de Loreto of the Spanish province of Texas). 1751 Presidio San Francisco Xavier In 1719, the East Texas missions were 1754 Mission Nuestra Señora del Rosario de los again temporarily abandoned. This time it Cujanes was out of fear of a full-scale French 1756 Mission Nuestra Señora de la Luz invasion precipitated by the War of the 1756 Presidio San Agustín de Ahumada Quadruple Alliance, which saw the French 1757 Presidio San Luis de las Amarillas allied with Britain, Austria, and the Dutch 1757 Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá Republic against Spain. This European 1762 Mission San Lorenzo de la Santa Cruz conflict coincided with French exploration 1762 Mission Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria parties on the coast of Texas between 1719 del Cañón and 1721, which underscored the need for a 1793 Mission Nuestra Señora del Refugio fortified frontier along the eastern boundary of the Spanish province of Texas. In 1721, all of the East Texas settlements were reoccupied in or near their previous

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locations. That same year, the Spanish locations, they remained permanent strengthened their defenses by adding a establishments in Bexar County until presidio and villa (village) to Los Adaes. secularization in the late 18th and early 19th This site would serve as the capital of the centuries. Presidio San Antonio de Bexar Spanish province of Texas until it was and Villa de Bexar survived well beyond the abandoned in 1773, when the capital was end of the Spanish Colonial period. moved to San Antonio de Bexar in Bexar Another Spanish settlement founded at County. the end of the retreat from East Texas The East Texas settlements remained included a mission and a presidio open until after the presidio in established in Victoria County in 1721. The Nacogdoches County was closed in 1729. In first location of Presidio Nuestra Señora de 1730, three of the missions were temporarily Loreto de la Bahía was on the site of La moved to Austin in Travis County, and then Salle’s colony on the west bank of Garcitas permanently settled along the San Antonio Creek, and the first location of Mission River in Bexar County. Following the Nuestra Señora del Espíritu Santo (1722– closing of the Nacogdoches County 1830) was nearby, probably on the east bank presidio and the removal of the three of Garcitas Creek. Early in 1726, the missions in East Texas, there remained five mission was moved to what is called the major sites in East Texas: the presidio, villa, Tonkawa site. The same year, both the and mission in Natchitoches Parish (Los original presidio and the mission were Adaes); the mission in San Augustine relocated again to the bank of the County; and one mission in Nacogdoches Guadalupe River in Victoria County. They County. These five sites remained occupied were moved yet again 23 years later, in 1749, until 1773, when settlers were ordered to to their final location in Goliad County. move to areas along the San Antonio River. Also that year, a villa was established near With the establishment of a mission at the new site of the mission and presidio. All Los Adaes, Spanish roads and settlements three locations would be known as the were extended to the easternmost point of settlement area of “La Bahía” at the various the province of Texas. Immediately times of their occupation in the Spanish following the establishment of the East Colonial period. Texas missions, the Spanish recognized the In summary, between 1721 and 1745, the need for an intermediate station between three main settlement areas along the the settlements on the Río Grande and designated El Camino Real de los Tejas those of East Texas. In 1718, Mission San National Historic Trail included: Antonio de Valero (1718–1793) was 1) East Texas settlements from Houston established, along with Presidio San County to Natchitoches Parish, Antonio de Bexar and Villa de Bexar in San Louisiana: six missions before 1730, Antonio. During that time, Mission San reduced to three missions after 1730; José y San Miguel de Aguayo (1720) was two presidios before 1729, and one founded in Bexar County. In 1722, another after 1729; and one villa; mission, San Francisco Xavier de Nájera, 2) Settlements in San Antonio, Bexar was also established in Bexar County. County: two missions prior to 1731, Although it was intended to be an increased to five after 1731; one independent mission, it was in fact never presidio; and one villa; and more than a visita, or sub-mission, of 3) La Bahía settlements in Victoria, Mission San Antonio de Valero. It later Goliad, and probably Jackson became part of Mission San Antonio de Counties: one mission and one 5 Valero. Although these two missions were presidio at three locations, with a villa moved to as many as three different after 1749, and an additional mission 5 -Visitas are sometimes called “sub-missions” because after 1754. In 1746, however, Father they are often outlying chapels of missions. They are chapels without a resident priest that are visited by a Mariano de los Dolores would begin a priest from a nearby parish once or more often each year. Page 10 Chapter 1: Introduction - Historical Background

missionary effort in a new area on the settled on the Río Grande within the San Xavier River (San Gabriel River). province of Nuevo Santander. Four of these Spanish colonization of the area villas—Reynosa, Camargo, Mier, and presently known as Milam County began Revilla—were south of the Río Grande, informally in 1746 as an attempt to develop a although their ranchlands extended north of the present international border. fourth major settlement area along the designated trail. Mission San Francisco Only two villas would be located north Xavier de Horcasitas was founded in 1748, of the river. The first was established when and by 1750 two additional missions and Escandón authorized Vásquez Borrego to one presidio were established. This new expand his hacienda to create Villa Nuestra settlement area was approximately midway Señora de los Dolores in 1750, located in between the San Antonio and East Texas northwest Zapata County. Though it settlements, offering a convenient continued to be referred to as a hacienda, waypoint. Although Spanish immigrants the officially decreed villa of Dolores would made no attempts at settlement in the area serve as an important waypoint between before 1746, they had familiarized the Río Grande and the San Antonio and La themselves with this upper route as early as Bahía settlements providing a ferry service 1721, when Marqués de San Miguel de as well as guards to protect both settlers Aguayo traveled through the area and and travelers across the Río Grande. In became acquainted with the local addition to serving as a river crossing, guard Ranchería Grande Indians. The San Xavier post, town, and ranch, Villa Nuestra Señora settlement was ultimately abandoned due to de los Dolores was also considered to be a conflict with American Indians. visita. Dolores was visited by the priest of In 1746, after several proposals by Nuevo Revilla for a month each year until it León governors, an order from the viceroy received a resident priest in 1760. Although created the new colony or province of Dolores had guard posts and other Nuevo Santander. This was followed by a defensive structures, it suffered several period of exploration and establishment in attacks and resulting fluctuations in 1748 of Nuevo Santander, south of the Río population. It was completely abandoned by Grande. The new settlement area was 1828. formed along a corridor on both sides of the The second villa to be established north Río Grande, extending east to the Texas of the Río Grande in Nuevo Santander was coast and north to above the Nueces River San Agustín de Laredo, officially founded almost to the Frío River. In 1749, the in 1755. Like Dolores, Laredo was located at governor of the new province, José de a well-known crossing of the Río Grande. It Escandón, brought 3,000 settlers and 146 eventually replaced Dolores as the main soldiers to the area. crossing in the area, including a ferry North of the Río Grande, Nuevo service at least as early as 1767. Also like Santander was largely comprised of private Dolores, Laredo grew out of an existing ranches. Ranchers who lived along the Río ranching headquarters and served the Grande often owned large tracts of land on functions of a town, a guard post, and a both sides of the river. Owners of large visita. Laredo received a resident priest in ranches north of the river could maintain 1759, but it did not officially become a their residence on the south side of today’s mission. international border. Many of the The establishment of Nuevo Santander communities along the Río Grande evolved marks the beginning of a time when the out of ranch headquarters. For instance, the lines between historic use types and town of Mier grew out of a ranch functions for settlement sites became headquarters of 19 families that had increasingly vague. As part of the Nuevo previously been known as El Paso del Santander land grants settlers provided Cántaro. A total of six villas would be guards, and ranch headquarters themselves

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often served as de facto guard posts, or at recognized the failure of its colonial effort least defensive structures constructed with along the northern frontier, at least as early fortified stone walls with gun ports and as 1766, when the Marqués de Rubí was sent fireproof roofing materials. These defensive to inspect presidios throughout the structures can still be seen in the Dolores northern frontier, including Texas and ruins today. Additionally, ranch owners Louisiana. As a result of Rubí’s inspection, agreed to provide religious instruction for all recent settlements were ordered to be both the American Indians and the local abandoned, and all of their inhabitants Spanish population. In this way, ranching were relocated to San Antonio and La operations not only became civilian Bahía. However, with the move to the San settlements but also evolved to serve Antonio River valley, the extent of Spanish functions previously performed by the Colonial presence—at least for a short military and missionaries. Such locations period of time—was effectively reduced to were usually centered on river crossings two major settlement areas: Bexar and La along the designated trail. Bahía. Soon after their removal from East With the addition of the San Xavier Texas, a group from Los Adaes, historically settlement area and Nuevo Santander, there known as “Adaesanos,” requested that they were now five main settlement areas along be allowed to return to an area closer to the designated trail: East Texas; San their homelands. As a result, in 1774, the Antonio; La Bahía (in Victoria County until Villa of Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Bucareli 1749, and Goliad County, thereafter); San was founded on the west bank of the Trinity Xavier in Milam County (with brief River in Madison County near Paso Tomás. occupations in Hays and Comal counties); The Villa de Bucareli was short-lived. It was and Nuevo Santander. Another such abandoned five years later, in 1779, when its settlement was located just south of present inhabitants reestablished their community Eagle Pass in Maverick County. at the site of the former Mission Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe in Nacogdoches, All of the settlements were located along where the mission church was still standing. the main travel corridors used by the Much as in Nuevo Santander, the East Spanish from at least as early as 1721, with Texas settlement sites—reestablished by many used even earlier, perhaps since 1691. civilians—would serve as de facto presidios As of 1755, these main travel routes included and missions, as well as civilian settlements one corridor, which extended from the Río with ranches. The East Texas ranches along Grande crossings at Presidio San Juan the trail later became trading posts, where Bautista del Río Grande northeast to San Spanish, French, American, and American Antonio, then to the Nacogdoches area, and Indian traders legally and illegally bartered on to Los Adaes. A second main route a wide variety of merchandise. crossed the Río Grande in the general area of Laredo in Webb County and extended As a result of the recommendations of north to San Antonio. A route that Marqués de Rubí, Spanish settlement branched northeast passed through Goliad policies in the New World changed. There County and continued northeast, probably was no longer an emphasis on establishing connecting with the upper travel corridor near the Neches or Trinity rivers in the area present-day Houston metro area, that included Mission Nuestra Señora de la Luz de Orcoquisac (1756–1772) of Houston County, where the first mission and Presidio San Agustín de Ahumada (1756–1770); 2) A to the Tejas was established in 1690. settlement in Menard County, which included Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá (1757–1758) and Presidio San In the 1750s, the Spanish attempted to Luis de las Amarillas (1757–1771); and 3) A settlement branch out, but failed due to conflicts with area known as the “El Cañon” missions, which included American Indians.6 The Spanish Crown Mission San Lorenzo de la Santa Cruz (1762–1770) in Real County and Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria 6 - Between 1756 and 1762, the Spanish created three del Cañon (1762–1767) in Uvalde County. These new new major settlement areas. They included missions settlements represented Spanish attempts to expand the and presidios in three areas far removed from the other frontier, but they never succeeded and were abandoned settlements: 1) A settlement on the Gulf Coast, east of the by 1772.

Page 12 Chapter 1: Introduction - Historical Background missions, presidios, and scattered towns; cartographer and date of this map have not instead, there was a reduction in the yet been confirmed, correspondence from number of settlement sites and no further Spanish Governor Domingo Cabello to expansion attempts. With the exception of a Commandant General Teodoro de Croix in small outpost of the Presidio San Antonio 1780 provides clues to the date and subject de Bexar (a post known as Fuerte del matter. Additionally, its reliability as Cíbolo), no new official Spanish presidios documentation of the relationship between and only one mission (Mission Nuestra river crossings, roads, and ranch Señora del Refugio) would be founded headquarters can be demonstrated by during this period. Additionally, only four modern knowledge of the locations and Figure 1-1. Ranches and Roads in Wilson and Karnes Counties (Courtesy National Archives, Map no. NWCS-077-CWMF-Q47)

villas would be established—all an dispositions of several of the trail-related outgrowth of civilian ventures. The latter resources depicted on this map. half of the 18th century saw a focus on Researchers have added notes to the map to civilian settlements and extended areas of show sites that have been confirmed mission ranches, where the lines between physically and archeologically, to missionaries, military, ranchers, and general demonstrate the credibility of its civilians became blurred. This pattern is information and to facilitate its similar to the one for Nuevo Santander, but interpretation.7 it also seems prevalent in the settlement Figure 1-1 shows a settlement pattern of areas of San Antonio and La Bahía and also ranch headquarters clustered around one or in East Texas after 1772. These sites played more river crossings and houses on both an important role in the continuation and sides of the river. The ranches depicted in success of the various routes of El Camino this map are mission ranches and ranches Real de los Tejas Trail because most were leased from the missions, which were part located at important crossings. of the mission lands (fundos legales) of the The pattern of ranch headquarters being missions in San Antonio and La Bahía. used as guard posts or stopping places along These fundos legales included mission routes is illustrated in a late 18th-century grounds, agricultural fields, and map of the San Antonio River valley ranchlands. Legal documents refer to roads between the San Antonio and La Bahía as ranch boundaries and several parcel settlement areas (Figure 1-1 on page 13 is a section of this map). Although the 7 - Morgan-Remley conducted this investigation and added notes to the map.

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corners and other boundaries being located because he was known to be a prolific at known river crossings. It is not clear if the trader and smuggler, and it is likely that his pattern of ranch headquarters clustering ranch headquarters served as a trading around crossings was deliberately planned post. in laying out the boundaries of mission The community structure is also evident ranchlands. However, this pattern is in the multiple functions served by ranch consistent with travelers’ written headquarters. For instance, Rancho de las descriptions of parajes (stopping places or Cabras (41WN30) had a church that was campsites), which noted that travel parties visited by a priest from Mission San tried to make camp shortly after crossing a Francisco de la Espada in Bexar County. river because a heavy rain could come This church may have also served three overnight and make it impassable. ranches located on the west side of the river Therefore, it was important to have a paraje near the crossing known as Paso de las on either side of a river to facilitate Mujeres (at the Calvillo Ranch), all of which whichever direction a given party would be had been leased from Mission Espada ranch 8 traveling. By the mid-to late 18th century, lands. many of the ranch headquarters and towns tended to be former campsites that evolved In addition to serving religious and into stopovers with more amenities. economic functions, many ranch headquarters in the Nuevo Santander area Ranch headquarters clustered near river were built to be defensive structures, as crossings would not only have served were those in the San Antonio River valley. travelers but also local settlers by providing a community structure that facilitated Rancho de las Cabras, for instance, had sharing resources and increased defense defensive walls with probable bastions against enemies traveling along the road. A around the ranch compound. Additionally, good example of this community structure two other sites that have been confirmed is found in the number of people recorded archeologically in the area covered by the at Antonio Gil Y’Barbo’s Rancho Lobanillo, map segment in Figure 1-1 include a presidio which, as early as 1773, boasted a population outpost and a ranch headquarters with of at least 65 people (made up of 14 families). masonry structures that would have Y’Barbo’s ranches are also noteworthy provided greater defense than the jacales (primitive wattle-and-daub adobe 8 - The term paraje, though often translated as campsite, structures) often recorded along the San is a word derived from the verb parar, which simply means to stop. It is from the same root word as parador, Antonio River. According to historical which is used in Spain today to refer to any place reports, additional ranches in the area with where a traveler stops overnight, such as a hostel or masonry structures and chapels included an inn. Therefore, although the term paraje has been interpreted by many researchers to mean campsite, a Rancho Pastle in Wilson County and broader translation, such as stopover or waystation, may Rancho La Mora in Karnes County, though be more appropriate to discussing the stopping points neither of these has been confirmed along the trail routes as they evolved through time. That is, in the early period of the trail, the paraje was simply archeologically. Other ranch headquarters a place that travelers would record as they crossed in the San Antonio River valley between the landscape, because it was important to note the Bexar and Goliad counties may have had places where one could find good water and favorable conditions to camp. However, in the later periods of the similar defensive and religious structures. trail, especially after the expansion of private ranches In 1803, the United States acquired near river crossings (beginning in the 1750s), parajes provided anything from a campsite to actual shelter Louisiana from France, opening the door to and other amenities. Another example that illustrates an influx of Anglo-Americans into that ranch headquarters were likely also parajes is Louisiana and Texas. Other newcomers found in an 1827 land grant in Wilson County (GLO document #103440), which states that the Flores ranch were American Indian groups from the east was located on the San Antonio River (Río de Bexar) at and southeast who were being pushed el paraje Nombrado Chayopines. The reference to the well- westward by Anglo expansion or saw better known paraje in defining the ranchlands demonstrates the important relationship between the trail and ranch opportunities and more game available in headquarters—a relationship that likely extended well the Southern Plains and in Texas. Among into the Mexican period and beyond.

Page 14 Chapter 1: Introduction - Historical Background those tribes were the Creek Alabamas and territory, neither the groups along the Red the Coushattas. They settled among the River nor in the United States accepted that Caddo for a while, and later were granted notion. lands by Sam Houston, first governor of the Travel through the area remained Republic of Texas. The Choctaw also dangerous, though. Troops, settlers, moved into the Red River area and despite traders, runaway slaves, filibusters, frictions, eventually settled among Caddo gangsters, and many newcomers from the groups and other American Indians who East looking for easy profit and lands also made their move into Louisiana and traveled the main road developed in the Texas during the early and mid-1800s. previous century. Caddo groups initially Following the Louisiana Purchase, Spain profited from the opportunity, but soon gained a new rival for supremacy of lands in thereafter, started to suffer as the onslaught Texas and Louisiana: the United States. of new settlers overwhelmed them. In 1806, Spanish officials soon realized that the the warehouse at San Antonio distributed cooperation of the local tribes was essential 589 three-pound tobacco twists, 1,829 to maintaining New Spain’s ill-defined knives, 938 scissors, and 3,024 small bells territorial borders. Trade and gift giving among 1,331 Indians of various tribes. These were once again central to Indian relations goods and others maintained trade policies carried out by both Spanish and relations and connections among native United States. Most of the traffic appears to groups, but they did little to help these have been between Nacogdoches and groups feel safer and offered no practical Natchitoches, but it is also clear that trade resources to help them defend their also involved other tribes and extended traditional lands. westward. The Spanish distribution of gifts was The boundary dispute between Spain normally done through licensed traders like and the United States was a complicated William Barr and Peter Samuel Davenport, affair. It resulted in the establishment of a while the United States used John Sibley’s swath of territory between Nacogdoches factory system located in Natchitoches. and Natchitoches that was not under the Unlike the Spanish traders, Sibley and control of either country. The boundaries others provided the native groups with of this territory, which came to be known as weapons. Indeed, Sibley even arranged for a the Neutral Ground, were never officially blacksmith to repair their weapons. Sibley described. Only the Sabine River and was so successful that at one time as many Arroyo Hondo were designated in the as 700 Indians went to Natchitoches to informal agreement between Lieutenant receive gifts. This trade went a long way Colonel José María Herrera (the Spanish towards obtaining and maintaining native official who signed the agreement) and allegiance. It is unclear how much of this General James Wilkinson (the United States trade went through El Camino Real de los official who first took possession of Tejas, but some certainly did.

Louisiana for the United States). The In 1801, the Spanish government gave Spanish bolstered their claims by increasing permission to the House of Barr and troops at Bexar and Nacogdoches. More Davenport to export to Louisiana all of the than 500 soldiers traveled from San Antonio livestock they obtained from the Indians in to Nacogdoches, and in November 1806, 883 exchange for muskets, blankets, pots, and soldiers were assigned to patrol the area clothing. During the same year, Barr between Nacogdoches and Los Adaes. obtained permission to drive to Louisiana This issue, which was debated from 1804 about 300 horses and mules so that he could onward, was finally settled with the signing purchase goods for the tribes. of the Adams-Onís Treaty on February 22, Notwithstanding the tensions in the 1821. Although Spain asserted that the Neutral Ground, Caddo groups fared rather Caddo villages were located in Spanish well until the dismantling of the Spanish

Page 15 Chapter 1: Introduction

Colonial empire, which began in 1810 with the rebellion led by Father Miguel Hidalgo Austin’s colony was located between the y Costilla and culminated in 1821 when Lavaca and San Jacinto rivers, south of the Mexico became independent from Spain. San Antonio Road. The San Antonio Road, The ensuing tumult of revolutionary referenced in several land grants, remained movements culminated with the Texas a well-known route into modern times. Revolution of 1836. As Mexican General During the Mexican period (1821–1836), Antonio López de Santa Anna approached Texas served as a buffer between the United San Antonio to quell the Texas revolt, States and Mexico. The Mexican Caddo groups and others were again asked government recognized that populating to take sides. This time, however, the sheer Texas with immigrants would strengthen number of participants and their the buffer area, so in 1824, the Mexican conflicting positions made the choices state of Coahuila y Texas offered 4,428 unclear for American Indians. In 1835, acres of grazing land and 170 acres of Caddo chiefs ceded those of their lands farmland to new colonists. Within the next within United States territory and retreated decade, more than 30,000 Anglos and 3,000 westward to Texas. mainly African American slaves moved into Texas, primarily to the eastern section of As Mirabeau B. Lamar took office as the state. With so many new arrivals, president of the Republic of Texas, the settlements grew up in areas far removed situation worsened for Caddo groups and from the main routes of the designated trail, American Indians in Texas. Pushed by with the result that a network of roads Lamar, many retreated into Oklahoma for a began to crisscross the region, especially in while but returned to Texas in 1839. In 1841, East Texas. Complex road networks Sam Houston became president of the continued to develop throughout the Republic of Texas and tried to find a Mexican period, as is well documented in solution. In March 1843, some Caddo the 1830 minutes of the Ayuntamiento (City groups and many other groups signed a Council) of San Felipe in which Stephen F. peace treaty at the Tehuacana Creek near Austin called for the construction of several modern Waco, Texas. Following the treaty, new routes in the area, as well as the Kadohahacho, Hasinai, Nadaco, and assessments of some of the roads that other Caddo groups settled on the Clear predated the Mexican period. Fork of the Brazos River. Sadly, the treaty did not bring about a lasting solution. In During the Mexican and Texas Republic 1859, about 1,050 Caddo were removed to periods (1821–1845), existing roads in Texas the Indian Territory and the Wichita agency were improved and additional ones in western Oklahoma. Today, the Caddo developed. Even so, many of the settlements Tribe of Oklahoma has its tribal complex in dating from this period were established Binger, Oklahoma. along roads dating to the earlier Spanish period. But as immigration steadily Competition over the territory held by increased—especially after Texas won its American Indian tribes had begun even independence from Mexico in 1836—a before the end of the Spanish Colonial complex settlement pattern and associated period. Spain recognized that immigration new roads transformed the landscape. was the key to successful colonization and began to consider requests from Anglos, As the 19th century progressed, including a petition for a land grant by immigrants increasingly arrived by sea. Moses Austin in 1820. Following Moses Port cities, such as Indianola and Galveston, Austin’s death the following year, his son became major entry points for newcomers Stephen F. Austin carried out his father’s from all over the world. With increased plans, receiving a land grant in 1821. This population and the complex network of was the beginning of what would become a roads that grew in its wake, designated trail large-scale European and American routes still bore names that referenced their migration into Texas. Spanish Colonial beginnings, but they no

Page 16 Chapter 1: Introduction - Planning Issues and Concerns longer functioned as the major travel 2. The role and responsibility of corridors they had been when Spain National Park Service in the struggled to colonize Texas. With time, administration of historic trails is not radical changes to the use of the road well understood by the partners. occurred and the reasons that made El 3. There is no current overall Camino Real de los Tejas nationally administration of the trail: a series of significant diminished. sites and a few segments are managed locally, but no coordinated system of PLANNING ISSUES AND routes and trail resources exists. CONCERNS 4. The majority of resources is in private hands. A very small number is Members of the planning team traveled federally owned and a variety of state extensively through Texas and Louisiana in and local entities manage the rest. 2006 and 2007 to acquaint themselves with Many of the private landowners have the main resources and issues central to the been reluctant to participate in the planning process. The team received ideas development of this plan. and comments from the public during these 5. There is a lack of adequate trips. The team conducted eight scoping coordination among groups interested meetings in 2007, where input from the in trail development. Protection and public, government agency representatives, use strategies are inconsistent: federally recognized American Indian different levels of protection, use, and tribes, trail organizations, and individuals interpretation are employed, was systematically recorded. The planning depending on the location and owner. team also received and recorded comments 6. No formal mechanism for providing by letter and/or comment forms. Every technical assistance for preservation comment was considered. Members of the and interpretation exists. planning team have also helped identify 7. Financial assistance to stimulate issues that will likely directly impact the partnerships, protect trail-related National Trails Intermountain Region’s role resources, and educate the public is as administrator of the trail. limited. Several concerns about trail administration can appropriately be RESOURCE PROTECTION addressed here while others are beyond the scope of the Comprehensive Management 1. Additional routes might be identified Plan/Environmental Assessment, or would 2. Trail routes need further study, be better handled once detailed planning is particularly addressing the following underway. areas: a. Accuracy The following is a list of the principal b. Connecting routes issues identified during the process of 3. Ground truthing of trail resources has developing this document. The issues have been completed only in certain areas; been grouped into three categories, but in further research is necessary to add several cases they overlap. For example, resources to the list of high potential ownership of resources is an issue that has sites and segments. been listed under administration, but it also 4. There is a need for additional research has implications for resource protection, on the following topics and possibly interpretation, and visitor use. others: a. Original Spanish government ADMINISTRATION AND correspondence regarding the MANAGEMENT settlement of areas served by El Camino Real de los Tejas National 1. There is limited public awareness of Historic Trail; the trail. b. Sites and segments related to the

Page 17 Chapter 1: Introduction

Caddo and other American Indian appropriate context, and provide the tribes with close ties to the trail; public with interesting yet relevant c. The African American experience and authentic materials. along the trail; d. Commercial activities/trade/ contraband along the trail; BOUNDARY ADJUSTMENTS e. Evolution of civilian communities The designation of El Camino Real de (Spanish, Mexican, Anglo) along the los Tejas National Historic Trail trail (from ranchos to towns); commemorates a significant route of travel. f. The migration experience along the As in the case of all other national historic San Antonio Road. trails, the legislation does not include 5. Trail resources are under diverse identification of specific legal boundaries ownership (federal, several state and does not provide for federal land entities, and numerous private acquisition without the consent of the landowners). owner. The National Park Service does not 6. Existing strategies to preserve trail identify land acquisition as a management resources, such as swales or ruts, are priority for this plan. controversial. Furthermore, most national historic trail 7. No strategy has yet been identified to routes are mapped at a very coarse scale protect and preserve trail resources and their specific historic location is often due to neglect, ignorance of their not known. The accurate identification of significance, development pressures, many of these routes will require exhaustive inappropriate uses, and natural research and ground truthing, time- processes. consuming tasks that will be ongoing 8. No formal approach to provide throughout the life of this plan. It is possible technical assistance for preservation that as new research reveals more accurate and interpretation has been information, the location of the designated established. routes might be slightly modified. At the time this plan is being prepared, no INTERPRETATION, VISITOR additional routes are contemplated for EXPERIENCE, AND USE inclusion. However, because of the complexity of conquest and development 1. Few coordinated methods of getting patterns, potential routes of travel could be interpretive information to the public identified for further study. Inclusion of exist. such additional routes would require action 2. Research information needs to be by Congress. (See Appendix C for Solicitor’s made accessible to the general public, Opinion on adding routes not included in as well as to teachers and students. feasibility study, page 153). 3. Periodic updates of interpretive information to reflect the latest scholarship are needed. 4. No formal approach to providing technical assistance for preservation and interpretation exists. 5. Strategies for promoting public support for the preservation of trail- related resources are lacking. 6. Methods used to mark the trails are different and often incompatible. 7. Interpretive facilities along the designated routes need to explain historic developments more accurately, place them into an

Page 18 Chapter 1: Introduction - Purpose of the Trail

GUIDANCE FOR PLANNING trail and in particular volunteers will be AND ADMINISTRATION essential to accomplish the purpose of the trail. General guidance for trail planning and administration derives from the purpose of the trail, as established by Congress; the SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTS national significance of the trail and its Significance statements reflect the trail’s fundamental resources and values; the importance to the heritage of the United primary interpretive themes that convey the States. They serve as a tool in identifying trail’s significance; and federal, state, and interpretive themes and desirable visitor county legal and policy requirements—the experiences. They help trail administrators more general body of laws and policies that focus on the preservation and enjoyment of apply to El Camino Real de los Tejas those resources and values that directly National Historic Trail. These parameters contribute to the purpose of the trail and guide all programs and actions that must be protected. Significance recommended in the Comprehensive statements describe the unique qualities of Management Plan/Environmental the trail’s resources, both separately and as Assessment and contribute to achieving the a whole, and place them within a broader trail’s purpose and other mandates. regional, national, and international context. PURPOSE OF THE TRAIL The significance statements for El A statement of purpose defines why a Camino Real de Tejas National Historic particular trail or park has received official Trail include: recognition. The purpose of El Camino • Spanish settlement of the northeast Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail is corner of the province of New Spain derived from the legislative history, the was triggered by the 17th-century National Historic Trail Feasibility Study and struggle with France for territorial Environmental Assessment: El Camino Real control in North America: The de los Tejas, Texas and Louisiana, and the establishment of missions and public comments received in 2007. presidios along El Camino Real de los The purpose of El Camino Real de los Tejas demonstrated Spain’s Tejas National Historic Trail is to determination to discourage French commemorate the development of a intrusion. network of trails, based upon American • The network of routes that became El Indian routes, which linked Spanish Camino Real de los Tejas followed missions, presidios and trading posts in a established American Indian trails. It travel corridor from the Río Grande to fostered the convergence of European Louisiana. This network of trails was used and Indian cultures by linking throughout the Spanish Colonial period, cultural and linguistic groups, the Mexican period, and up to Texas nation introducing a foreign religious system and statehood. (Catholicism), and serving as an agent To achieve the trail’s stated purpose, it is for cultural diffusion, biological essential to identify, protect, and interpret exchange, and communication. the significant resources associated with El • For more than 160 years, El Camino Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Real de los Tejas facilitated the Trail, and to provide trail users with conquest, colonization, and educational and recreational opportunities, development of the region and was a so that they will understand and enjoy key feature of the Spanish Colonial authentic sites and segments associated empire in what later became the states with the history of the trail. The of Texas and Louisiana. involvement of all of those interested in the • The location of El Camino Real de los

Page 19 Chapter 1: Introduction

Tejas shaped the physical and legal were defined by the geographic landscape patterning of land grants, settlements, and of the Tejas environment and were later subsequent transportation networks in adopted by Spanish, Mexican, American, Texas and Louisiana. and modern travelers. • El Camino Real de los Tejas served as a critical travel corridor for Mexican and • SHIFTING ROUTES Texan military forces during the first half The trail was not static—varying routes of the 19th century. were developed to meet the changing needs • The Old San Antonio Road, from the Red of travelers, who were affected by weather, River settlement of Natchitoches, Indian relations, terrain, settlement, and Louisiana, to San Antonio, Texas, was the modes of transportation—and the multiple primary overland route for early 19th- paths provide a visual understanding to century Anglo and African American modern travelers of the area’s development migration into Texas, and supported the through time. development of the cotton economy in eastern Texas and northwestern Louisiana. • CHANGING STATES The trail is representative of the PRIMARY INTERPRETIVE dramatic socioeconomic change of the THEMES 1800s, including political unrest, military action, Texas’ independence from Mexico, Interpretive themes are the key statements nationhood, and entry into the United defining the trail’s significance and resource States. values. These themes identify the primary stories that best convey the trail’s significance HISTORIC RESOURCES ALONG to the public. Interpretive themes connect THE TRAIL trail resources to larger ideas, meanings, and values. They are the building blocks upon DESCRIPTION OF TRAIL ROUTES which interpretive programs are based. Current knowledge of El Camino Real de los Tejas is incomplete. This is evident in • PROTECTION, CONTROL, AND any attempt to clarify the complex system of DEVELOPMENT routes associated with this trail (see Appendix D, page 155 for a discussion of El Camino Real de los Tejas was a line of mapping El Camino Real de los Tejas defense for New Spain with long term National Historic Trail). El Camino Real de consequences—modifying the landscape to los Tejas was not a single trail; instead, it meet the needs of armies and immigrants was a network of regional routes that and leading to community and trade included El Camino Pita, the Upper development. Presidio Road, the Lower Presidio Road, El Camino de en Medio, El Camino Arriba, • IRREVERSIBLE CHANGE the San Antonio–Nacogdoches Road, La The cultural groups who traveled El Bahía Road, El Camino Carretera, among Camino Real de los Tejas caused other routes. Trail experts note, quite irreversible change to American Indian accurately, that throughout its long history, lifeways, affecting family and community the trail’s route alignments moved to allow life, religious practices, intertribal relations, travelers to avoid flooded rivers or and resource use. American Indians. Even though the routes shifted with the season of the year or with time, most destinations remained constant. • PATHS TRAVELED The trail represents the lifeways of Indian groups, whose physical pathways

Page 20 Chapter 1: Introduction - Historic Resources Along the Trail Map 1.1 Individual Trail Routes N Miles LOUISIANA Natchitoches 0 25 50

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Page 21 Chapter 1: Introduction

However, often Spanish settlements later (1795–1850) generally following the proved ephemeral. Several missions, route of the earlier Camino Pita (it is presidios, and villages were short-lived, a generally north of it) to a point east of testimony to the obstacles that Spain faced in the Frío River. colonizing such a large and harsh territory. There were two main routes from San The National Historic Trail Feasibility Antonio to Los Adaes (see Map 1-2, page 21): Study and Environmental Assessment: El Camino Real de los Tejas, Texas and Louisiana 1) The Upper Road or El Camino de los identified El Camino Real de los Tejas Tejas (1691–1800). This road went National Historic Trail routes that were through modern New Braunfels and designated by Congress. The study classified San Marcos, reached the Colorado the routes according to their starting and River just west of Austin, and extended ending points into routes from the Río to the missions in eastern Texas in 1716. Grande to San Antonio, and routes from San It was the predominant route for the Antonio to Los Adaes. explorers and early settlers of eastern There were three basic routes from the Texas. Beyond a point 10 miles north- Río Grande to San Antonio (see Map 1-2, east of Austin to the San Gabriel River, page 21): this road is not well defined. From the 1) El Camino Pita, between Paso de Fran- San Gabriel River to the Trinity River, cia and San Antonio, was named for a three variations are shown: one that paraje (campsite) used in 1716 by the can be partially identified from records Domingo Ramón-Fray Isidro Espinosa and two other, more northerly routes. Expedition. It remained the route of 2) The Lower Road (around 1720s–1790s). most expeditions through the 1720s, During the 1720s, the road east from when traffic moved farther south in San Antonio shifted south, followed the response to American Indian attacks. San Antonio River downstream, then 2) The Lower Presidio Road, used turned east to cross the Guadalupe primarily from 1750 to 1800, went River near present-day Cuero, the almost directly east from Paso de Colorado River, just north of La Francia, before turning north to San Grange, and the Brazos near the mouth Antonio. This route was also known as of the Little Brazos River, near Hearne. El Camino de en Medio because it was After the presidio and mission at La between two other roads: El Camino Bahía were moved to present Goliad in Pita to the north and, on the south, 1749, the road was extended to La another main road to San Antonio that Bahía, where it intersected with the ran east from the Laredo crossing of Laredo Road after 1755. The Lower the Río Grande. Road joined the northern route before their common crossing of the Trinity 3) Routes from the Laredo area, also River. Most traffic, and especially called the San Antonio–Laredo Road, official expeditions, followed the came into use with the founding of Lower Road between 1727 and the Villa Dolores and Laredo in the 1750s. A closing of Los Adaes in 1773. East of the spur from the San Antonio Road (1750– Neches, all three routes—the Upper 1830) went directly north-northeast Road (also known as El Camino Real de from Laredo. A second route from los Tejas), the Lower Road, and the Old Laredo to San Antonio (1750–1830) ran San Antonio Road (also called El east-northeast to La Bahía near Camino de Arriba)—are on the same present-day Goliad. The route then alignment. turned back to the northwest, following the San Antonio River to San Antonio. After the closing of Los Adaes, both the An Upper Presidio Road was opened Upper and Lower roads to the east continued

Page 22 Chapter 1: Introduction - High Potential Sites and Segments to be used, with the Lower Road receiving close proximity thereto, which more traffic. A new mail route was provide opportunity to interpret the pioneered in 1795, with the aim of historic significance of the trail during straightening the route to East Texas. Many the period of its major use; criteria for segments of this road—later called the Old consideration as high potential sites San Antonio Road—are the same as the include historic significance, presence Upper Road; other segments are the same of visible historic remnants, scenic as the Lower Road. In the area of New quality, and relative freedom from Braunfels, the San Antonio Road turned intrusion; slightly south to avoid crossing the Comal b) high potential segments are those and Blanco rivers. It then headed straight segments of a trail that afford high- for the Brazos River crossing of the Lower quality recreation experiences along a Road, passing the Colorado River at portion of the route having greater- Bastrop. The Old San Antonio Road than-average scenic values or followed the Upper Road from San Antonio affording an opportunity to share to the New Braunfels area, where it turned vicariously the experience of the slightly south to cross the Guadalupe and original users of a historic route. San Marcos rivers. It then headed through Bastrop to the Brazos River, where it The planning process determines if sites, crossed the same area as the Lower Road. trail segments, or associated resources are The Old San Antonio Road between eligible to be included as official Natchitoches, Louisiana, and San Antonio, components of the national historic trail. Texas, served as one colonial route used for High potential lists are compiled based on emigration, trade, and commerce in the information available when the early decades of the 19th century and Comprehensive Management Plan/ beyond. The Old San Antonio Road also Environmental Assessment is being provided an important transportation prepared. They should not be regarded as corridor for military activities during the complete, conclusive, or final. Lists may be Texas Revolution and the War between amended to add or remove properties, as Mexico and the United States. appropriate. In the state of Louisiana, State Highway The process of selecting high potential 120 paralleled the original route of El sites and segments for El Camino Real de Camino Real de los Tejas until the 1820s. At los Tejas National Historic Trail required that time, the Americans established Fort the analysis of historic and archeological Jesup and built what would become information from 40 Texas counties and Louisiana State Highway 6 and the two Louisiana parishes. The list of high Pendleton Bridge across the Sabine River, potential sites and segments was developed making the ferry across the Sabine no after analyzing more than 500 sites and longer necessary. involved a number of steps (see Appendix E, page 161). To avoid confusion, all of the congressionally designated routes are Crucial input in selecting high potential subsumed under the name El Camino Real sites and segments came from a number of de los Tejas. different representatives from the trail community, including the Texas Historical Commission; the Texas Parks and Wildlife HIGH POTENTIAL SITES Department; the Louisiana Department of AND SEGMENTS Culture, Recreation, and Tourism; the Texas Department of Transportation; According to Section 12 of the National Stephen F. Austin State University; El Trails System Act: Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic a) high potential sites are those historic Trail Association; and others with sites related to the route or sites in knowledge of trail resources. Members of

Page 23 Chapter 1: Introduction

the National Trails Intermountain Region Table 1-2. planning team, assisted by a core group of High Potential Sites and Segments experts with extensive experience State Parish/County Site Segment identifying high potential sites and Louisiana segments, visited the majority of sites/ segments included in the list and made a Natchitoches 12 4 determination as to which should be Sabine 2 1 included. In a number of instances, a Natchitoches/ 1 resource appeared significant but its Sabine relationship to the trail was not clear; in 13 5 others, there was not enough historic Texas evidence to link the site to the trail. In many Bexar 25 1 cases, a site appears to merit inclusion, but its specific location has not been clearly Brazos 1 identified. A decision was reached to Cherokee 4 develop two lists: 1) high potential sites and Comal 3 segments (see Appendix E, page 161, for DeWitt 1 greater detail); and 2) those sites that might Dimmitt 1 merit inclusion later on but, at this time, fail to meet some of the criteria identified in the Frio 1 National Trails System Act; these sites Goliad 6 (almost 100) are included in Appendix F, Hays 5 page 197. Houston 2 1 Karnes 2 As knowledge of trail resources increases, a larger number of authentic sites Leon 1 and segments will become eligible for Maverick 3 inclusion as high potential sites. However, Milam 6 even though some of these sites and Nacogdoches 7 segments may merit inclusion due to their Rusk 1 scientific importance in understanding the history and the development of the trail, Sabine 1 1 they still may not be suitable for San Augustine 2 interpretation and public access. A Travis 1 combination of factors, such as limited size Victoria 7 (very short swales), location (in an area not Webb 4 likely to permit safe public access or underwater), landowners’ wishes, and other Wilson 1 reasons, might lead trail administrators to Zapata 3 conclude that some sites and segments, 87 3 although authentic, do not have the Total 101 8 potential to be developed and interpreted for the benefit of the public. GAPS IN INFORMATION AND For the purpose of this plan, 74 high potential sites and segments have been RESEARCH NEEDS selected for inclusion from the state of Information for this Comprehensive Texas; 19 from the state of Louisiana; a total Management Plan/Environmental of 93 for the entire trail. Their approximate Assessment has come from documents location is depicted on the maps which are prepared specifically for this project. They included at the end of Appendix E, page 183. include 1) a cultural resources inventory for the trail in Texas; 2) an ethnographic overview; 3) a cultural resources inventory

Page 24 Chapter 1: Introduction - Gaps in Information and Research Needs for the trail in Louisiana; and 4) a natural 12) Impact of the trail on indigenous resources overview. However, due to the communities (and vice-versa). considerable length of the designated route and the limited knowledge about major sections of the trail, much still remains to LEGAL AND POLICY be learned about El Camino Real de los REQUIREMENTS Tejas National Historic Trail routes and In addition to the legislation designating associated resources. This Comprehensive the trail and the National Trails System Act, Management Plan/Environmental other federal laws apply to trail Assessment highlights the need for management. All trail resources and continued research and study of the people opportunities for visitor enjoyment must be and the resources associated with the trail. managed in compliance with a large body of For this reason, the planning team legal and policy requirements intended to recommends that the following studies be adequately protect the nation’s natural and undertaken, as time and funding become cultural heritage and opportunities for the available: enjoyment of that heritage. Federal laws, regulations, and planning direction 1) African Americans’ experience along applicable to this Comprehensive the trail; Management Plan/Environmental 2) Immigration into Texas during the Assessment include, but are not limited to, first half of the 19th century; the following: 3) Development of Spanish/Mexican communities during the period of • Antiquities Act of 1906 (16 USC 431- significance; 433) 4) Systematic evaluation and identification of regional routes • Archeological and Historic defining their periods of significance, Preservation Act of 1974 (AHPA, 16 associations of culture, historic USC 469-469c) properties, and their role in the development of regional histories; • Archeological Resources Protection 5) In-depth research of economic Act of 1979 (ARPA, 16 USC 470aa) activities along the trail; 6) On-the-ground archeological • Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 investigations to verify routes and the USC 35) specific location of missions and presidios; • Federal Cave Protection Act of 1988 (16 7) Archeological and historical USC 4301-4310) investigations to identify the location of missions and presidios, and other • National Environmental Policy Act of significant resources; 1969 (NEPA 42 USC 5) 8) Studies of cultural landscapes along the trail; • National Historic Preservation Act of 9) Examination of additional historic 1966 (NHPA 16 USC 470) routes for future Congressional designation; • National Park Service Organic Act of 10)Development of site/segment 1916 (16 USC 1, 2, 3, and 4) protection strategies that take into account special environmental • Native American Graves and conditions along the trail; Repatriation Act of 1990 (25 NAGPRA, 11) Analysis of the relationship between USC 3001 ET. SEQ.) route selection made by travelers and natural resources/environmental • issues; and

Page 25 Chapter 1: Introduction

• Executive Order No. 12898, “Federal routes of El Camino Real de los Tejas. Actions to Address Environmental Included in A Texas Legacy, The Old San Justice in Minority Populations and Antonio Road and the Caminos Reales: A Low-Income Populations,” 1994 Tricentennial History, 1691-1991, the preservation plan calls for the identification • Executive Order No. 1300, “Indian of historic resources, the completion and Sacred Sites,” 1996 consolidation of all inventories and existing • NPS Management Policies 2006 data, on-site investigation, evaluation and documentation, additional research, and • and relevant NPS Director’s Orders the development of a management system. It identifies suitable places (the intersection RELATIONSHIP TO of the various old routes with existing OTHER PLANS roads) for the installation of historic COUNTY LAND USE PLANS markers or information rest-stops for tourists. The plan also recommends the Existing land-use plans in the trail’s designation of the caminos reales as a vicinity are numerous because the routes national historic trail. cross two Louisiana Parishes and 40 Texas Counties. Given the general nature of the alternatives proposed in this plan, it is not APPROPRIATE USE appropriate to list all such documents. Section 1.5 of Management Policies However, as trail projects begin to be (2006), “Appropriate Use of the Parks,” developed, the National Trails directs that the National Park Service must Intermountain Region will ensure that all ensure that allowed park uses would not pertinent local land-use plans are examined cause impairment of, or unacceptable to ensure that there are no unexpected impacts on, resources and values. In the impacts or inconsistencies. case of El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail, the National Trails STATE Intermountain Region does not own any of the resources and does not have the Statewide comprehensive outdoor authority to regulate use. However, the recreation plans exist for both Texas and office will make an effort to work with Louisiana. In Texas, the Texas Parks and partners and the trail community to foster Wildlife Department has prepared the Land appropriate trail uses that will not result in and Water Resources Conservation and unacceptable impacts to resources. Recreation Plan (2005). In Louisiana, the Division of Outdoor Recreation of the Office of State Parks prepared the state’s IMPACT TOPICS plan that was approved early in 2009. These Impact topics address those resources plans identify statewide recreation that could be affected by the alternatives demands and issues and present a strategic presented in this plan. They offer a means approach to address them. These plans are of comparing the environmental required to qualify for federal grants for consequences of implementing each outdoor recreation projects and are to be alternative. The planning team chose topics updated every five years. The alternatives on which to focus the environmental proposed in this plan are in accordance discussion, based on the following factors: with the provisions identified in these resources and values that may be affected, documents. federal laws and other legal requirements, At the request of the Texas State the Council of Environmental Quality’s Legislature, the Texas Department of guidelines for implementing the National Transportation prepared in 1991 and revised Environmental Policy Act, the National in 2001 a historic study and preservation Park Service management policies, and plan for a large segment of the designated issues and concerns expressed during

Page 26 Chapter 1: Introduction - Impact Topics public scoping and meetings with interested CAVES AND KARSTS parties along the trail. Although there are important caves and Each impact topic is identified below. karsts in one of the counties and one of the The list is followed by a brief justification parishes crossed by the trail, there are no for dismissing certain impact topics from known significant caves and karsts in the further consideration. proximity of the trail corridor. If any future site-specific development were to take IMPACT TOPICS ANALYZED place, a more detailed environmental study would be undertaken to identify any • Cultural Resources possible such resource that might be Ethnographic affected; therefore, this topic was Archeologic dismissed. Historic • Natural Resources Vegetation CLIMATE CHANGE AND Wildlife SUSTAINABILITY • Landownership and Use Although climatologists are unsure • Socioeconomic Conditions about the long-term results of global • Visitor Use and Experience climate change, it is clear that the planet is experiencing a warming trend that affects IMPACT TOPICS DISMISSED ocean currents, sea levels, polar sea ice, and global weather patterns. Although these The decision to dismiss certain impact changes will likely affect winter topics from analysis is partially based on precipitation patterns and amounts in the extensive experience administering parks, it would be speculative to predict national historic trails, and knowledge of localized changes in temperature, trail resources. After a systematic analysis precipitation, or other weather changes, in of the alternatives, the planning team part because there are many variables that concluded that certain impact topics were are not fully understood and there may be not relevant to the development of this variables not currently defined. The Comprehensive Management Plan/ analysis in this document is based on past Environmental Assessment. This decision and current weather patterns and not the was reached for two reasons: because effects of future climate changes; therefore, implementing either alternative would have this topic was dismissed. no effect or a negligible effect on the topic or resource or because the resource does not occur along the trail. The topics CULTURAL LANDSCAPES dismissed from further evaluation include Those who traveled the trail focused the following: neither on a set of swales or ruts nor on isolated places along the way, but instead on AIR QUALITY the physical nature of the regions they traversed. Such areas are identified as Trail use would have negligible short- cultural landscapes. The Secretary of the and long-term effects on air quality. Interior’s Guidelines for the Treatment of Potential sources of air-quality effects may Cultural Landscapes define a cultural arise from development of trailheads and landscape as “a geographic area (including vehicle emissions associated with both natural and cultural resources and the constructing small parking areas. Each of wildlife or domestic animals therein) these sources would be short-term and associated with an historic event, activity, negligible. The proposed alternative would or person or exhibiting other cultural or result in negligible adverse, short-term aesthetic values.” effects on air quality; therefore, this impact topic was dismissed. Cultural landscapes are particularly important in understanding Louisiana and Page 27 Chapter 1: Introduction

Texas trails because they played a owned and many landowners are not fundamental role in the selection of travel willing to grant access to their land. routes. Seasonal variations and weather Furthermore, any future trail development patterns combined to dictate routes. project associated with the proposed Understanding the choices trail users made alternative would require compliance with requires examination of the landscapes federal laws regarding the protection of with care. The cultural aspects of a cultural landscapes. In such cases a more landscape are as important as the natural detailed environmental study would be features in defining management strategies. undertaken to identify any cultural The term “landscape” differs in landscapes that might be affected. meaning, usage, and importance, Therefore, this topic was dismissed. depending on who is using it. Ecologists often use the term “ecoregion” or GEOLOGY AND SOILS “ecosystem” when they refer to landscapes. Neither alternative proposes or implies Among cultural geographers, definitions of activities that would remove, erode, or the term “landscape” have changed contaminate soils. In more than 20 years of dramatically during the last six decades and national historic trails administration, the continue to evolve. National Trails Intermountain Region has Although cultural landscapes have not undertaken no projects that would been considered essential trail resources, adversely impact soils and has reasonable they should be a high priority for present- expectation that none would occur in the day trail managers because they define the future. Any individual undertaking that nature of the trail, both at the time of might be proposed in the future would be original use and at present. Cultural carefully analyzed with respect to soil- landscapes are very important trail related impacts. Impacts to soils and resources and need as much attention and geology would be negligible, if any; protection as swales and other types of therefore, this topic was dismissed. specific traditional historic resources. More importantly: legally, cultural landscapes MUSEUM COLLECTIONS merit the same protection as other cultural resources and should receive the same The National Park Service is one of the treatment and protection. primary federal entities that preserves cultural and natural resources. National The major character-defining features of Park Service museum collections include cultural landscapes along historic trails diverse disciplines and represent a depend on the local vegetation, hydrology, significant portion of the resources that the topography, and soil, and sometimes the National Park Service is charged to preserve human modifications of these elements. and protect. The collections are Variations in vegetation, landforms, water characterized as cultural, natural, and sources, and soils also help to identify archival. boundaries among the various component landscapes of a linear resource. According to Director’s Order #24 Museum Collections, the National Park The National Park Service has developed Service requires the consideration of a sophisticated methodology for the study impacts on museum collections, and of cultural landscapes. As in the case of provides further policy guidance, User Capacity, identifying cultural standards, and requirements for preserving, landscapes along the trail and developing protecting, documenting, and providing strategies for their protection would require access to, and use of, National Park Service periodic, long-term access to privately museum collections. owned trail resources. It is likely that cultural landscapes occur along this trail. At the moment, there are no museum However, the majority of them are privately collections associated with El Camino Real

Page 28 Chapter 1: Introduction - Impact Topics de los Tejas National Historic Trail. In the accidents that occur every day in Texas and future, the National Trails Intermountain Louisiana; therefore, this topic was Region will work with existing museum dismissed. facilities that have the capability of storing, curating, and displaying objects, specimens, SOUNDSCAPES and archives associated with the trail. A funding program, such as Challenge Cost National Park Service Management Share, could help support museum Policies 2001 and Director’s Order #47, collections in both Louisiana and Texas. Soundscape Preservation and Noise Neither alternative would result in any Management, recognize that natural unacceptable impacts; therefore this topic soundscapes are important park resources was dismissed. and call for the National Park Service to preserve, to the greatest extent possible, the natural soundscapes of parks. The policies PALEONTOLOGICAL RESOURCES and director’s order further state that the No known significant paleontological National Park Service is to restore degraded resources are located in the proximity of soundscapes to their natural condition the trail corridor. If any future site-specific whenever possible and to protect natural development were to take place, a more soundscapes from degradation due to noise detailed environmental study would be (undesirable human-caused sound). undertaken to identify any such resource Noise can adversely affect, directly and that might be affected; therefore, this topic indirectly, the natural soundscape and was dismissed. other trail resources. It can also adversely impact the visitor experience. Currently, PRIME AND/OR UNIQUE FARMLANDS visitors to some of the sites along El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail Prime farmland is defined as soil that have opportunities to experience solitude particularly produces general crops such as and tranquility in an environment of common foods, forage, fiber, and oil seed; natural sounds. However, since the unique farmland soils produce specialty preponderance of trail resources along this crops, such as specific fruits, vegetables, trail is privately owned, the National Trails and nuts. There are no lands classified as Intermountain Region can only work with prime and/or unique farmlands within the partners to foster appropriate uses that do El Camino Real de los Tejas National not impact the natural soundscapes of the Historic Trail corridor. Neither of the trail. Neither alternative proposes any alternatives propose land-use changes. In action that could affect the trail’s both cases, there will be a concerted effort soundscapes; therefore, this topic was to work with local landowners in dismissed. implementing the provisions of this plan. Impacts to prime farmlands are expected to be negligible; therefore, this topic was SPECIAL STATUS SPECIES dismissed. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 requires examination of impacts on all PUBLIC HEALTH AND SAFETY federally listed threatened, endangered, and candidate species. Section 7 of the Neither alternative would result in any Endangered Species Act requires all federal identifiable adverse impacts to human agencies to consult with the U.S. Fish and health or safety. Neither alternative would Wildlife Service to ensure that any action change sanitation levels of treated water or authorized, funded, or carried out by the exposure to environmental or chemical agency does not jeopardize the continued hazards. The numbers or levels of mobility existence of listed species or critical that would result from either alternative habitats. In addition, the 2006 Management would not be detectable compared to

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Policies and Director’s Order #77 Natural Preservation Act would be taken on a Resources Management Guidelines require case-by-case basis as site-specific projects the National Park Service to examine the are undertaken. Adverse impacts are impacts of federal candidate species, as well anticipated to be negligible; therefore, this as state-listed threatened, endangered, topic was dismissed. candidate rare, declining, and sensitive species. For the purpose of this analysis, the VISUAL RESOURCES U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Texas and Louisiana departments of natural Trail use would have negligible short- resources were contacted with regards to and long-term effects on visual resources. federal and state-listed species to determine Visual effects may arise from development those species that could potentially occur of trailheads and vehicle emissions near the project area (see Appendix K, page associated with constructing small parking 237, for a listing of Special Status Species). areas. Each of these sources would be short-term and negligible. Appropriate Preliminary consultation with the U.S. actions under the National Environmental Fish and Wildlife Service Southeastern and Policy Act and Section 106 of the National Southwestern regions indicates that neither Historic Preservation Act would be taken alternative is likely to adversely affect any on a case-by-case basis as site-specific special status species in Texas or Louisiana. projects are undertaken. The proposed Both offices caution, however, that any alternative would result in negligible, subsequent development proposals would adverse, short-term effects on visual require further study and consultation with resources; therefore, the topic was regard to potential impacts on such species. dismissed. As stated previously, all federally funded proposals that involve development or outdoor recreation and that, therefore, WATER RESOURCES could potentially impact special status Neither alternative would encourage species would be individually reviewed actions that could result in an increased or under the provisions of the National decreased use of water or cause changes in Environmental Policy Act. At this time, the chemical, physical, or biological there are no specific projects that would integrity of the water resources along the El cause any negative impact of any species of Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic concern; therefore, this topic was dismissed. Trail corridor. In more than 20 years of administering national historic trails, the URBAN QUALITY AND DESIGN OF National Trails Intermountain Region has THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT never undertaken projects that would impact water resources. It is not likely that Consideration of this topic is required by any such project would be undertaken in 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) the future; therefore, this topic was 1502.16. The quality of urban areas is not a dismissed. concern in this plan. Under either alternative, if new structures are proposed, vernacular architecture and compatible WETLANDS AND FLOODPLAINS design would be taken into consideration. Portions of the designated routes are Structures, such as interpretive kiosks and located on or near floodplains and restrooms, would be small and visually wetlands. Any federal agency involved in unobtrusive. Emphasis would be placed on trail development in these areas would be designs, materials, and colors that blend in mandated to follow Executive Order No. and do not detract from the natural and 11988, “Floodplain Management,” which built environment. Appropriate actions requires federal agencies, to the extent under the National Environmental Policy possible, to take into account the long- and Act and Section 106 of the National Historic short-term adverse impacts associated with

Page 30 Chapter 1: Introduction - Impact Topics the occupancy and modification of ENERGY REQUIREMENTS AND floodplains wherever there is a practical CONSERVATION POTENTIAL alternative. Furthermore, federal policy No facilities with inherent energy needs prohibits federal agencies from taking are proposed in the alternatives. Existing certain actions in a 500-year floodplain. building facilities would be used for visitor The alternatives considered in this orientation and interpretation. Should any environmental assessment do not call for of these facilities require remodeling to any trail-related development proposals for accommodate trail projects, sustainable these sensitive areas. Any future design concepts would be employed. The undertaking in relation to this trail would objectives of sustainability are to minimize be carefully analyzed to ensure full adverse effects on natural and cultural compliance with this executive order resources, to reflect the environmental mentioned above and any other pertinent setting, and to require the least amount of federal policy; therefore, this topic was nonrenewable fuels or energy possible; dismissed. therefore, this topic was dismissed.

WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS INDIAN TRUST LANDS AND No wild and scenic rivers are located RESOURCES within the designated routes of El Camino There are no Indian trust lands or Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail; resources in the area crossed by the therefore, this topic was dismissed. designated routes; therefore, this topic was dismissed. WILDERNESS No designated wilderness areas are ECOLOGICALLY CRITICAL located in the proximity of the trail AREAS AND NATIONAL corridor; therefore, this topic was NATURAL LANDMARKS dismissed. There are no ecologically critical areas and national natural landmarks in the area ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE crossed by the designated routes; therefore, Executive Order No. 12898 requires this topic was dismissed. all federal agencies to incorporate environmental justice into their NATURAL OR DEPLETABLE missions by identifying and addressing RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS AND disproportionately high and adverse effects CONSERVATION POTENTIAL of their actions on minorities and low- Neither alternative would substantially income populations and communities. affect energy requirements, either within The communities along the trail corridor national park boundaries or nonfederal are characterized by a mixture of incomes lands along the trail route, because any and ethnic backgrounds (See tables in rehabilitated buildings or new facilities Appendix L; page 249-page 254). The proposal would take advantage of energy- in this Comprehensive Management Plan/ conservation methods and materials; Environmental Assessment would not therefore, this topic was dismissed. have adverse impacts on minorities and low-income populations and communities; therefore, this topic was dismissed.

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POSSIBLE CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE PROPOSED ACTION AND THE OBJECTIVES OF FEDERAL, REGIONAL, STATE, AND LOCAL LAND-USE PLANS, POLICIES, AND CONTROLS Most trail-related projects along the designated routes would be proposed and carried out by individual landowners and managers, often without notification to, consultation with, or assistance from the National Park Service, the designated federal lead agency. The National Park Service has no direct management authority over project type, size, and design, which would be the principal determining factor in any impacts from given projects. In addition, location-specific factors would vary considerably from site to site along the length of the national historic trail. These include habitat, vegetation, viewshed, existing uses, public sentiment, the presence of threatened and endangered species, and the presence of historic resources eligible for inclusion in the national historic register. The combined effects of all of these location- and project- specific factors cannot be fully anticipated or addressed at this time, but must be evaluated at the project level in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act and Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act. Consultation with federal, regional, state, and local governing entities identified no conflicts with existing land- use plans that might arise from either of the alternatives at this time; therefore, this topic was dismissed.

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CHAPTER 2: ALTERNATIVES INTRODUCTION knowledge of the resources and awareness of the trail expand, the potential for The preferred alternative proposed in development programs would also increase. this plan (alternative B) aims to achieve a vision for the trail that emerged during the Under both alternatives the National process of preparing this document. This Trails Intermountain Region would be vision entails collaborating with partners to implementing the authorities of the provide the public with the opportunity to National Trails System Act that pertain to enjoy and appreciate significant trail national historic trails. Both alternatives resources through high quality visitor address the required and the discretionary programs while at the same time supporting authorities identified in the Act. research efforts to ensure that significant While the provisions of the National trail resources are identified and protected. Trail System Act and the specific trail The actions proposed follow a legislation allow for the acquisition of progression based on the assessment of properties from willing sellers, the National current conditions along the trail. For Trails Intermountain Region does not example, one central concern is the need to intend to acquire any trail-related sites. identify and document authentic trail However, it would be willing to provide resources. Once this task is completed, it technical assistance to partners interested would then be possible to develop in acquiring properties that are threatened protection strategies appropriate to the and/or essential to offer visitors the resources identified. Before some future opportunity to enjoy and appreciate actions can take place, it might be crucial to significant trail resources. complete other tasks. For example, quality interpretation is based upon knowledge of authentic trail resources and their significance. Development of projects to enhance visitor experience depends to a large extent on a quality interpretive program. Interested partners would then be able to develop appropriate recreational and heritage tourism activities. Not all of the actions identified under the preferred alternative can take place simultaneously, particularly since sites and segments along the trail are at different stages of development. Some have been well researched and are open to the public. Others need research to clearly link them to the period of significance of the trail. Many are privately owned and of difficult access. Some important sites are important for scientific purposes, but might not be of interest to the general public. Furthermore, the length of the trail would require crafting realistic implementation strategies, which in turn would entail collaboration with all those interested in the trail, so as to make the most effective use of available human and financial resources. As

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ACTIONS COMMON TO ALL ALTERNATIVES

ADMINISTRATION AND would continue, pending available MANAGEMENT funding. Within the National Trails System, the terms “administration” and “management” MANAGEMENT have specific and separate meanings to Management refers to those site-specific distinguish between trail-wide tasks carried out by various governmental, coordination (administration) and local community, and private entities that own, ownership, protection, and interpretation direct, or care for lands along each national (management). trail. Management responsibilities often include the following: inventorying ADMINISTRATION resources; mapping, planning, and Administration encompasses the tasks developing trail segments and sites; performed by the agency assigned by the ensuring compliance with federal and state Secretary of the Interior to administer the laws; providing appropriate public access; trail. For El Camino Real de los Tejas developing site interpretation; overseeing National Historic Trail, that agency is the trail maintenance; carrying out trail National Park Service. Subject to available marking; protecting resources and funding, the administering agency exercises viewsheds; and managing visitor use. trail wide responsibilities under the As required by the enabling legislation, National Trails System Act for that specific the National Trails Intermountain Region trail. Typically, such responsibilities include would make an effort to foster relations the following: providing technical with individual and entities currently assistance, oversight, and coordination studying or developing compatible among agencies and partnership programs along the Mexican section of the organizations in planning, resource trail, in particular members of the Instituto protection, trail marking, and Nacional de Arqueología e Historia and interpretation; identifying high potential other pertinent Mexican entities. sites and segments, initiating and Preliminary reconnaissance of significant maintaining agreements (partnership, sites located in Mexican territory suggests a cooperative, and interagency); setting and rich potential for collaboration with maintaining signage and interpretive Mexican authorities on both resource standards; helping to ensure consistent protection and interpretation. preservation, education, and public-use programs; managing the use of the official RESOURCE IDENTIFICATION, trail logo; encouraging and supporting the PROTECTION, AND MONITORING work of volunteers, and providing limited financial assistance to other cooperating Both alternatives acknowledge the key government agencies, landowners, interest role of environmental factors in the groups, and individuals. selection and use of trail routes and the identification and preservation of resources Responsibility for the overall along the trail. This is significant for trail administration of El Camino Real de los protection as historically routes were often Tejas National Historic Trail rests with selected because they offered the easiest the superintendent of the National Trails way to reach a certain destination. The Intermountain Region—with staff in environmental factors that led travelers to Santa Fe, New Mexico, and Salt Lake favor certain routes still play a role in land City, Utah. Current cooperative use in modern times: historic routes were agreements with the Texas Historical selected to facilitate travel and now their Commission and El Camino Real de los corridors have become the choice for the Tejas National Historic Trail Association construction of pipelines, new highways, or

Page 36 Chapter 2: Alternatives - Resource Identification, Protection and Monitoring road improvements. For this reason, both USER CAPACITY alternatives consider the natural The National Trail System Act requires environment an integral component of high that carrying capacity be addressed in a potential sites and segments. Comprehensive Management Plan/ Although a survey of historic sites Environmental Assessment. National Park (extant above grade and archeological) was Service planning guidelines have replaced carried out during the development of this the term “carrying capacity” with the term plan, many sites and segments along El “user capacity.” User capacity is defined as Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic the type and level of visitor use that can be Trail are not adequately known. This accommodated while sustaining the desired Comprehensive Management Plan/ resource and social conditions and visitor Environmental Assessment details high experience that complement the purpose of potential sites and segments for Louisiana El Camino Real de los Tejas National and Texas derived from information on Historic Trail and its desired conditions. more than 500 sites (see Appendix E, page 161, The ever-changing character of the 2,580 for a detailed description of these sites). mile-long El Camino Real de los Tejas High potential sites and segments would National Historic Trail presents a unique receive priority both in terms of protection challenge to planners attempting to and interpretation. quantify acceptable user capacity. The trail On lands for which the National Park crosses numerous old and modern Service has the responsibility for the landscapes and rural and urban settings. management and condition of cultural Trail boundaries are difficult to determine. resources, such as San Antonio Missions While some high potential sites and National Historical Park, all pertinent segments are managed by public agencies, a federal laws would apply (see Chapter 1, substantial number are in private hands, page 25 for a list of applicable federal laws). have uncontrolled access, and serve Approaches to cultural resource research, multiple uses. The capacity of each site or on-the-ground route verification, planning, segment to withstand various types of use and stewardship would follow the National depends on complex combinations of Park Service’s Director’s Order 28, Cultural environmental, cultural, and social factors; Resource Management Guidelines. The these range from extremely susceptible to National Trails Intermountain Region remarkably resistant to impacts. Land uses would also work with San Antonio Missions and visitor experiences cannot easily be National Historical Park staff to carry out monitored or controlled by any one entity. research to better understand the character Nevertheless, a meaningful strategy is and significance of cultural resources along necessary to determine and evaluate the trail and the needs for protection and sustainable uses and levels for individual monitoring. sites and segments over time, thereby ensuring that the full range of the trail’s HEALTH AND SAFETY most significant resources are preserved to maintain the values and characteristics for Under both alternatives, health and which the trail was established as part of safety issues would be addressed as the National Trail System. appropriate. Trail users would be warned about potential risks, such as rough terrain The premise behind user capacity is that and low-lying vegetation that could become some level of impact invariably entangled in footwear and cause a fall. accompanies public use; therefore, public Necessary precautions would be included agencies must decide which level of impact in brochures and other written information, is acceptable and which actions are needed such as postings on the trail’s website, signs to keep impacts within acceptable limits. at trail sites, and other forms of interpretive Two important components of user capacity media. for any national historic trail are 1) the

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condition of trail-related resources and 2) However, efforts would be made to the condition of social capacity. The collaborate with partners to periodically condition of trail-related resources monitor the condition of significant trail includes, among other things, the visual resources and to encourage partners to integrity of cultural sites, the ecological pursue studies that would provide a greater integrity of the area crossed by the trail, understanding of user capacity issues along climatic conditions, the condition of the the trail. trail surface, pedestrian traffic, and erosional patterns. Conditions of social TRAIL LOGO AND MARKER capacity include those levels of congestion and crowding that affect solitude and the The logo developed for El Camino Real opportunity to vicariously experience the de los Tejas National Historic Trail would nature of the trail. be incorporated into the standard triangular shape of the National Trails Currently most land management System marker (see Figure 2-1). The marker agencies employ user-capacity is a unifying emblem representing the trail methodologies that follow the “limits of and all of its partners. Marker use would be acceptable change” process developed by restricted to the National Park Service and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest its partners for applications that help Service in the mid-1980s. The process further the purposes of the trail. As a involves the following steps: federal insignia this marker is protected • Develop prescriptions for resource against unauthorized uses. The trail and visitor experience conditions in superintendent retains approval authority various land units or zones; for all logo use along the trail. • Identify indicators (measurable variables) of conditions that can be Figure 2-1. Logo for El Camino Real de los measured over time; Tejas National Historic Trail • Set quantifiable standards that represent minimum acceptable conditions; • Monitor conditions in relation to indicators and standards; and • Adopt management actions to ensure that conditions remain at or above standard. Using this approach, it is clear that user capacity is not a set of numbers or limits, but a process that involves establishing desired conditions, monitoring, and evaluation, followed by actions to manage visitor use to ensure that trail values are protected. This methodology would require periodic access to trail resources over the life of this plan. Given that the resources along El Camino Real de los Tejas are predominantly privately owned and that many landowners are not willing to grant access to their lands, the planning team has concluded that the National Park Service would not be able to conduct user capacity studies during the life of this plan.

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INTRODUCTION TO Resource Identification, Protection, ALTERNATIVES and Monitoring The planning team gathered ideas and The National Trails Intermountain concerns expressed during the public Region would support projects that scoping process, formal and informal prioritize the protection of high potential community discussions, conversations with sites and segments identified during the private landowners, and meetings with development of this plan. government agency representatives to A database compiled to keep track of develop two draft alternatives. available information on trail resources would be available for use in trail ALTERNATIVE A: CONTINUATION OF development projects although it might not CURRENT CONDITIONS (NO ACTION) be possible for the National Park Service to provide for periodic updates. Concept An additional database containing more than 500 bibliographical references to maps This alternative is a requirement of and written materials (historic, National Environmental Policy Act and archeological, et cetera) relevant to the trail serves as a basis for comparison. Federal during its period of significance and actions would be limited to those required relating to both Louisiana and Texas would under the National Trails System Act. Its also be available although it might not be adoption would not mean that present possible to provide for periodic updates. management activities would stop, but that the National Trails Intermountain Region and on-the-ground site and segment Partnership Certification Program managers and owners would respond to Partnership certification is a tool used by future needs and problems in a manner federal trail administrators, with the similar to the way in which they are consent of the landowner, to officially currently operating. Federal administration recognize, preserve, and interpret trail would continue as it is, with levels resources on nonfederal lands. The product consistent with 2010 funding. of the partnership certification program is not simply a paper certificate Administration acknowledging a property’s link to trail history, but an enduring partnership Under this alternative the National between the property owner/manager and Trails Intermountain Region would work the National Park Service to work together closely with state, local agencies, and to benefit the trail resource and the visiting volunteers to implement the purpose of the public. trail and other activities as described by the National Trail System Act. It would oversee Partnership certification begins with a the development of sign and interpretive conversation between the property owner/ standards. It would also consult with state manager and the National Park Service and federal agencies as well as the owners of about the historical significance and resources to avoid incompatible uses. management needs of a particular trail- Efforts to cooperate with Mexican entities related property. As shared public would be limited to responding to requests recognition, preservation and public use for information and providing technical interests emerge, the landowner/manager assistance, as feasible based on available and the National Trails Intermountain budgetary and staff resources. Region may wish to enter into a voluntary partnership to manage, protect, and interpret the site for visitors. Commitment to that partnership is formalized with a simple, legally nonbinding agreement that

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says that the parties would work together Conditions of certification should include toward those general mutual goals (see some allowance for “public use and Appendix B, page 151, for sample partnership enjoyment”—a way for people to certification agreement). The National experience parts of the trail that otherwise Trails Intermountain Region can provide would be unavailable for visitation. many forms of technical assistance, Under this alternative, the National including signing and interpretation on a Trails Intermountain Region would assist case-by-case basis. owners of high potential sites and In authorizing some national historic segments, who express an interest to trails, Congress prohibited or severely participate in this program, by providing restricted federal agencies from technical assistance as limited resources purchasing lands or interests in lands allow. outside the boundaries of federal areas. However, through partnership TRAIL USE EXPERIENCE certification, nonfederal parties may choose to work with the appropriate Interpretation/Education federal trail administrator to manage their The National Trails Intermountain trail properties as part of a national Region would encourage local entities to historic trail. develop interpretive media and education Congress has established each national programs focusing on the interpretive historic trail for the purpose of identifying themes and high potential sites and and protecting a “historic route and its segments identified in this document. The historic remnants and artifacts for public media and programs currently offered to use and enjoyment.” At the same time the general public by various public Congress has recognized that when agencies or private organizations would deemed to be in the public interest, “such continue. Efforts to provide opportunities Secretary [charged with the for trail audiences to forge emotional and administration of a national historic trail] intellectual connections with the may enter written cooperative agreements meanings of these resources would be with the States or their political limited, because the additional research subdivisions, landowners, private required to enhance the current organizations, or individuals to operate, interpretive program would be left to develop, and maintain any portion of such independent researchers who might not a trail either within or outside a federally have the necessary support to carry out administered area. Such agreements may long-term projects. include provisions for limited financial assistance to encourage participation in Recreational Activities the acquisition, protection, operation, Existing recreational opportunities development, or maintenance of such would continue to be provided at federal trails…” [16USC1242 Section 7 (h) 1]. and state parks and other facilities along Partnership certification extends the route. At present few, if any of these national trail status and protection to facilities, offer programs that are trail nonfederal trail resources. Therefore, the related. Efforts to provide a consistent trail purpose of partnership certification is to experience would be limited. afford protection to nonfederal trail Trail retracement along major state remnants, artifacts, and interpretive sites highways would be possible, but would be to allow for public use and appreciation. dependent on local efforts. Trail routes Partnership certification is not exclusively following existing public roadways and for the benefit of the property owner/ providing access to high potential sites and manager or even for the sole benefit of the segments would be marked to raise resource, but for the public as well. awareness of the trail and encourage

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visitation. It would also be possible that the brochures, and publications. However, the trail community in consultation with total staff time would amount to less than National Trails Intermountain Region one full-time position. Under this would develop other appropriate alternative support for partner activities recreational activities consistent with the would diminish. A stagnant budget would provisions of the National Trail System Act. mean long-term declines in all aspects of trail administration. ORIENTATION Funding Trail Identification: Marker and Funding for the annual operating costs Signs would be provided by the base operating The official marker incorporating the budget of the National Park Service. No logo, designed during the Comprehensive increases in its base funding to meet the Management Plan development process, needs outlined in this alternative would be could be used to mark the designated trail anticipated. Funding for brochures, other route along major state highways (State interpretive media, signs, and other needs Highway 21 in Texas and State Highway 6 in may be available for mutually beneficial Louisiana) and at high potential sites and partnership projects through the segments open to the public. Signs installed competitive Challenge Cost Share at these sites and segments would identify Program, an appropriation from Congress permitted trail uses, information on safety that fluctuates in size from year to year and protection of trail users, and adjacent and may not be available on a permanent private property. Signing would only be basis. The current Challenge Cost Share done as resources permit. The National Program requires partners to provide a Trails Intermountain Region would pursue minimum of 50% matching contribution in no federal funding for signing. the form of funds, equipment, in-kind labor, or supplies from nonfederal sources.

COSTS Table 2-1. Alternative A: Annual Operations Costs The fiscal year 2010 budget of $201,000 (cumulative for a 10-year period) for El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail is assumed to be constant Estimated Construction/ for Alternative A. Small increases over the Item Range of FTEs Facility Costs Development life of this plan (about 15 years) would not be expected to keep up with inflation. Salaries and $ 90,000.00 >1 $ 0 benefits Operations Office $ 5,000.00 $ 0 Current levels of staffing would equipment continue. Staff that give a portion of the and supplies time to the administration of the trail Travel $ 20,000.00 $ 0 would include the superintendent, chief of Brochures, $ 10,000.00 $ 0 trail operations, cultural resources interpretive specialist, tribal liaison, interpretive materials, specialist, and geographic information signs systems specialist. This staff would Support to $ 76,000.00 $ 0 collaborate with partners on a limited partners basis to carry out the provisions of the Total Annual $201,000.00 $ 0 National Trails System Act. Base funding Operations Costs of $201,000 would pay for annual operations, including the salary and The information in this table benefits for staff, travel for routine corresponds with current fiscal year 2010 technical assistance to partners, office target staffing levels for the National Trails equipment, supplies, phone, signs, Intermountain Region.

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ALTERNATIVE B: TRAIL discretionary authorities addressed in the DEVELOPMENT THROUGH Act, such as the development of cooperative PARTNERSHIPS (PREFERRED agreements, support of volunteers, ALTERNATIVE) partnership certification of significant trail resources, and allowance for compatible Concept use as necessary or required by trail partnerships. This alternative builds on a central purpose of the National Trail System Act, which is to encourage and assist volunteer Administration citizen involvement in the administration, During the scoping process, the lack of planning, development, maintenance, and coordination among the trail stakeholders management of trails. The trail community and limited awareness of the trail and of the encompasses individuals, entities, role of the National Park Service in its institutions, and partners who share an administration became recurrent themes. interest not only in trail history, authentic Lack of a formal mechanism for providing trail resources and their protection, but also technical assistance and limited financial in interpretive and educational programs resources to support trail projects were also that highlight the significance of the trail. mentioned as serious issues that would Under this alternative, the trail community hinder trail development. would include, among others, the Texas Under alternative B, the preferred Historical Commission; the Louisiana alternative, the National Trails Department of Culture, Recreation, and Intermountain Region would assist in Tourism; the State of Texas Parks and coordinating programs and activities along Wildlife Department; El Camino Real de the trail in part through the continuation los Tejas National Historic Trail and establishment of cooperative Association; the Louisiana and Texas agreements with state and local institutions departments of transportation; Mexico’s interested in the trail. Instituto Nacional de Antroplogía e Historia; federally recognized tribes whose As funding allows, the current homelands are crossed by the trail; private cooperative agreement with the Texas organizations; institutions of higher Historical Commission for the purpose of learning; museums; visitor centers; private working jointly to protect and interpret owners of trail resources; trail scholars; significant trail resources would continue public and private educational institutions; (see Appendix G, page 215, for a sample and others interested in the trail. Cooperative Agreement). Collaboration also would be essential at public sites To achieve the purpose of the trail, it managed by the Texas Historical would be essential to collaborate with Commission, such as Caddo Mound State partners to identify, protect, and interpret Park, which includes high potential sites the significant resources associated with and segments related both to the history of these routes, and to provide trail users with the trail and to the Caddo culture. A similar educational and recreational opportunities, cooperation based on available funding so that they would understand and enjoy would be envisioned for Los Adaes State the authentic sites and segments associated Historic Park, a public site operated by with these routes and the history of the Louisiana’s Department of Culture, trail. Recreation, and Tourism, Office of State Under this alternative the National Parks, which includes trail significant Trails Intermountain Region would take a resources. more proactive approach; it would not just Cooperative agreements with other state address the required authorities identified agencies that manage high potential sites in the National Trails System Act, but it and segments would also be initiated and/or would also be implementing the

Page 42 Chapter 2: Alternatives - Alternative B: Trail Development Through Partnerships (Preferred Alternative) continued depending on available funding. the nationally significant resources Such is the case of the Texas Parks and associated with El Camino Real de los Tejas Wildlife Department that manages several National Historic Trail. A high priority significant trail resources identified as high would be given to developing a strategic potential sites and segments in this plan. plan to prioritize technical and funding Other important partners are the Louisiana assistance by the National Trails and the Texas departments of Intermountain Region for El Camino Real transportation, agencies that provide de los Tejas National Historic Trail. This is a signage and trail guidance materials. crucial element in the effective use of Under this alternative, the National financial resources, given the length of the Trails Intermountain Region would trail and the number of resources involved. encourage owners of significant resources Under this alternative, the National to participate in the Partnership Trails Intermountain Region would act as Certification Program as already described an information clearinghouse for activities in this document. along the trail, coordinating efforts to Adoption of this alternative implies that ensure the most efficient use of available its implementation would rest mainly with technical and funding resources, an issue volunteer members of the trail community that was repeatedly raised during the willing to take the lead in proposing scoping process. It would also oversee the projects and programs that identify and development of sign and interpretive protect significant trail resources and standards that can be consistently applied interpret them appropriately. For that along the trail corridor in conjunction with reason, this alternative proposes the the Louisiana and Texas departments of development of a comprehensive volunteer transportation and other local highway training program and strongly supports the authorities. Consistency would be coordination of volunteer efforts. Such an important in order to heighten awareness of approach would address issues raised in the the trail and assist trail users in finding and areas of resource identification and following the designated trail routes and protection as well as interpretation and significant historic sites. Consistency would raising awareness about the trail. also allow for the development of a variety of satisfying recreational experiences using To facilitate the initiatives suggested by as inspiration authentic resources and the trail community and to provide for a interpretive programs. more formal mechanism to deliver technical assistance, the National Trails Under the preferred alternative, the Intermountain Region would offer eligible National Trails Intermountain Region applicants a certain level of funding would work with the Mexican entities to through the Challenge Cost Share Program fulfill the purpose of the legislation, and/or similar funding sources, as they “… exchanging trail information and become available. The limited size of research, fostering trail preservation and resources in these programs would not educational programs, providing technical eliminate the need for the trail community assistance, and working to establish an to search for additional sources of funding international historic trail with for specific projects. complementary preservation and education programs in each nation.” The proposals most likely to receive support from the National Trails Intermountain Region would focus on the Resource Identification, Protection, identification and protection of authentic and Monitoring resources and their interpretation. Such The National Trails Intermountain projects would provide a solid foundation Region would emphasize working with the to offer trail users the opportunity to enjoy trail community to expand knowledge and understand the authentic character of about trail resources, in particular

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significant sites and segments with a certain To support resource identification, degree of historic integrity. Investigations monitoring, and protection, the National that lead to more accurate and complete Trails Intermountain Region and the trail identification of high potential sites and community would: segments and their location, condition, and • Continue to maintain and upgrade a prioritized needs would be encouraged. database prepared as part of the Research projects that aim to elucidate development of this plan to compile important aspects of trail history or topics and keep track of available that have not yet received adequate information on trail resources. This attention, such as the development of alternative envisions that this easily Hispanic communities along the trail, the updated database would be used to relationships between various ethnic collect additional historical trail groups, the Caddo legacy, and the resource information as it becomes experience of African Americans in East available in the future. Because of the Texas and western Louisiana, would also ease with which the database can be receive special consideration. Future modified, current knowledge about investigations would eventually include the trail resources would be easily study of cultural landscapes and other available. The National Trails topics of relevance (see recommendations Intermountain Region would act as for further study, page 25). the clearinghouse for this publically Under this alternative, there would be an accessible database, which would be effort to foster awareness among the trail geo-referenced and would include a community of the evolving nature of the series of variables or attributes that trail and its associated resources. It has describe each resource (site or been argued that El Camino Real de los segment) and its current condition in Tejas National Historic Trail could be detail (see Appendix H, page 225, for the considered a living organism that responds attribute table that has been to the changing conditions and the needs of developed as part of this planning the users—an organism that is complex and project). This database would also continually evolving. As such, the include visual documentation: a series designated trail has the potential to become of electronic images that reflect the a powerful educational tool, with people of condition of a site or segment at a all ages and cultures interested in learning certain point in time. These two about it and working to protect it. features of the database—the written The study and preservation of historic description and the images—would trails is multidisciplinary by nature. A high permit a more effective monitoring priority would be placed on community- program since it would facilitate the initiated and supported projects that comparison of current conditions emphasize the role of environmental factors with the information stored in the in a) the selection and use of trail routes and database. In addition, as described b) issues associated with the identification later in this section, trail stewards and preservation of resources along the would also assist in updating resource trail. This is significant for trail protection information. The current methods as, historically, routes were often selected used to determine user capacity are because they offered the easiest way to difficult to implement, but the flexible reach a certain destination. The database developed as part of this environmental factors that led travelers to alternative, coupled with volunteers’ favor certain routes still play a role in land efforts, would greatly assist the use in modern times: historic travel routes National Trails Intermountain Region are often selected for the construction of in monitoring and preserving pipelines, new highways, or road resources more effectively. improvements. •

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• Continue the route-verification in particular members of the Instituto process that has begun in association Nacional de Arqueología e Historia with the development of this plan. and other pertinent Mexican entities. Combining fieldwork (archeological A preliminary reconnaissance of inventories and on-the ground- significant sites located in Mexican verification) with archival research, territory, conducted early in 2009, this process would enhance the suggests rich potential for probability of accurately identifying collaboration with Mexican authentic trail segments and clearly authorities on resource identification, establishing their relationship to the protection, and interpretation. trail. The process would require the • Provide assistance with the integration of historic data derived development of the National Historic from expedition diaries, maps, Preservation Act Section 106 drawings, correspondence, reports, consultation process with the state Government Land Office plats, and historic preservation officers in other documentary sources with Louisiana and Texas before starting archeological evidence and current any trail development project. The physical landscape conditions data. lead federal agency, or the proponent The historic and archeological of the project, if privately funded, evidence would be spatially linked to would have ultimate responsibility for satellite images, aerial photography, compliance. LiDAR, or other spatial tools, such as ground-penetrating radar, so that • Analyze resources along the trail to there is a higher probability of determine appropriate protection correctly identifying the location of strategies. This alternative would trail routes. The results of this support a trail-wide effort to complete multidisplinary investigation would periodic revisions to the trail database be eventually captured and stored in a previously identified and to geographic information system. This collaborate with partners in updating would facilitate the management of said database. the trail-resource data because it • Support the identification of could be easily updated as more properties potentially eligible for the accurate information becomes National Register of Historic Places available. and collaborate in preparing forms for • Maintain a bibliographical references their nomination in collaboration database compiled in association with with the Texas Historical Commission this project. At the time this plan is and the Louisiana Department of prepared, it contains more than 500 Culture, Recreation, and Tourism. entries including maps and written • Integrate resource protection materials (historic, archeological, et information into interpretive cetera) pertaining to Louisiana and messages to provide an incentive for Texas and relevant to the trail during trail users to protect resources. its period of significance. This • Create a communication network to database would be periodically disseminate information about updated to include the latest resources threats. Although the publications, thereby supporting an National Trails Intermountain Region interpretive program that reflects has already been participating in the current trail scholarship. process to assess the potential impacts • Strive to identify subject-matter of proposed pipelines and other experts currently studying or serious threats to trail resources, developing compatible programs under this alternative there would be a along the Mexican section of the trail,

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clearly defined process to alert all the Region, the Texas Historical owners of potentially threatened Commission, and Louisiana properties about the need to Department of Culture, Recreation, participate in the compliance process. and Tourism would provide technical When resource threats become assistance, support, and guidance to known, trail resource information trail stewards. would be shared with all federal, state, • Collaborate with federally recognized county, and local entities and tribes to identify additional sites and individual stakeholders. stories relevant to the history of the • Encourage the participation of tribe that are associated with the trail. interested private citizens. This Resource owners would be able to alternative would establish a request technical assistance to address the comprehensive training program for following issues: accurate documentation of volunteers to learn about issues historic/archeological sites, physical related to the identification, deterioration of swales/segments, site protection, and interpretation of trail restoration, building/ruin stabilization, resources. Volunteer efforts in the among other things. The Texas Historical identification and inventory of Commission, the Louisiana Department of resources are crucial to the success of Culture, Recreation, and Tourism, and the national historic trails. Special National Trails Intermountain Region training would be offered to would assist private landowners interested volunteers living all along the trail, in developing their trail resources to ensure under the auspices of the Texas that future proposed projects do not impact Historical Commission, the Louisiana the visual integrity of significant sites or Department of Culture, Recreation, segments. and Tourism, as well as the National Trails Intermountain Region. This Collaboration among the members of the alternative envisions collaboration trail community would be of utmost among institutions of higher learning importance given the sheer length of the and other interested groups to 2,580-mile-long designated trail. The implement the volunteer training National Trails Intermountain Region program. would encourage and support a yearly conference to discuss issues related to the • Create the position of volunteer “trail purpose of the trail, such as current trail steward” within the trail community scholarship, resource protection issues, new for each county or parish crossed by interpretive and/or educational programs, the trail. These stewards (similar to and possibly others. the volunteer Archeological Stewards Program that currently exists for the state of Texas) would be responsible Partnership Certification Program for periodic monitoring of the Partnership certification is a tool used by resources under their jurisdiction and federal trail administrators, with the for assisting in providing information consent of the landowner, to officially on trail resources for the periodic recognize, preserve, and interpret trail updates of the trail database. Trail resources on nonfederal land. The product stewards would also be in charge of of the partnership certification program is establishing and maintaining a not simply a paper certificate acknowledging semiformal communication network a property’s link to trail history, but an that, among other things, would serve enduring partnership between the property to identify potential threats to owner/manager and the National Park significant trail resources, such as Service to work together to benefit the trail upcoming construction projects. The resource and the visiting public. National Trails Intermountain

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Partnership certification begins with a resources. Therefore, the purpose of conversation between the property owner/ partnership certification is to allow for manager and the National Park Service public use and appreciation of nonfederal about the historical significance and trail remnants, artifacts, and interpretive management needs of a particular trail- sites. Partnership certification is not related property. As shared public exclusively for the benefit of the property recognition, preservation, and public use owner/manager or even for the sole benefit interests emerge, the landowner/manager of the resource, but for the public as well. and the National Trails Intermountain Conditions of certification should include Region may wish to enter into a voluntary some allowance for “public use and partnership to manage, protect, and enjoyment”—a way for people to experience interpret the site for visitors. Commitment parts of the trail that otherwise would be to that partnership is formalized with a unavailable for visitation. simple, legally nonbinding agreement that Under this alternative, the National says that the parties would work together Trails Intermountain Region would make a toward those general mutual goals (see special effort to educate private landowners Appendix B, page 151, for sample partnership about the benefits of entering into certification agreement). The National partnership certification agreements. It Trails Intermountain Region, as funding would encourage owners of high potential permits, provides a certificate and a sites and segments, who express an interest, national historic trail site identification sign to participate in this program by providing with the official logo designating the management, planning, coordination, property as a national historic trail certified technical assistance, and capacity building. site.

Through partnership certification, User Capacity nonfederal parties may choose to work with the appropriate federal trail administrator Several proposed actions under to manage their trail properties as part of a alternative B, the preferred alternative, national historic trail. would help to address user capacity. The development of a flexible database that Congress has established each national would include assessments of resource historic trail for the purpose of identifying conditions as well as images and that would and protecting “historic route and its be updated periodically would greatly assist historic remnants and artifacts for public the trail community in monitoring use and enjoyment.” At the same time resources. In addition, under this Congress has established that when deemed alternative, volunteer trail stewards for each to be in the public interest, “such Secretary county and parish would be identified. [charged with the administration of a Regularly scheduled monitoring of trail national historic trail] may enter written resources would be one of their main cooperative agreements with the States or responsibilities. their political subdivisions, landowners, private organizations, or individuals to operate, develop, and maintain any portion TRAIL USE EXPERIENCE of such a trail either within or outside a federally administered area. Such Interpretation/Education agreements may include provisions for Interpretation and education play a limited financial assistance to encourage crucial role in the conservation of resources participation in the acquisition, protection, central to the trail experience: they offer operation, development, or maintenance of visitors the opportunity to forge emotional such trails…” and intellectual connections with the Partnership certification extends meanings of these resources. Only after national trail status to nonfederal trail trail users understand the significance of

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sites or segments can they truly enjoy and were central in the development of the trail. value them and advocate for their It is only after understanding the complex protection. For that reason, this alternative and evolving relationships among the places strong emphasis on education and various ethnic groups who lived along the interpretation programs that aim to raise trail and used the trail that proper awareness about the trail, its history, and its interpretive and educational programs resources. about the trail can be developed. This alternative envisions the This document recommends the development of a high quality interpretive development of a comprehensive program, one that continually explores the interpretive plan to improve the relationship between the resource’s tangible coordination of interpretive and and intangible meanings and searches for educational programs.1 This is a long trail, new ways of providing opportunities for and its interpretive themes and potential audiences to make their own intellectual audiences are complex; therefore, the and emotional connections with these development of an interpretive plan should resources. Interpretation programs offer be a priority. A comprehensive interpretive trail users ways of making connections plan would help guide the development between the physical resources and their and implementation of trailwide education essential meanings—in effect, to programs, encourage collaboration, and comprehend the relationship between the avoid costly duplication of efforts. Under tangible and the intangible. For example, a this alternative there would be an effort to Spanish mission is clearly a tangible incorporate all of the interpretive themes in resource; however, the reasons for its trail interpretation programs and try to construction, its relationship to those who identify the most appropriate locations for built it and the circumstances surrounding the interpretation of each theme. the building are intangibles. Interpretation Wayside exhibits and signs would be itself may be viewed as a dynamic, flexible, installed along the trail only at those sites and goal-driven process, whereby that require interpretation for user interpreters use a variety of tools to educate understanding, enjoyment, and safety. The the public about the resource, engage them, National Trails Intermountain Region and help them understand and appreciate it, would work to ensure that design guidelines and eventually, and most importantly, are adopted along the trail to protect the commit to its long-term stewardship. By visual integrity of resources. Some of the providing opportunities to connect to the interpretive materials would be bilingual, in meanings of resources, interpretive English and Spanish. programs awaken visitors to the importance of what they see and encourage them to This alternative suggests the explore associations with other resources development of a focused marketing that they have experienced. Interpretation program to alert visitors to trail interpretive helps audiences understand their programs. Interpretive partnerships among relationships to, and their impacts upon, the trail community would be critical to the these resources. support and/or delivery of interpretive services. Identification of current and The alternative would offer the trail community the opportunity to become 1 - The Comprehensive Interpretive Plan process is active participants in the development of established in the National Park Service Director’s inclusive interpretive and educational Order #6. The basic planning component for programs that reflect current scholarship interpretation, the Comprehensive Interpretive Plan is a tool for making choices. It helps parks and trails decide and offer a variety of perspectives. There what their objectives are, who their audiences are, and would be special emphasis on compelling what mix of media and personal services to use. The stories about people, places, and events, product is not the plan, but an effective and efficient interpretive program that achieves management goals, particularly those that represent the provides appropriate services for visitors, and promotes heritage of the various ethnic groups who visitor experiences.

Page 48 Chapter 2: Alternatives - Alternative B: Trail Development Through Partnerships (Preferred Alternative) potential partners for interpretation, and economic development, where cultural the ways they can support the attainment of conservation, building healthy interpretive goals, would support efforts by communities, and environmental staff at the National Trails Intermountain restoration are the goals. Region to employ strategic resources to This alternative would support oral serve the public and achieve desired presentations, such as talks, lectures, group interpretive goals. discussions, and living-history The development and implementation of demonstrations at local school and civic a wide range of media would be encouraged organizations by interpreters, historians, in order to engage trail users and to and by others with profound knowledge of stimulate interest in El Camino Real de los the history of the trail and of the various Tejas National Historic Trail and its history. cultural groups that participated in its Interpretive media would be distributed at development. Museums and visitor centers appropriate locations, with the purpose of interested in interpreting the history of the promoting resource stewardship and to trail and in providing a high quality support trail-user safety, as well as their interpretive experience to trail users would understanding and awareness of the need to be given technical assistance in developing preserve cultural and natural resources. or improving existing programs. (Appendix I, Examples of media that could be used are page 227 and Map 2-1, page 50 identify publications (brochures, reports, and already existing facilities in Louisiana newsletters), electronic media (websites, parishes and Texas counties most likely to radio broadcasts, cell phone downloads, CD participate in this program. The map shows rentals, and MP3/iPod downloads), wayside the names of the communities where the exhibits, audiovisual media, traveling facilities are currently operating. The exhibits, and indoor exhibits associated number of such facilities in each community with existing museums and visitor centers. is indicated in parenthesis.) Written media should be presented bilingually, in English and Spanish. The National Trails Intermountain Region would review media and interpretative tools developed by others. An effort would be made to cooperate with institutions of higher learning to develop training workshops for educators interested in teaching trail history. Residents in communities along the trail would also be given the opportunity to learn about and managing natural and cultural resources, by participating in programs aimed at residents of all ages, from early education to higher education and community and adult education programs. The team that developed this Comprehensive Management Plan/ Environmental Assessment envisions the trail as an “outdoor classroom,” providing a land-based setting in which to learn the school curriculum. These educational experiences would serve as the basis for the creation of new career and employment opportunities in the fields of arts and culture, the environment, and sustainable

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Map 2-1. Possible Venues for Trail Interpretation Miles 100 Natchitoches (5) ! ( ! ( Natchitoches ! ( LOUISIANA Many (1) Hemphill (1) ! ( ! ( 50 Sabine Robeline (2) ! ( Sabine ! ( ! ( San

Augustine 0 ! ( ! ( Gulf of Mexico of Gulf Nacogdoches (2) San AugustineSan (1) Nacogdoches ! ( ! ( Alto (1)Alto ! ( Crockett (1) Cherokee ! ( ! ( ! ( ! (

Houston Rusk (3) El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail El Camino Real de los Tejas Madisonville (1) ! ( ! ( Houston ( ) Number of venues in each community ! ( Brenham (1) Leon Washington (1) ! ( Madison Bryan (1) Grapeland (1) Nordheim (1) Brazos Dime Box (1) ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( Meyersville (1) ! ( Washington Dallas La GrangeLa (1) ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( Robertson ! ( Hallettsville(2) Victoria (2) Fayette ! ( Victoria Milam Centerville (1) ! ( ! ( ! ( Yoakum (1) Yoakum Burleson Lee Lavaca Yorktown (1) Yorktown ! ( Cuero (3) ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( Bremond (1) Goliad (3) ! ( ! ( Bastrop ! ( ! ( Bastrop(1) ! ( Goliad Gonzales ! ( Cameron (1) De Witt De ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( Caldwell Bee Williamson ! ( ! ( ! ( New Braunfels (1) La VerniaLa (1) Travis Wilson ! ( ! ( Pleasanton (1) Gonzales (1) Hays Guadalupe Karnes ! ( Austin (9) Live Oak Live Comal Karnes City (1) Atas cosa ! ( ! ( Georgetown(1) ! ( McMullen Bexar Franklin (1) ! ( San Marcos (1) ! ( ! ( ! ( Tilden (1)Tilden Frio Zapata (1) La SalleLa Medina Canyon Lake (1) TEXAS ! ( ! ( Zapata ! ( ! ( Webb Hondo (1) San AntonioSan (11) Pearsall (1) Dimmit Zavala ! ( ! ( Laredo (3) Castroville (1) NuevoLeon San YgnacioSan (1) Carrizo Springs(1) Maverick ! ( !

Eagle Pass (1) MEXICO oahuilaDe Zaragoza Map 2-1: Possible Venues for Trail Interpretation C

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RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES Other sites that may offer some level of Section 2 (a) of the National Trails outdoor recreational opportunity include System Act states that trails should be but are not limited to the San Antonio established, Missions National Historical Park Hike and “to promote the preservation of, Bike Trail in San Antonio, Texas, Los Adaes public access to, travel within, and State Historic Park, in Robeline, Louisiana, enjoyment and appreciation of the and Mission Tejas State Park in Grapeland, open-air, outdoor areas and historic Texas. Walking, hiking, bicycling, resources of the Nation.” horseback riding, camping, sightseeing, or travel by motor vehicle are all potential ways Providing memorable recreational in which visitors can experience the trail opportunities for visitors while minimizing corridor and its resources. visual and physical encroachment is a high As part of this alternative, retracement priority of the National Park Service. This trails that follow as closely as possible the alternative envisions offering a more historic route could be developed in meaningful trail user experience through cooperation with the trail community. As integrated development and programming stated in the National Trails Systems Act, based on authentic resources and trail such trails are to be built and created for themes. Appropriate and consistent trail public use and enjoyment and to connect to signage would facilitate visitor use and historic route segments. In the case of El enjoyment of trail resources. A more Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic profound understanding of significant Trail, such trails would be only built in trail-related sites and segments and public lands or in private properties where enhanced cooperative efforts would result in the owners agree to provide public access. a more meaningful experience of an entire Retracement routes using existing public array of trail resources. Increased roadways and providing access to high cooperation among the members of the trail potential sites and segments would be community would provide a more consistent marked to raise awareness of the trail and and accurate message about the history of encourage visitation. Agreements would be the trail and would make it easier for visitors signed with local communities to identify to obtain information and to access such local routes. It is also possible that the numerous sites and segments. trail community, in consultation with One example of a recreational activity National Trails Intermountain Region, this alternative would strongly favor is could develop other appropriate recreational “trail retracement,” using existing roads activities that are consistent with the that closely parallel the designated trail objectives of the National Trail System Act. routes and, in some cases, roads built State and local governments, trail over the original trail alignment, such as partners, and landowners would be Louisiana State Road 120 and Texas State encouraged to help establish, maintain, Highway 21. Not only would such an and manage trail remnants, rights-of-ways, activity not harm resources, it would and trail resources for the benefit of the offer visitors the opportunity to engage public. Recreational opportunities and intimately with trail resources and visitor enjoyment would be enhanced experience vicariously what travel along through increased cooperation among the trail might have been like during the private landowners, the National Park period of significance. It is essential to Service, and other land managing agencies provide opportunities for trail audiences along the trail. Recognition through the to forge emotional and intellectual National Park Service partnership connections with the meanings of these certification program would also be resources. One of the best ways to another way for private landowners to achieve this is by actually traveling along share their resources with the public. these routes.

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The National Trails Intermountain uses, information on safety and protection Region would support special cultural of trail users, and adjacent private property. events sponsored by the trail community on Trail signs would be presented bilingually, authentic trail-related themes, as well as in English and Spanish, whenever possible. resource protection issues, trail awareness, Information signs, such as safety messages and public involvement. and property boundary markers, would All trail users would be informed also be presented bilingually, in English and through written and interpretive materials, Spanish, whenever possible and signs, and exhibits about appropriate appropriate. behavior practices and protocols to Sign specifications for marking the trail minimize negative impacts to cultural and and use of the logo would be provided by natural resources within the trail corridor the National Trails Intermountain Region, and to maximize safety for trail users. using a conceptual sign plan. This Partners might want to undertake the conceptual sign plan would address the development of additional materials to design, placement, and use of the logo on a enhance the visitor experience of specific variety of signs, such as highway user groups. They could prepare a series of information and directional signs, entrance visitor guides for hikers, equestrians, signs at parking areas, trailhead bicyclists, etc. information signs, regulatory signs, directional indicators, interpretive signs Communities along the trail are and wayside exhibits, private property enthusiastic about the potential of the trail signs, destination signs, and trail-partner to attract visitors and have expressed strong signs. The sign plan would consider using interest in the development of a heritage both the National Trails Intermountain tourism program. Under this alternative, El Region standards on federal lands and Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic typical approaches on national historic Trail could become important in regional or trails that cross many nonfederal local tourism plans. The National Trails jurisdictions. Specific signage activities Intermountain Region would be able to would be based on sign plans developed at offer leadership and guidance to those the local level. All signage and marking groups interested in the development of would be dependent on available funding. heritage tourism programs, provided such programs place major emphasis on resource To help commemorate the trail’s national authenticity and the dissemination of significance, the official marker would be information that is historically accurate. placed along federal and other managed trail segments and sites, in compliance with the sign plan. The National Trails ORIENTATION Intermountain Region would provide the Trail Identification: Marker and Signs markers, but local managers on nonfederal lands would install them. Markers would be Developed during the Comprehensive placed on private property only with the Management Plan/Environmental consent of the landowner. Markers would Assessment process, the official marker identify the actual trail for individuals who incorporating the logo would be used on want to follow the route. Furthermore, by signs marking the designated trail route and indicating the presence of the trail, markers guiding visitor use of the trail (see may help protect the trail landscape from Appendix I for sample of trail signs). Care inadvertent destruction from development. would be taken to adapt logo use to the sites’ signing needs. Special care should be With the cooperation and assistance of taken to avoid visual clutter, which could road-managing agencies, and in compliance impact the viewshed of the landscape along with the sign plan, retracement route signs the trail. Signs installed at these sites and would be placed along state and county segments would identify permitted trail roads at appropriate road junctions

Page 52 Chapter 2: Alternatives - Alternative B: Trail Development Through Partnerships (Preferred Alternative)

(consistent with the sign regulations of the media, signs, and additional needs may be managing highway department). available through such funding as the Information signs to direct auto users to competitive Challenge Cost Share Program, local sites or segments may also be used. a yearly appropriation from Congress that requires partners to provide a minimum of COSTS 50% matching contribution in the form of funds, equipment, in-kind labor, or supplies The implementation of alternative B, the from nonfederal sources. However, these preferred alternative, would depend not funds may not be available every year and only on future NPS funding and service- their amount is likely to fluctuate from year wide priorities, but also on partnership to year. funds, time, and effort. The approval of alternative B would not guarantee that the However, since alternative B places major funding and staffing needed to implement emphasis on partnerships and effective the plan would be forthcoming; full collaboration, it might be possible to implementation could take many years. explore in conjunction with the trail community additional avenues for funding Although El Camino Real de los Tejas that would make possible the full National Historic Trail is authorized to implementation of this plan. acquire land from willing sellers, no land acquisition through purchase is anticipated, Funding for technical assistance projects and no land acquisition costs are included. beyond administrative staff capabilities All costs are in 2010 dollars. would be requested from other appropriate National Park Service sources. Operations Funds to develop projects on nonfederal Several members of the staff at the lands would be sought from state or local National Trails Intermountain Region governments or private groups or would have responsibility for carrying out individuals, sponsorships, or federal or state the provisions of the action alternative. highway enhancement programs, either They include a landscape architect, a directly or in partnerships. cultural resources specialist, a planner, an interpretive specialist, a geographic To fund cooperative preservation information system specialist, a tribal efforts for high potential sites and liaison and an outreach coordinator. The segments, aid from state and county trail superintendent and staff involvement preservation fund sources and programs in the trail would be equivalent to three as well as funds from donations, grants, full-time positions. and other sources would be sought. Funds would be used to supplement existing data In addition to staff salaries and benefits about high potential sites and segments operational costs include direct partner and to stabilize or conduct physical support, travel, office equipment, supplies, activities to conserve resources. phone, signs, brochures, and publications. Funding Funding for the annual operating costs would be provided by the base operating budget of the National Park Service. To achieve a minimum base level to implement this plan the National Trails Intermountain Region would seek increases in base funding to meet some of the needs outlined in this alternative. Funding for some technical assistance projects, brochures, other interpretive

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Table 2-2. Alternative B: Annual Estimated Costs

Estimated Construction/ Item Range of FTEs Facility Costs Development Salaries and $280,000– <3 $ 0 benefits 300,000

Office $5,000– $ 0 equipment 10,000 and supplies Travel $30,000– $ 0 40,000 Brochures, $20,000– $ 0 interpretive 30,000 materials, signs Support to $156,000 $ 0 Partners Total Annual $491,000– $ 0 Operations $536,000 Costs

Alternatives Considered but Eliminated from Further Study No additional alternatives were identified or considered by the public or the planning team.

Page 54 Chapter 2: Alternatives - Summary: Environmentally Preferred Alternative

SUMMARY: • Attain the widest range of beneficial ENVIRONMENTALLY uses of the environment without PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE degradation, risk of health or safety, or undesirable and unintended consequences; HOW THE ACTION ALTERNATIVE • Preserve important historic, cultural, MEETS THE PURPOSE OF THE PLAN and natural aspects of our national The purpose of this Comprehensive heritage and maintain, wherever Management Plan/Environmental possible, an environment that Assessment is twofold: to establish supports diversity and variety of administrative objectives, policies, individual choice; processes, and management guidelines • Achieve a balance between population necessary to fulfill preservation and public- and resource use that will permit high use goals for El Camino Real de los Tejas standards of living and a wide sharing National Historic Trail, as established in the of life’s amenities; and National Trails Systems Act, and to provide • Enhance the quality of renewable a framework to be used in making decisions resources and approach the maximum and solving problems. The preferred attainable recycling of depletable alternative presented in this document resources. strongly involves state and local agencies, as well as the entire trail community, in Alternative A, continuation of current planning and developing the trail. It conditions, would minimally meet the encourages the involvement of private criteria listed above. Alternative B, the landowners and fosters trail protection and preferred alternative, is the environmentally interpretation and education programs, preferred alternative because it goes beyond both in the states crossed by the trail and in the no action alternative in attaining the developing future activities in collaboration full range of national environmental policy with Mexican public, nongovernmental goals. It provides a higher level of protection organizations, and academic institutions. of cultural and natural resources, while also proposing a wider range of neutral and beneficial uses of the environment. This ENVIRONMENTALLY PREFERRED alternative supports programs that enhance ALTERNATIVE cultural diversity. It integrates resource The National Park Service Director’s protection with an appropriate and more Order # 12 (Section 2.7) requires that an diverse range of uses than the no action environmental assessment identify an alternative. environmentally preferred alternative. The Council on Environmental Quality defines the environmentally preferred as “the alternative that will promote the national environmental policy as expressed in the National Environmental Policy Act’s Section 101.” Section 101 of the National Environmental Policy Act states that it is the continuing responsibility of the federal government to: • Fulfill the responsibilities of each generation as trustee of the environment for succeeding generations; • Ensure safe, healthy, productive, and aesthetically and culturally pleasing surroundings; Page 55 Chapter 2: Alternatives

Table 2-3: Comparison of Alternatives

Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-3 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

This alternative, a requirement This alternative encourages and assists of National Environmental Policy volunteer citizen involvement in the Act, serves as a basis for planning, development, maintenance, and comparison. Federal actions management of trails. The trail would be limited to those required community encompasses individuals, under the National Trails System entities, institutions, or partners who Act. Its adoption would not mean share an interest in trail history, authentic that present management activities trail resources and their protection as well would stop, but that the National as in interpretive and educational Trails Intermountain Region and programs, which highlight the on-the-ground site and segment significance of the trail. managers and owners would Under this alternative, the National respond to future needs and Trails Intermountain Region would not CONCEPT problems in a manner similar to just address the required authorities the way in which they are identified in the National Trails System currently operating. Federal Act, but it would also be implementing the administration would continue as discretionary authorities addressed in the it is, with levels consistent with Act, such as the development of 2010 funding. cooperative agreements, support of volunteers, partnership certification of significant trail resources, and allowance for compatible use as necessary or required by trail partnerships.

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Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-3 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

The National Trails The National Trails Intermountain Intermountain Region would Region would assist the trail community work closely with state, local in achieving the purpose of the trail agencies, and volunteers to designation, which is to commemorate the implement the purpose of the trail development of a network of trails, based and other activities as described upon American Indian routes that linked by the National Trail System Act. Spanish missions and posts in a travel It would oversee the development corridor from the Río Grande to Louisiana. Much of the implementation of of sign and interpretive standards strategies would rest with those members and would consult with state and of the trail community, including federal agencies as well as the volunteers, willing to take the lead in owners of resources to avoid proposing projects and programs that incompatible uses. identify and protect significant trail Efforts to cooperate with resources and their accurate Mexican entities would be limited interpretation. The National Trails to responding to requests for Intermountain Region would continue information and providing current cooperative agreements and the technical assistance, as feasible, signing of other cooperative agreements based on available budgetary and with state agencies that manage high staff resources. potential sites and segments looking for ADMINISTRATION more effective project coordination and use of financial resources. Cooperative agreements with federally recognized tribes would also be developed as appropriate. The National Trails Intermountain Region would work with Mexican entities to fulfill the purpose of the legislation “… exchanging trail information and research, fostering trail preservation and educational programs, providing technical assistance, and working to establish an international historic trail with complementary preservation and education programs in each nation.”

The National Trails Paramount emphasis will be placed on Intermountain Region working with the trail community to administration would support expand knowledge about trail resources, projects that aim to protect the in particular significant sites and segments high potential sites and segments with a degree of historic integrity. identified in conjunction with the Investigations leading to more accurate development of this plan. There and extensive identification of high would be limited opportunity for potential sites and segments and their research projects that explore location, condition and priority needs will topics that have not yet received be encouraged. Research projects that aim adequate attention through the to elucidate important aspects of trail

ESOURCE IDENTIFICATION, IDENTIFICATION, ESOURCE development of this plan. history or topics that have not yet received

R adequate attention will also receive special

PROTECTION AND MONITORING consideration.

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Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-3 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

Under this alternative, the Under this alternative the National National Trails Intermountain Trails Intermountain Region would make a Region would provide technical special effort to educate private assistance to owners of high landowners about the benefits of entering potential sites and segments, who into partnership certification agreements. express an interest to participate in It would encourage owners of high this program. potential sites and segments, who express an interest, to participate in this program by providing management, planning, PARTNERSHIP PARTNERSHIP coordination, technical assistance, and capacity building. CERTIFICATION PROGRAM CERTIFICATION

Efforts would be made to In addition, for this alternative the collaborate with partners to development of a flexible database that periodically monitor the condition would include assessments of resource of significant trail resources and to conditions as well as images that would be encourage partners to pursue updated periodically would greatly assist the studies that would provide a greater trail community in resource monitoring. In understanding of user capacity addition, under this alternative the issues along the trail. volunteer trail stewards for each county and

USER CAPACITY USER parish would be responsible for regularly scheduled monitoring and updating information on trail resources.

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Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-3 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

TRAIL USE EXPERIENCE The National Trails This alternative would offer the trail Intermountain Region would community the opportunity to become active encourage local entities to develop participants in the development of inclusive interpretive media and education interpretive and educational programs that programs focusing on the reflect current scholarship and offer a variety interpretive themes and high of perspectives. There would be special potential sites and segments emphasis on worthy stories, particularly those identified in this document. The that represent the heritage of the various media and programs currently ethnic groups who were central in the offered to the general public by development of the trail. It is only after various public agencies or private understanding the complex and evolving organizations would continue. relationship among the various ethnic groups Efforts to provide opportunities for who lived and used the trail that proper trail audiences to forge emotional interpretive and educational programs about and intellectual connections with the trail can be developed. the meanings of these resources This alternative suggests the development would be limited, because the of an aggressive marketing strategy for additional research required to interpretive programs. Partnerships among enhance the current interpretive the trail community would be critical to the

INTERPRETATION/EDUCATION program would be left to support and/or delivery of interpretive independent researchers who might services. Identification of current and not have the necessary support to potential partners for interpretation, and the carry out such projects. ways they can support the attainment of interpretive goals, would enhance the National Trails Intermountain Region’s ability to strategically use resources to serve the public and achieve desired interpretive goals.

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Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-3 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

TRAIL USE EXPERIENCE, CONTINUED

Existing recreational This alternative envisions providing a opportunities would continue to more meaningful trail user experience be provided at federal and state through integrated development and parks and facilities along the programming. Trail retracement and route. At present few, if any of development would enhance them, provide activities that are opportunities for public use and trail related. Trail retracement enjoyment of authentic trail resources. along major state highways would Appropriate and consistent trail signage be possible, but would be would facilitate visitor use and enjoyment dependent on local efforts. Trail of trail resources. A more profound routes following existing public understanding of significant trail-related roadways and providing access to sites and segments would result in an high potential sites and segments added appreciation of the heritage of the would be marked to raise trail. Enhanced cooperative efforts would awareness of the trail and result in a more meaningful opportunity encourage visitation. to experience an entire array of trail resources. Increased cooperation among RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES RECREATIONAL the members of the trail community would provide a more consistent and accurate message about the history of the trail and would make it easier for visitors to obtain information and to access numerous sites and segments.

ORIENTATION

The official marker Sign specifications for marking the trail incorporating the logo, designed and use of the logo will be provided by the during the preparation of the National Trails Intermountain Region Comprehensive Management through a sign plan. This sign plan would Plan, would be used to mark the address the design, placement and use of designated trail route along major the logo on a variety of signs, such as state highways, such as State highway information and directional Highway 21 in Texas and State signs, entrance signs at parking areas, Highway 6 in Louisiana, and at trailhead information signs, regulatory high potential sites and segments signs, directional indicators, interpretive open to the public. Signs installed signs and wayside exhibits, private at these sites and segments would property signs, destination signs and trail identify permitted trail uses, partner signs. The sign plan would information on safety and consider using both the National Trails protection of trail users, and Intermountain Region standards on adjacent private property. Signing federal lands and typical approaches on would only be done as resources national historic trails that cross many permit. The National Trails nonfederal jurisdictions. Intermountain Region would

TRAILANDSIGNSMARKER IDENTIFICATION: pursue no federal funding for signing.

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Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-3 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

Current levels of staffing would Members of the staff at the National continue. Staff that give a portion Trails Intermountain Region that would of the time to the administration have responsibility for carrying out the of the trail would include the provisions of the preferred alternative superintendent, the chief of trail include a landscape architect, a cultural operations, a cultural resources resources specialist, a planner, an specialist, a tribal liaison, an interpretive specialist, a geographic interpretive specialist, and a information system specialist, a tribal geographic information systems liaison, and an outreach coordinator. To

OPERATIONS specialist. They would collaborate achieve minimum level of operations in with partners on a limited basis to implementing this plan, the carry out the provisions of the Superintendent and staff involvement in National Trails System Act. the trail would be equivalent to three full-time positions. $201,000 (1 FTE) $ 491,000 – 536,000 (3 FTEs) ANNUAL ANNUAL ESTIMATED COST ESTIMATED

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Table 2-4. Comparison of Impacts of Alternatives Table 2-4, summarizes the anticipated environmental impacts for alternatives A and B. Only those impact topics that have been carried forward for further analysis are included in this table. Chapter 4, Environmental Consequences, provides a detailed explanation of these impacts.

Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-4 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

Trail-related ethnographic Trail-related ethnographic resources on resources on private lands could private lands would continue to be be impacted by urban impacted by urban development, such as development and could also housing, commercial businesses, and continue to be affected by private highways. However, at a minimum greater projects, such as the construction awareness of ethnographic resources would of oil and gas pipelines. American lessen the likelihood of impacts from Indian trail routes and associated nonfederal projects. American Indian trail resources closely parallel major routes and associated resources closely state and federal highways, so they parallel major state and federal highways, might also be impacted by road so they would be likely impacted by road enhancement projects as well as by enhancement projects as well as by increases in agricultural activities increases in agriculture and livestock grazing. However, this alternative would and livestock grazing. This result in minor cumulative impacts on alternative would add a minor ethnographic resources because greater degree to the overall cumulative awareness of resources would be more impacts on ethnographic likely to prevent projects that might cause resources. negative impacts. Alternative B would have Alternative A would have a minor, long-term, and indirect beneficial minor, long-term, and indirect impacts because there would be greater adverse impact because of the awareness of the resources likely to be limited awareness of the resources impacted. This alternative might have that could be impacted. It would negligible effects on American Indian have negligible effects on concerns about the interpretation of the American Indian concerns about stories associated with El Camino Real de the interpretation of the stories los Tejas National Historic Trail; however, associated with El Camino Real de the efforts to highlight the contribution of ETHNOGRAPHICRESOURCES los Tejas National Historic Trail. American Indians to the development of Cumulatively, this action would this trail would bring about more awareness only add a minor degree of impact of the significance of resources and would to the overall effect on be more likely to lead to their protection. ethnographic resources. Resource Cumulatively, the minor beneficial effect of impacts would be local, on or near this action on ethnographic resources the trail. would not add impacts to the overall effect on ethnographic resources. The trail would bring about more awareness of the significance of resources and would be more likely to lead to their protection. Cumulatively, the minor beneficial effect of this action on ethnographic resources would not add impacts to the overall effect on ethnographic resources.

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Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-4 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

Trail-related archeological A few trail-related archeological resources on private lands could resources on private lands could be be impacted by urban gradually lost to development; but under development. They would also this alternative the losses would be continue to be affected by private considerably smaller. Increased projects, such as the construction knowledge about trail resources, of oil and gas pipelines. Historic heightened awareness of their nature, and trail routes and associated the substantial involvement of volunteers resources closely parallel major along the trail—both in the identification state and federal highways, so they and protection of resources—would might also be impacted by road significantly improve the ability to protect enhancement projects as well as by significant trail resources and prevent increases in agricultural activities their disappearance due to the trends and livestock grazing. This identified under the cumulative impacts alternative would incrementally scenario. This alternative would result in add a minor degree to the overall long-term beneficial minor impacts on cumulative impacts on archeological resources because there archeological resources. It would would be greater awareness of the have minor, long-term, and resources likely to be impacted. Increased indirect adverse impacts on knowledge about trail resources and

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES ARCHEOLOGICAL archeological resources because compliance with Section 106 would result there would be little awareness of in beneficial impacts to archeological the existence and location of the resources. Cumulatively, the minor resources. For that reason they beneficial effect of this action would only would be more likely to be add a minor degree of impact to the overall impacted. Cumulatively, this cumulative effect on ethnographic action would only add a minor resources. degree of impact to the overall cumulative effect on archeological resources.

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Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-4 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

Historic trail resources on Trail-related historic resources on nonfederal lands would continue private lands could continue to be to be impacted by increased urban impacted by development, such as development, such as housing, housing, commercial businesses, and commercial businesses, and highways; however, under this alternative, highways. They would also the losses would be considerably smaller. continue to be affected by private Increased knowledge about trail development, such as the resources, heightened awareness of their construction of oil and gas nature, and the substantial involvement of pipelines. Trail routes and volunteers along the trail, both in the associated historic resources identification and protection of resources closely parallel major state and and in preventing projects that might federal highways, so they would be cause adverse impacts, would significantly likely impacted by economic improve the ability to prevent their development activities, such as disappearance. This alternative would urban development as well as result in long-term beneficial minor increases in agriculture and cumulative impacts on historic resources. livestock grazing. This alternative Alternative B would have minor, long- would result in minor, long-term, term, and indirect beneficial impacts on

HISTORIC RESOURCES HISTORIC and indirect cumulative impacts historic resources because there would be on historic resources. Alternative greater awareness of the resources likely A may have a moderate, long-term, to be impacted. Cumulatively, the minor and indirect adverse cumulative beneficial effect of this action on historic impact on historic resources resources would add a minor degree of because there would be little impact to the overall effect on historic awareness of the resources likely resources. Cumulative impacts would have to be impacted. Cumulatively, the minor, long-term, and indirect widespread minor adverse effect of this action beneficial impacts on historic resources. would only add a minor degree of impact to the overall cumulative effect on historic resources.

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Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-4 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

Natural resources on private Heightened awareness of development lands could continue to be impacted opportunities from increased visitation by increased urban development might result in an expansion of retail trade and the construction of oil and gas and visitor services. However, under this pipelines. Trail routes closely alternative there would be a greater parallel major state and federal understanding of the need to protect the highways, so they would be likely historic setting of trail resources and this impacted by a variety of economic would minimize the negative impacts of development activities. This development associated with expanding alternative would result in minor, services. The preferred alternative would long-term, and adverse cumulative cause minor, long-term beneficial, and impacts on native vegetation. indirect effects because the majority of Alternative A would have a minor, developers would be more cognizant of the long-term, and indirect adverse impacts of their actions on trail resources. impact on native vegetation because Furthermore, any federal project resulting there would be little awareness of directly from the implementation of the resources likely to be impacted. Alternative B would undergo site-specific Cumulatively, the minor adverse environmental analysis, and care would be effect of this action on native taken to avoid and minimize impacts to NATURAL RESOURCES: VEGETATION VEGETATION RESOURCES: NATURAL vegetation would only incrementally these resources. Cumulatively, the minor add a minor degree of impact to the beneficial effect of this action would only overall impact on natural resources. add a minor degree of impact to the overall impact on natural vegetation.

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Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-4 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

During the last two centuries, Because of raised awareness about trail major changes in wildlife habitat resources, it is possible that some property have occurred throughout the owners might choose not to initiate counties and parishes crossed by activities, such as development or land the trail. Agriculture has led to clearing, which might impact native large areas being converted from wildlife. In such cases, the impact of this wildlife habitat to croplands and/ alternative would be local and beneficial or pastures of nonnative grasses. to natural fauna. Heightened awareness of Timber harvesting for fuel or development opportunities from lumber has removed the extensive increased visitation might result in an woodlands that covered the expansion of retail trade and visitor eastern sections of the trail, and services. However, under this alternative livestock grazing has reduced there would be a greater understanding of animal densities in some areas and the need to protect the historic setting of changed the composition of trail resources and this would minimize animal communities. Extensive the negative impacts of development residential, commercial, energy, associated with expanding services. The and road-associated development preferred alternative would cause minor, have removed wildlife habitat. long-term beneficial, and indirect effects Natural resources on private because the majority of developers would lands could continue to be be more cognizant of the impacts of their impacted by increased urban actions on trail resources, such as wildlife development and the construction habitat. Furthermore, any federal project of oil and gas pipelines. Trail resulting directly from the implementation routes closely parallel major state of Alternative B would undergo site- and federal highways, so they specific environmental analysis, and care would be likely impacted by a would be taken to avoid and minimize

NATURAL RESOURCES: WILDLIFE RESOURCES: NATURAL variety of economic development impacts to these resources. Cumulatively, activities. This alternative would the minor beneficial effect of this action result in minor, long-term, and would only add a minor degree of impact adverse cumulative impacts on to the overall impact on natural wildlife. native fauna. Alternative A would have a minor, long-term, and indirect adverse impact on wildlife because there would be little awareness of the resources likely to be impacted. Cumulatively, the minor adverse effect of this action on native fauna would only incrementally add a minor degree of impact to the overall impact on natural resources.

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Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-4 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

Development projects that aim The high quality visitor experience that to attract large number of visitors, would result from the implementation of but that do not consider the need Alternative B is likely to foster widespread to retain the historic fabric of interest in the trail and its resources trail-related resources would among a broader spectrum of society than detract from a high-quality exists at the time this document is being experience. Increased urban prepared. Such interest would heighten growth, including housing, awareness of the potential damage that commercial business, and highway unrestricted development and changes in projects would limit geographical land use could cause to trail resources. opportunities of providing a Other projects identified in the cumulative rewarding trail experience. All impact scenario, such as increase in these factors would add a minor heritage tourism and increase in websites, cumulative impact on the visitor exhibits, and facilities that offer the experience. opportunity to learn about and appreciate Under Alternative A developing trail resources, would have minor an interpretive program and beneficial impacts. The preferred appropriate visitor access, and alternative would cause moderate installing trail signs would result beneficial effects because a larger and VISITOR USE ANDEXPERIENCE USE VISITOR in minor beneficial effects. more diverse audience would be able to Cumulatively, the minor beneficial learn about and appreciate trail resources. effect of this alternative on the Cumulatively, the minor adverse effect of visitor experience would only add this action would only add a minor degree a minor degree of impact to the of impact to the overall cumulative effect overall cumulative effect on the on the visitor experience and would result current visitor use and experience. in moderate, long-term beneficial and indirect impacts.

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Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-4 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

Several trends identified in the Although increased urban development cumulative impact scenario are would not necessarily decline due to the closely associated with trail designation, greater awareness of trail landownership and use. However, resources might result in less detectable at the time this document is being changes in land use. The same would be prepared, the planning team is not true for other forms of development aware of any specific project that described in the cumulative impact would have an overall negative scenario. Alternative B would encourage effect on landownership and use more interest in the protection of along the trail. Alternative A resources along the trail, which could would have negligible cumulative entail changes in land use and impacts on landownership and development trends. These cumulative use. Although the participation of impacts would be moderate and beneficial. landowners would be voluntary, it The trends identified under the is likely that the trail designation cumulative impacts scenario have the would raise awareness of issues potential to impact land use along the associated with the impact of trail. However, at the time this plan is incompatible land uses on the being prepared there are no specific LANDOWNERSHIPANDUSE trail. No additional impacts on development projects being considered landownership and use would that would have major impacts on result from the implementation of landownership and use. Alternative B this alternative. Alternative A would result in moderate, beneficial, and would have minor, beneficial, and indirect cumulative impacts on indirect effects on ownership and landownership and use along the trail. use along the trail corridor.

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Table Alternative A: Continuation of Alternative B, Preferred Alternative: 2-4 Current Conditions (No Action) Trail Development Through Partnerships

Several projects identified in Several projects identified in the the cumulative impact scenario cumulative impact scenario have the have the potential to impact potential to impact socioeconomic socioeconomic conditions along conditions along the trail. However, at the the trail. However, at the time this time this document is being prepared, document is being prepared, there there is no information on specific is no information on specific projects that would have any type of projects that would have any type impact on socioeconomic conditions of impact on socioeconomic along the trail. Implementing this conditions along the trail. At this alternative is likely to strengthen the time it is not possible to speculate regional and state economies through on the overall cumulative effect increased tourism revenues. Increased that these projects would have on visitation to trail-related sites, segments, such conditions. Some minor and establishments would result in minor socioeconomic benefits are likely growth in economic activity not only in to result from trail development those communities along the trail activities, increased visitation, and corridor, but possibly in Texas and government expenditures Louisiana as a whole, because visitors associated with the development might extend their stay in the trail area if of this alternative. Alternative A there are additional opportunities to learn would result in minor, long-term, about natural and cultural history and to

SOCIOECONOMIC CONDITIONS SOCIOECONOMIC and indirect beneficial impacts on search for the trail. Federal expenditures socioeconomic conditions along would be slightly larger and possibly less the trail. circumscribed geographically. While there would be a beneficial impact from such expenditures, it would be minor. Alternative B would result in minor, beneficial, long-term, and indirect cumulative impacts on socioeconomic conditions along the trail

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CHAPTER 3: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT INTRODUCTION areas and along the Red River. All Caddo groups were intimately connected with The purpose of this chapter is to El Camino Real de los Tejas; indeed, El describe the physical, biological, cultural, Camino Real de los Tejas was named and social environments of El Camino after the Tejas (Hasinai). Moreover, the Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail, seat of the Spanish Colonial capital of including topics that could be affected from Texas occupied the lands of the Adaes implementing the alternatives described (Adais) and was named after the tribe. in the previous chapter. However, this section of the plan also includes materials The Caddo lived in farmsteads dispersed that were identified as important by the across the landscape but located close to public and the planning team during the their agricultural fields. They were unified scoping process as well as environmental by a common language and by a structured background data relevant to readers, site cosmology, which was reflected in the managers, and trail administrators. arrangement of their settlements with specific locations for places of worship, To assist in the preparation of this burials, and the dwellings of spiritual and section of the Comprehensive Management civil leaders. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Plan/Environmental Assessment, four Caddo speakers in Texas and Louisiana studies were completed: 1) an ethnohistory were organized in three major groupings, of the general area encompassed in the sometimes called confederacies: the designated routes; 2) an inventory of the Hasinai, Kadohadacho, and Natchitoches. cultural resources in Texas along the congressionally designated routes; 3) an In their reports and correspondence, inventory of cultural resources in Louisiana Spanish missionaries described the Hasinai along the congressionally designated Supreme Being, the Ayo-Caddi-Aymay, and routes; and 4) a data acquisition study the hierarchical system of religious and for the major natural resources topics. political leadership in a village, represented by a high priest (xinesí), a number of village leaders (caddices), and a council of CULTURAL RESOURCES elders (canahas). Caddices and cahanas ETHNOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW were associated with specific Hasinai communities, but the xinesi exercised American Indian groups were central overall spiritual authority over most of to the development of El Camino Real the Hasinai. The xinesi superseded others de los Tejas National Historic Trail whose functions included medicine men and greatly influenced Spanish efforts or shamans (conna), town criers (tanmas), to discourage French intrusion and and warriors (amayxovas), whose practices to create viable communities. They were important to the daily activities of the continued to play a major role in historical Hasinai. The xinesi established, maintained, developments along the trail through and monitored communications between the first half of the 19th century. human beings and the spiritual realm and was responsible for ceremonies and objects The Caddo designed to guarantee the well-being of the The ethnographic landscape the Hasinai in all its aspects; the xinesi was the Spanish encountered, beginning in the unifying element in Hasinai communities. 1680s, was highly complex: records of This religious/political hierarchy was the early expeditions reveal close to 60 supported by the commoners through different groups of American Indians. a well-organized system of reciprocal Chief among them were the Caddo- exchange between members of the human speaking groups in the Neches-Angelina community and spiritual beings. This

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interweaving of daily activities with Comanche, Taovaya, Tawakoni, Wichita, spiritual ones, as well as a traditional and other Indian tribes participated in this settlement pattern that included productive trade, which was centered in Natchitoches farms, ceremonial centers, and burial and involved both French and Spanish grounds, made it difficult for Hasinai traders as well as Anglo-Americans. The communities to accept the conditions following year, de Mézières traveled the friars wanted to impose on them. along El Camino Real to visit most of Not only were the Hasinai expected to the Indian tribes involved. His goal was accept a different religion, but they were to ascertain the condition of the tribes also required to congregate in pueblos, following a devastating epidemic in 1777, or villages, and change the physical elicit their goodwill, and evaluate the arrangement of their settlements. At the extent of the trade. During this journey, end of the 17th century, the Hasinai had not de Mézières noted the remarkable accepted these Spanish-imposed changes. Indian mounds east of the Neches River. Caddo groups maintained social, political, He crossed the river and visited the and trade relationships with other native village of San Pedro de los Nabedachos, groups and with the French and the Spanish already important historically, as it was government forces throughout the colonial the site of the first mission in Texas. period. Trade connections extended The large number of gifts given to well beyond the modern boundaries of the Caddo and other tribes only added Texas and Louisiana. Inquiries made by to the vibrant underground economy, Spanish authorities after the attack on San which developed first with the acquisition Sabá mission uncovered the widespread of contraband and swelled with the smuggling of weapons and ammunition introduction of gift giving. By the end along El Camino Real de los Tejas, an of the 1700s, there was little distinction illegal trade of which military officials were between either practice. Spanish settlers fully aware, and indeed, from which they and soldiers continued to visit the profited. These official Spanish inquiries, as Caddo villages between San Antonio well as the earlier arrest of French traders at and Nacogdoches, and the movement of the mouth of the Trinity River in 1754, made goods and people probably intensified clear to government officials that, in order considerably from the 1760s to the 1780s. to have and keep the friendship of native In 1773, in an effort to limit the groups, they either had to close their eyes underground economy, Spain closed the to the contraband or compete against it. mission and presidio of Los Adaes and From the late 1760s onward, by order moved the seat of government to San of the Spanish Crown, Spain changed Antonio. Despite this action, the following its colonizing tactics and implemented a year Spanish authorities noted that French policy of gift giving to the native tribes, traders continued to trade in guns, powder, which simultaneously provided goods and balls, and owed their suppliers more for trade while binding the recipient to than 600 horses. The increased Caddo reciprocity obligations. The presence of dependence upon the Spanish could not Anglo-American traders in Louisiana have come at a worse time. Weakened by and in Texas complicated Spanish epidemics and the continued wars with relations with native people though. the Osage, their ancestral enemies, Caddo This was particularly true after France groups were forced to regroup and seek ceded Louisiana to Spain in 1762. alliances, but they were still unable to In 1778, Frenchman Athanase de mount an effective attack against the Osage. Mézières, lieutenant governor of Louisiana, Throughout the late 1770s, some was appointed by Spanish authorities Caddo groups sought an alliance with to manage gift giving and trade and to the Apache. In spite of old and ingrained control contraband. The Caddo, Bidai, enmities, their mutual interest in trade

Page 74 Chapter 3: Affected Environment - Ethnographic Overview items, particularly guns and ammunition, due to historical reports of repeated which the Apache needed and the Caddos encounters with that group in the same could supply, made an alliance increasingly general area and, sometimes, because of likely. New Spain was vehemently opposed. specific statements made by travelers. Two In 1780, Domingo Cabello, governor of obvious cases are the Paquache, who were Texas, held a meeting with the Hasinai at consistently encountered between the Presidio La Bahía. When the Lipan Apache Nueces and Frío rivers, and the Payaya, who arrived, aiming to hold peace talks with were repeatedly found in the greater San the Hasinai, Cabello refused to allow the Antonio area. It is hard to match up native Apache inside the fort. Barred from entry, groups and territories along El Camino the Lipans shouted over the walls that Real de los Tejas National Historical Trail they would give the Hasinai horses, guns, with complete certainty: tribal members even women in exchange for an alliance. may have just been visiting certain Notwithstanding Spanish efforts, in 1782, regions and their land-use territories may the Apache and Hasinai made a peace have been located far from trail routes, agreement, and soon after, a huge trade despite encounters with Europeans. fair was held on the Guadalupe River, at The historical and archeological data which the Apaches traded 1,000 Spanish suggest that these groups were organized horses to a group of Tonkawas, Hasinais, into small to medium-sized bands of 25 to Bidais, and others in return for 270 guns. 50 people, although some appear to have Trade with the Apache continued for the included 300 to 500 people. These groups, next four years, but the Spanish authorities comprised of extended families related were determined to stop it. Spain tried by blood or marriage, scheduled their several different approaches, even halting gatherings to trade, to prepare for war and the gift giving until the Caddo groups gave make war alliances, to perform ceremonies, in. Harassed by the Osage and diminished to find mates, and to socialize in general, in numbers by epidemics and conflict, at times and places where food resources the Kadohadacho moved south to Caddo were known or expected to be abundant Lake in 1800; however, most of the other during different seasons of the year. Caddo-speaking groups remained in their Obviously, these were times when there homelands until their final removal in 1859. were many mouths to feed, but it is also clear that some of the resources were to be Nomadic American Indian Tribes used by those going to war and to guarantee the welfare of those staying behind. The story of nomadic Indian groups along El Camino Real de los Tejas National Although little is known about the social Historic Trail is equally complex. The organization of these hunting and gathering information obtained from archival groups in Texas, the evidence indicates that sources and supported by archeological spokespersons, generally male, represented studies indicates that most indigenous and acted in the name of the group and, in groups subsisted by hunting and gathering, some cases, also were prominent warriors. traveling through vast expanses of land, Male, and possibly female, shamans were and using widely dispersed native plants engaged in healing and mediation rituals. and animals. The historical evidence Shamans were the mediators between indicates that geographic and resource human beings and the spiritual world. areas were recognized by individual tribal As part of curing ceremonies they used groups and that sanctions were applied natural objects, such as plants for infusions to trespassers, not so much due to the and stones to which special powers were violation of geographical borders but attributed. Curing and removal of malefic because land resources were used without objects located in the body was facilitated permission. Some areas can be assumed by blowing over the affected area, laying to be part of a native group’s territory on hands and sucking out objects such as stones, arrows, and hair that had

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penetrated the body and were supposed and native plants seasonally, but they also to have caused the disease. Shamans were benefited from being able to rely on an reimbursed for their services. They could abundant marine and estuary resource be killed if the patient did not recover or if base that provided water roots, fish, it was thought that the shaman was at fault. shellfish, and sea mammals. Temporary Women raised children; gathered food, camps used by coastal groups have been water, and wood; and often engaged in uncovered that reflect seasonal travel trading. There is evidence that, in some between the coast and the mainland to cases, women acted as peace negotiators. obtain resources. Native groups living The roles of warrior and hunter were very along the Gulf Coast often built atop large important to the stability and defense shell mounds, which had accumulated over of the group, as well as to the balance of years of shellfish and shell consumption. relations with other groups. But the role of The archeological evidence indicates women as procreators and nurturers was that significant changes took place in the essential. Information on child rearing and centuries prior to European arrival (the the roles children played in society is scant. Proto-historic or Late Prehistoric period), although the overall patterns of resource Nomadic hunter-gatherer groups set selection and resource utilization did not up temporary camps known as rancherías, vary much between the Proto-historic where dwellings were generally made of period and the arrival of Europeans. bent poles or tree limbs, covered with brush and bison or deer pelts. Most of the evidence related to these rancherías is Other American Indian Tribes associated with the harvest and seasonal At other times, several other American native use of specific resources, such as Indian groups occupied the territory the fruit of the prickly pear, mesquite traversed by the trail. Among them beans, mescal, wild berries, and nuts, such are the Alabama-Coushatta, Apache, as pecans and acorns. Faunal resources, Bidai, Cherokee, Choctaw, Comanche, such as bison and deer, were procured Delaware, Karankawa, Kickapoo, Kiowa, at specific times of the year. They were Seminole, Shawnee, and Tonkawa tribes. important not just as sources of meat, marrow, and fat and pelts for clothing, The Alabama-Coushatta shoes, and dwelling covers but also for glue to haft projectile points, and for other The Alabama-Coushatta were part of the uses. Floral and faunal resources that mound-building cultures of the Southeast, were available only at specific times of the which included the Creeks, Cherokees, year and in specific locations required Caddo, Natchez, Choctaw, Muscogee, the timely arrival of native groups to and others. All of these tribes shared a harvest them, and native groups scheduled common religion, with the same basic their movements and programmed their beliefs, ceremonies, and traditions, but each subsistence rounds to profit from those tribe interpreted it slightly differently. resources. The nomadic groups in Texas The record of the first contact with the and Louisiana complemented their diets Alabama people comes from the Hernando with small mammals, rodents, birds, de Soto Expedition in 1641. Hernando de snakes, snails, turtles, freshwater fish, Soto came upon the “Alibamo” tribe in shellfish, insects, birds’ eggs, and other central Mississippi and attacked and killed animal protein sources, which were many of them in a fierce battle. Later the generally available throughout the year and Alabama people moved east, to present-day not concentrated in geographical patches. Alabama, where they lived at the junction Like inland bands, hunter-gatherer of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers. De groups living along the coast of the Gulf Soto also found the Coushata living along of Mexico also procured deer, and bison, the Tennessee River. By the 1780s, pressure

Page 76 Chapter 3: Affected Environment - Ethnographic Overview on their lands from westward-migrating between the Río Grande and San Antonio. Americans forced the Alabama to move Apache groups were displeased with back west across the Mississippi River, into the increased Spanish presence but took the Opelousa area of Louisiana. Around full advantage of raids on European 1803, they moved west again, across the supply convoys along El Camino Real Sabine River into north East Texas. de los Tejas to seize coveted horses and In 1805, approximately 1,000 items to trade. European goods and local Alabamas came to Tyler County’s Peach products sustained a native exchange Tree Village. The Coushattas were and trade economy, which maintained already in East Texas, having arrived a network of connections and alliances into the Big Thicket area sometime among groups and enhanced the after 1795. Their intertribal friendship prestige of individuals involved in it. became even stronger as they roamed Conversely, attacks on convoys along El and hunted this new land together. Camino Real de los Tejas killed or angered Although the Republic of Texas the Spanish settlers as well as taking a Congress had granted each tribe two toll on native groups. The Apache were leagues of land along the Trinity River always viewed as the principal foe of the in 1840, their land was soon taken over missions and settlers who were engaged by white settlers, leaving them homeless. in what has been called la guerra de la In 1853, the Texas legislature purchased pulga (the war of the flea). The Apache 1,110 acres for the Alabamas. Two years utilized guerrilla-war strategies that used later (1855), it set aside 640 acres for the the main arteries of communication and Coushattas. However, the land allocated travel corridors, such as El Camino Real de for the Coushattas was never plotted or los Tejas, to counterbalance the superior surveyed, but either through marriage military power of the colonizers. Local or special permission, Coushattas ended Apache successes enhanced their prestige up moving onto Alabama territory, among other Apache groups and made and eventually the tribe became them doubly feared by the local native known as the Alabama-Coushatta. groups, whose small numbers and lack of skill in warfare made them vulnerable The Apache to both the Apache and the Spanish. Apaches had been present in the modern In the 1720s and 1730s, Apache attacks in territory of Texas since the 1680s, but San Antonio and along El Camino Real de had remained mostly in or above the Hill los Tejas led the military and the citizenry Country until the Europeans settled San to conduct punitive counterattacks on Antonio. That settlement, and the enhanced Apache raiders. These punitive expeditions Spanish presence, affirmed Spanish resulted in considerable booty in pelts, intentions of colonization, particularly saddles, iron implements, and horses. after the Aguayo Expedition in 1721, and In this way, horses presumably stolen in frequently engendered violent Apache Apache raids along El Camino Real de reactions. The Apache put Spanish settlers los Tejas were returned to San Antonio. on notice when they left arrow shafts with These raids also brought Apache slaves red flags attached to them in the ground to San Antonio, mostly women and near San Antonio Presidio. Beginning in children who either served the Spanish the 1720s, Apache groups, particularly the as domestic and field help or were taken Lipan Apache, began attacking mule-train along El Camino Real de los Tejas to be convoys along El Camino Real de los Tejas, traded south of the Río Grande to Mexico. successfully raiding the livestock herds of The pattern of Apache raids and Spanish the missions and threatening San Antonio. punitive counterattacks was interspersed As a result, travel along the trail became with peace negotiations, often initiated increasingly dangerous, particularly and mediated by Apache women. The

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Spanish used Apache hostages to press the with the American settlers asking for Apache into peace treaties; however, the food. Subsequently, the Bidai experienced policy was ill advised and not successful great difficulties and suffered at least until the 1740s, when the Apache felt one major typhoid fever epidemic. In squeezed between the Comanche from 1836, they were once again receiving the north and the Spanish in the south. gifts from Anglo-Americans. The pattern of use, enslavement, or “adoption” of Apache women and children The Cherokee by Spaniards continued into the late 1700s. The Cherokee moved into Texas Even as the San Antonio missions during the early 19th century. In 1822, suffered Apache hit-and-run attacks they traveled to San Antonio to sign an and the loss of cattle, goats, sheep, and agreement with the Mexican governor horses, they gained new converts from of Texas José Felix Trespalacios and local native groups, who joined forces obtained permission to settle in Texas. In with Spanish settlers against their mutual 1836, they met with Sam Houston to sign a enemy. Between 1746 and 1752, the three San treaty requesting formal title to the lands Xavier missions on the San Gabriel River, they occupied. At that time, they resided near present-day Rockdale, Texas, were along the Angelina, Neches, and Sabine founded in this way. The location of these rivers near Nacogdoches, and appeared missions on good buffalo hunting grounds interested in taking the lead in forming further angered the Apache, who began a union of different tribes in Texas. harassing the native populations even Unfortunately, frictions with European before the missions were built. It is ironic, settlers and concern about the Cherokee’s then, that property from the San Xavier influence on other smaller tribes led missions, which were abandoned in 1752, the senate of the Republic of Texas to was used to help establish the Nueces River nullify the treaty. Three years later, the missions for the Apache at El Cañón in Real Texan government had still not ratified County in 1762, following a peace treaty. Cherokee claims, and it became clear that Earlier attempts were made to establish the tribe would be removed from Texas missions for the Apache on the south side territory. In July 1839, President Mirabeau of the Río Grande (1754) and at San Sabá Lamar dispatched 900 soldiers to the (1757–1758), but only the later Upper Nueces Cherokee village. After a battle that left missions were marginally successful. 100 Cherokee and two Texas soldiers dead, the Cherokee fled to Indian Territory. The Bidai The Bidai people lived along the lower The Choctaw Trinity River, south of El Camino Real de The first few Choctaw people in Texas los Tejas, and were a friendly group. They settled among the Caddo-speaking group traded with the Hasinai over the Bidai Trail, in 1807, when John Sibley brokered a peace which led from the lower Trinity River to agreement between representatives of the the vicinity of Nacogdoches. The Bidai had two tribes. Permission was given, despite sporadic relations with the Karankawa deep-seated resentments and unresolved groups, especially the Coco, as well as conflicts between the two tribes. with the Tonkawa, the Wichita groups, the Comanche, and with the Lipan Apache, After 1819, the United States pressured with whom they traded. Later on, the Bidai the rest of the Choctaw to move apparently intermarried with Coushatta westward from their original homelands people living along the Trinity River. in Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia to Indian Territory in Arkansas and When Stephen F. Austin established Oklahoma. The Choctaw were the first of his colony on the lower Brazos River in the Southeast’s Five Civilized Tribes (the the early 1820s, the Bidai often mingled

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Choctaw, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Creek, or meet with the Spanish officials, when and Seminole) to be removed to Indian they would frequently raid horse herds at Territory along what came to be known the Bexar settlement and the missions. as the Trail of Tears. By 1836, the year the Comanche raids often resulted in Choctaw signed a treaty with the Republic the kidnapping of Spanish women and of Texas, around 40 Choctaw and some children. In the fall of 1773, the Comanche Chickasaw had been living in Nacogdoches mounted one of the largest and fiercest and Shelby counties for about two years. raids ever experienced by the settlement of The majority of the Choctaw, however, Bexar. Raids on Laredo during the same never moved to Texas and remained on year added 350 horses to the Comanche Choctaw Nation lands in Indian Territory. spoils. The hit-and-run attacks continued, Any problems between settlers and the often targeting ranches along the Río Choctaw usually involved depredations by Grande and the presidio of San Juan Texas troops or citizens crossing north of Bautista. In 1778–1779, the Comanche set the Red River onto Choctaw Nation lands. their sights on the Bucareli settlement on the Trinity River. Successive Comanche The Comanche attacks, along with the devastation The Comanche began their forays caused by a 1777 epidemic and a flood, into north and central Texas in late 1729 led to Bucareli’s abandonment. in an effort to displace the Apache from In the 1780s, the Comanche established the southern plains and north-central rancherías on the Medina River, north Texas. Comanche economic life was of Bexar, and at Arroyo Blanco on the centered on the buffalo, which they Guadalupe River. These rancherías were hunted, processed in great quantities, part of a new strategy that connected the and bartered for any other products they Comanche with the Texas road network required. The acquisition of horses and and commerce along those roads. Even so, guns from Europeans enhanced Comanche most Comanche remained in North Texas. prowess on the battlefield, enabling them Multiple attempts to establish an to obtain war booty and more guns and enduring peace with the Comanche were horses and become a formidable force. only partially successful. The Comanche During the early period, Spanish promised they would refrain from attacking Colonial settlers felt the impact of the settlements and taking horses only to Comanche presence indirectly, mostly repeat the depredations. For instance, through increased Apache activity, but during peace treaty negotiations in 1785, the 1758 attack on Mission San Sabá Comanche chiefs promised to stop raiding, changed the situation. The dominance but only after two raiding parties stole of the Comanche, multiplied by alliances horses from San Antonio and La Bahía. with the Tejas, Taovaya, and Wichita After the treaty was signed, the Spanish tribes, changed the power dynamics in supplied gifts to the Comanche. This the territory surrounding El Camino established a regular routine, whereby Real de los Tejas. In the 1760s and 1770s, Comanche groups often came to Bexar a succession of attacks by the Comanche to collect their gifts, traveling across and allied tribes on the Apache during portions of El Camino Real de los Tejas, buffalo hunts, as well as on the Nueces and often raiding the outlying settlements. River missions, effectively positioned Kavanagh (1999) has pointed out that the Comanche to play a central role in warfare was embedded in the Comanche political affairs. As a rule, the Comanche social structure and way of living. preferred to remain above the Red River. While the 1785 peace treaty reduced the There is little evidence of their presence Comanche threat for Texas settlements, along El Camino Real de Tejas, except it did not eliminate it, and confrontations when they came to San Antonio to trade between Spanish settlers and the

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Comanche continued into the 1790s. dividing American Indian territory from During the revolutionary events of the the region southward occupied by the early 19th century, including the Hidalgo colonists. According to the wishes of the revolt in 1810 and the Gutiérrez-Magee Comanche, this line was to run between revolt in 1812–1813, the Comanche played the Hill Country and San Antonio, to allow all sides off one another and benefited the tribe to hunt buffalo. However, the from trade with the Anglo-Americans who creation of such a demarcating line was not were moving in from the East. Kavanagh in the interest or the plans of the citizenry, (1999) points out that, between 1786 and particularly the new colonists, and the issue 1820, the Comanche prospered as never was postponed indefinitely. The treaty before, expanding their range from Santa languished until, finally, at the 1844 Council Fe to San Antonio and from Natchitoches at the Falls-of-the-Brazos, the Comanche to Chihuahua; however, the chaos of and other groups informed Sam Houston, the collapse of the Spanish empire and president of the Republic of Texas, that the advance of the Anglo-Americans they would not accept the conditions of the altered their way of life considerably. treaty without the promised demarcation During the Mexican period, Comanche line. The treaty was signed on October attacks throughout Texas and Mexico led 9, 1844, but no line was established. In to the 1822 treaty between the Comanche 1847, the Society of German Noblemen and the Mexican government. During the purchased the Fisher-Miller empresario negotiations, one of the Mexican officials land grant, and surveyors entered stated that the Comanche’s wealth was in Comanche hunting grounds. Despite “good horses and arms” and that in their agreements and promises of gifts, the trade they had made “a well worn road Comanche held their ground and continued through the unsettled regions towards to oppose the extension of the settlement. Natchitoches.” By 1825, the conditions of As settlers encroached further on the treaty had already been violated, and native lands, they competed for resources fear and unrest reigned among settlers. and conflicts multiplied. In January During the following decades, the 1840, a group of Comanche traveled to Comanche were either friends or foes, San Antonio, presumably to trade, and depending on the time and place. For became embroiled in what became known instance, the Comanche were considered as the Council House Fight—a violent important allies in the struggle between conflict that became deeply etched in Mexico and the Anglo-Americans who the memories of the Comanche and the revolted against Mexican President citizens of Bexar. The preponderance Antonio López de Santa Anna in 1835, of conflicts signaled the reluctance of but they were feared foes when, in 1836, Comanche and citizens alike to abide by they attacked the caravan of settlers agreements. In August, the Comanche from Villa Dolores Colony on the Río attacked Victoria and Linneville; in Grande. These settlers had abandoned turn, the Comanche were attacked near their colony precisely because of rumors Lockhart and lost many warriors. of an impending Comanche attack. The political changes in Texas and the The Delaware establishment of the empresario colonies Some members of the Delaware tribe led to increased friction between Anglo moved into Texas in the early 19th century and European colonists and American and lived near the Shawnee; however, by Indian tribes. In 1838, another peace treaty the 1820s, most of them had moved onto was signed with the Comanche aimed at the Brazos Reserve among the Caddo. In protecting the new colonists. Central to 1836, the Delaware signed a treaty with the peace treaty was a Comanche request Texas that placed them on Cherokee land. that a demarcating line be established, When combined with the Shawnee, they

Page 80 Chapter 3: Affected Environment - Ethnographic Overview were said to number 500 people. In general, In 1721, the Spanish founded the the Delaware and the Shawnee managed Presidio of Nuestra Señora de Loreto to avoid conflicts with the white settlers. on Garcitas Creek, on the former site of In 1842, fears of alliances between the Fort St. Louis. Across the creek the next Mexican government and several native year, the Franciscans established Mission tribes, including the Delaware and the Nuestra Señora del Espiritu Santo de Shawnee, increased. The following year, Zuñiga hoping to attract coastal groups. representatives of both tribes met at the In 1726, the mission was moved inland Tehuacana Indian Council. Roasting Ear, to the Guadalupe River, then moved again, the Delaware chief, delivered the opening in 1749, to the San Antonio River at modern statement, followed by Linney, the Shawnee Goliad. In 1745, when the Franciscans chief. In September of the same year, founded the missions on the San Gabriel these tribes signed a peace treaty with River (San Xavier Missions), the Coco the Republic of Texas. As interpreters, were one of the groups at the missions. guides, trackers, pack drivers, warriors, In 1754, the Franciscans established and hunters, the Delaware traversed a Mission Nuestra Señora del Rosario for the broad territorial expanse. Their presence Cujane. Four years later, 21 natives had been is mentioned from the Río Grande to the baptized but all in artículo mortis (on their Canadian River, as they were heavy users deathbed). The coastal missions owned of the network of roads that became El large livestock herds and were raided by Camino Real de los Tejas. In the 1850s, the native groups, including the Karankawa, few Delaware who remained in Texas were who took horses and cattle. During the on the Brazos Reserve, among the Caddo 1770s and 1780s, the Karankawa were and the Wichita, and in 1859, they moved particularly active in raiding and were said to Indian Territory with those groups. to be well armed. They were involved in trade with other coastal groups, such as the The Karankawa Orcoquisa, as well as with inland groups. The name Karankawa (Carancagua) In 1774, the Coco and the Karankawa were identifies a specific Texas coastal group, living near the mouth of the Trinity River, but it is often used to include five different where French and English settlers came groups: the Karankawa proper, the Coco, to trade for horses and mules stolen from the Cujane, the Guapite, and the Copane. Presidio La Bahía. In 1780, General Teodoro These groups likely spoke dialects of the de Croix commented that the Karankawa same language, and the Karankawa proper where living on the mainland and on the and the Coco apparently spoke the same nearby islands and that they deserved to language. The Karankawa language has be exterminated because of their cruelty. not been linked to any other language By the 1780s, Mission Rosario was family. Some of these coastal groups also abandoned, partly because of attacks had friendly relations with the Akokisa and raids on the livestock and partly (Orcoquisa) and the Atakapa who also because of native revolts. In 1791, the lived farther to the east, on the coastal Franciscans established Mission Nuestra area. None of these groups were in the Señora del Refugio as a last effort to vicinity of El Camino Real de los Tejas, but convert the Karankawa. Circumstances they had had close interactions with the had changed. This time the Karankawa Spanish since the expedition of 1689 that accepted the coastal mission, viewing it searched for La Salle’s settlement. During as a refuge, a useful location for fishing in that expedition, Alonso de León traveled to time of need, and because it was far from Garcitas Creek, explored Matagorda Bay, their enemies, the Comanche. During and reported seeing native rancherías, likely the 1790s, the Karankawa appeared belonging to any of the groups subsumed consistently in Mission Refugio censuses. under the designation of Karankawa. In the early 1800s, the Karankawa,

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Coco, and Cujane were still mentioned were removed to Indian Territory as part in the records, but many perished in of the Wichita and Affiliated Tribes. conflicts with the white settlers. The Kickapoo The Keechi After ceding their native lands in Illinois The Keechi lived in the Red River area in 1819, a large number of Kickapoo moved in the first decades of the 18th century to Texas, where they lived among the and were mentioned as early as 1687 as Cherokee until 1839, when the Cherokee Caddo allies. In 1745, Fr. Xavier Ortiz were forced to leave. Stephen F. Austin’s placed the Keechi in the area of the upper 1829 map shows the Kickapoo on the Trinity, Brazos, and Red River areas. In Upper Trinity River. In February 1836, 1770, Athanase de Mézières visited the the Kickapoo signed a peace treaty with Kadohadacho on the Natchitoches River Texas, but after it became known that the and met the chiefs of several Nations Kickapoo sided with Mexico, relations of the North (Norteños), including with the fledgling republic broke down. the Keechi. The following year, they Late that year, after the Kadohadacho signed a treaty with the Spanish. and Kickapoo had attacked settlements In 1772, de Mézières visited the Keechi on the Brazos River, Texas Rangers village on the Upper Brazos and Trinity mounted a successful attack against them rivers. De Mézières reported that the on Elm Creek, east of Austin. In 1839, Keechi traded buffalo and deer skins when Mirabeau Lamar ordered that the for guns and ammunition with the Kickapoo be removed from Texas, many of inhabitants of Natchitoches. He also the Kickapoo fled to Matamoros, Mexico, noted that the Keechi had only played a and later to Morelos in Coahuila province. small role in the hostilities waged against Some Kickapoo joined the Seminole the presidios although they had taken leader Wild Cat’s Mexican settlement. part in the Mission San Sabá attack. In They were granted lands on condition 1775, de Mézières followed El Camino that they join the Mexican Army, which Real de los Tejas from Nacogdoches, left required them to fight the Apache, the the highway at Bucareli, and reached the Comanche, and others. Unhappy with Keechi village on the Trinity River, near the conditions of the agreement, these modern Palestine, Texas. During the first Kickapoo crossed the border at Eagle Pass decades of the 19th century, the Keechi and returned to Kansas, with only a few maintained their association with the remaining in Morelos. Today, the Kickapoo Cadohadacho, traded at Nacogdoches, Traditional Tribe of Texas lives on a small and remained east of the Trinity River. reservation immediately south of Eagle Pass on the Río Grande. These Kickapoo In 1843, the Keechi were present at are the descendants of tribal members who the Tehuacana Creek Council. They returned to Texas from Kansas in 1864. signed a peace agreement with the Republic of Texas, as part of the Wichita Like the Delaware and Shawnee, the confederation under the leadership of Kickapoo were employed as interpreters, A-cah-quash, the Waco chief. In 1846, guides, scouts, and hunters. In the 1840s, the Keechi signed the Treaty of Council Kickapoo parties were sometimes reported Springs, which placed them under the hunting in Texas. In 1848, Commissioner protection of the United States. Frictions George W. Bonnell’s survey of American with settlers and Keechi horse stealing Indians listed 1,200 Kickapoo. led to several confrontations. In 1850, 200 Keechi moved to Indian Territory, The Kiowa where they settled near the confluence of Spanish sources place the Kiowa in the the Canadian River and Choteau Creek. central plains in the first decades of the Finally, in 1859, the remaining Keechi

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18th century and in the southern plains largest native group in Texas in terms of at the beginning of the 19th century. population. Regarding several groups, According to J. H. Gunnerson and D. A. including the Kiowa, Neighbors also stated Gunnerson, the Plains Apache joined the that “our intercourse has been extremely Kiowa sometime around 1700. As a band limited, for the want of proper means.” of the Kiowa, the Kiowa-Apache (still Kiowa relationship connections with El often called the Plains Apache) moved Camino Real de los Tejas appear to be onto the southern plains in the late 18th slight, although their relationships with century. In 1806, perhaps earlier, the Kiowa the Comanche and the Wichita groups allied with the Comanche; the Kiowa- complicate the issue. Today, the Kiowa live Comanche alliance persisted into the near Carnegie in Caddo County, Oklahoma. reservation period of the late 19th century. Throughout the late 18th and beginning The Seminole and Seminole Maroon of the 19th centuries, the Kiowa remained The Seminole came to Texas after their mostly north of the Red and Arkansas removal to Indian Territory from Florida rivers, but in association with the in the 1830s and 1840s. Like the Cherokee, Comanche and other groups, they raided the Creek, and the Choctaw, the Seminole into Texas in the early 1800s, trading were slave owners, a fact that had important weapons and ammunition with people repercussions on their move to Texas and from Natchitoches and Nacogdoches, Mexico. Seminole slavery followed social and trading and receiving gifts from patterns and relationships that are quite Anglo-Americans. In 1836, representatives unlike those practiced by other slave- of the Republic of Texas visited the owning American Indian tribes and by Kiowa and the Comanche to negotiate Western societies. Although culturally and and trade. Even so, in 1843 and 1844, linguistically different, the Black Seminole, the list of goods specifically indicated often called the Seminole Maroons for the Kiowa was insignificant. were, and are, descendants of African In June 1844, Kinney Ranch near Corpus populations enslaved by the Seminole. Christi was attacked. The attackers were The key figure in the Seminole move presumably Kiowa, but it was attributed to Texas and to northern Mexico was the to several other groups. In October 1844, Seminole Chief Cooacoochee, known as at the Council at the Falls-on-the-Brazos, Wild Cat. Cooacoochee was a member of Sam Houston asked the Comanche to the 1846 Butler and Lewis Expedition to keep the Kiowa away from Texas because the Comanche and used this opportunity the Kiowa were at war. Comanche Chief and others to explore the Southwest. Pochanaquarhip replied that the Kiowa He also explored the Brazos River area were stronger and the Comanche (or and made contacts with the Kickapoo, his band) feared them. Sam Houston Caddo, and other groups. The events and asked Pochanaquarhip to send a runner legal issues connected with the Seminole with a white flag to warn the people in recovery of their slaves after their removal San Antonio anytime the Kiowa were from the Southeast are beyond the scope approaching. Houston added, “If the Kiowa of this plan but, in 1849, the Seminole come in, the people not knowing, will say received 260 former black slaves. While they are Comanche. We thought you all one the Seminole Maroon were hoping for people.” As clarification, Pochanaquarhip freedom from their Seminole masters, explained that nine tribes had not made they also had to contend with other native peace with the Texans; these included the groups and with the white settlers who Kiowa, Lipan Apache, and Cheyenne. were ready to acquire them as slaves. In 1849, Robert Neighbors, the Indian The solution for the Seminole and agent for the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Seminole Maroon was to emigrate to listed 1,500 Kiowa warriors, the third Mexico, which they eventually did in 1850.

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That year, the Seminole and the Seminole The Shawnee Maroon stopped on Cow Bayou near Waco The Shawnee settled in Texas south and at the Llano River to rest and raise of the Red River in 1822. In 1824, they crops before continuing the journey south. obtained a temporary Mexican land At these stops, Wild Cat promoted his grant and, by 1826, 5,000 Shawnee and Mexican colony, but he only managed to Delaware families had settled the land. entice some Kickapoo to move southward. The southwestern bands became known As representative of the Seminole, Seminole as the Absentee Shawnee, but they chose Maroon, and Kickapoo, Wild Cat signed an different settlement areas. One band settled agreement with the Mexican government on the Canadian River; another joined the that provided them with about 7,000 Cherokee on the Sabine River in 1839; and acres of land: half of the land was at the yet another joined the Caddo groups on headwaters of the Río San Antonio and the Brazos Reserve. Like the Delaware, the other half at the headwaters of the Río with whom they were often associated, San Rodrigo. In return, all three groups the Shawnee were hired as interpreters, were to patrol the border and provide guides, scouts, traders, and hunters. In warriors to fight off other tribes such the 1830s, the Villa de Dolores settlers on as the Apache and the Comanche who the Río Grande hired Shawnee hunters continuously harassed the citizens of because the colonists feared attacks by the northern Mexico. The Seminole settled at Comanche. In fact, there were reports of San Fernando de Rosas (modern Zaragoza), the Shawnee hunting beaver for pelts at Las the Seminole Maroon at El Moral, and the Moras Creek, and on the Río Escondido, Kickapoo at Tuillo (modern Guerrero). south of the border. In 1836, and under the Wild Cat and his fellow Seminole and leadership of the Cherokee, the Shawnee Seminole Maroon were a serious problem signed a peace treaty with the Republic of for the United States, particularly regarding Texas. In 1837, the Shawnee were living in runaway slaves. Wild Cat was described the area of Nacogdoches, although their as “an arch intriguer” and Texas officials status as residents was not clear. Two years often participated in or ordered the pursuit later, some Shawnee decided to disassociate and apprehension of those thought to be from the Cherokee, citing the latter’s runaway slaves. Many slaves used Eagle agreements with Mexico and the political Pass to escape into Mexico, and so did situation in Texas under Mirabeau Lamar; the parties of slave hunters who pursued others departed with the Cherokee and them. In the late 1860s, several requests received compensation for lost property. were made to the Mexican authorities In 1843, the Shawnee were present at the regarding border attacks and depredations Tehuacana Creek Council near modern committed by Seminole, Kickapoo, Waco. The gift list included 13 Shawnee, Delaware, Lipan Apache, and other groups with nine warriors under the leadership of who had sought refuge south of the border. Black Cat. The following year, the Shawnee In 1851, as mentioned above, the majority were also present at Tehuacana Creek. In of the Kickapoo left Mexico; those few 1849, Indian Agent Robert Neighbors listed who remained settled in Morelos. That the Shawnee with the Delaware: together, same year, the Seminole and the Seminole they numbered 650 people and 130 warriors. Maroon moved to lands granted at the From the 1840s through the 1860s, the hacienda El Nacimiento although they Shawnee (and the Delaware) settled along settled apart. In 1859, most Seminole the Brazos and Bosque rivers. In 1861, the left Mexico for the Indian Territory, but Absentee Shawnee who had been removed some of the Seminole Maroon stayed. to the Wichita-Caddo reservation made a treaty with the Confederacy, and some Shawnee served in the Confederate Army.

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The Tonkawa expected to join the meeting but did not. Earlier interpretations and analyses Two years later, de Mézières traveled from described the Tonkawa as native to Texas; Natchitoches to visit the native nations however, the work of William Newcomb on the Upper Trinity and Brazos rivers. and Thomas Campbell conclusively His report on the Tonkawa refers to a war demonstrated that the Tonkawa were first alliance between the Yojuane and the recorded in 1601, when they were living Mayeye, which was mostly in place to fend in Oklahoma. During a battle with the off the Apache and the Osage. De Mézières Aquacade, the Spaniards captured an mentioned that the Tonkawa had joined the Indian called Miguel. Miguel was taken Mission San Xavier briefly but had soon to Mexico City, where he related that, abandoned it. He stressed that they lived while still a boy, he had been captured by between the Trinity and the Brazos rivers, Aquacade and that his own people lived were prolific hunters, and traded their at a place called Tanoak. A map drawn pelts at the Tawakoni village. In fact, the following Miguel’s instructions placed Tonkawa, Mayeye, and Yujuane generally Tanoak west of the Aquacade territory, set up camp four leagues (about 12 miles) somewhere between the Salt Fork and beyond the beginning of the Monte Grande, Medicine Lodge rivers in north-central near a spring called Las Puentecitas. Oklahoma. During the middle to late 17th Despite Mézières’s efforts, the Tonkawa century, some of these groups moved south never formally agreed to peace: in 1777, they and probably remained around the Red campaigned against the Osage and were River region for several decades. In 1691, said to have 300 warriors. The Spanish the Tonkawa (Tamaqua) and the Youjuane continuously entreated and threatened (Diujuan) lived along the Neches and the Tonkawa to change their nomadic way Angelina rivers. A couple of decades later— of life, settle in a village, and deliver the in 1719, and again in 1723—French explorers apostates who left the missions. In 1779, mentioned the Tonkawa in the Red River Mézières remarked that the Tonkawa had area. In the middle of the 18th century, maintained 150 warriors on their rolls the Tonkawa appear to have ranged since the last epidemic. That same year, between the Colorado and the Trinity de Mézières met with the Tonkawa and rivers, above El Camino Real de los Tejas Tawakoni chiefs and distributed gifts. leading from San Antonio to Los Adaes. The Tonkawa chief was El Mocho, alias In the 1740s, the Franciscans founded Tosche [or Tosque], a Lipan Apache adoptee the San Xavier missions near present- who became leader of the Tonkawa. By day Rockdale, in Milam County. The the 1790s, however, the Tonkawa were registers of Mission San Francisco Xavier stealing horses from the Lipan Apache. de Horcasitas indicate that there were Pressure from the Spanish authorities 11 Yojuane at the mission but only one and evolving political conditions must Tonkawa. Indeed, the Tonkawa seem to have convinced the Tonkawa to settle have studiously avoided mission life. The down because, in 1828, Jean Louis Tonkawa were part of the native attacking Berlandier recorded visiting a Tonkawa force that destroyed Mission San Sabá village located midway between the in 1758. The Spanish punitive expedition Guadalupe and Colorado rivers. At this meant to avenge the San Sabá outrage time, the Tonkawa were allied with the was a failure, but during the trip they Lipan Apache, who were suffering from encountered a large camp of Yojuane, and the dearth of buffalo and the presence few natives survived the attack. Weakened, of the Comanche. Anglo settlers decided the Yojuane joined the Tonkawa. to remove the Tonkawa from the area; In 1770, when Athanase de Mézières however, Stephen F. Austin informed the visited the Cadohadacho village on the settlers that the Lipan Apache had agreed Natchitoches River, the Tonkawa were to take charge of the Tonkawa instead, and took them to an area between the upper

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Nueces River and the Río Grande, where In the 1740s, Wichita-speaking groups they remained for a couple of years. located in northern Oklahoma were The Tonkawa and the Lipan Apache engaged in profitable and intense trade fought as allies alongside the Texans with French settlers and other American against Mexico. In 1843, the Tonkawa Indian tribes, including the Comanche, endured a serious epidemic and continued with whom they had established peace. to suffer a declining population due to In the 1750s, these groups had moved to intertribal conflict. The following year, the the Red River and by 1758, some were Tonkawa and the Lipan Apache camped involved in the attack and destruction near Cedar Creek to hunt, and both tribes of Mission San Sabá. That attack was were reported to make sporadic raids on perpetrated with the Comanche and cattle belonging to Texans. In May 1846, the Texas Caddo and was meant to the Tonkawa signed a peace treaty with dissuade the Spanish from protecting the United States at Council Springs. The the Lipan Apache. The following year, terms of the treaty provided trade goods the Spanish mounted a punitive counter- and protection to the tribes; in return, the attack against a fortified Taovaya village signatory tribes were to return prisoners on the Red River. Colonel Diego Ortiz and captives and cease attacking and Parrilla led 600 men who were soundly horse stealing. But impoverished by loss defeated and had to flee for their lives. of lands and declining resources, and In 1770, Athanase de Mézières visited used to providing for themselves, proud the Cadohadacho, Taovaya, Tawakoni, tribal members frequently had no other Iscani, and Keechi on the Red River, choice but to continue to raid livestock although these groups also maintained from settlers to keep from starving. a village along the Sabine River. The Many Tonkawa sought the promised help chiefs of these groups made clear that, from the United States in the 1850s, often prior to that date, the Tawakoni and the gravitating toward Fort Inge and Fort Clark. Iscani had settled between Bexar and San In the mid-1850s, the Tonkawa were sent to Sabá but had now moved to the Sabine the Brazos Reserve, and in 1859 they were River, where they intended to remain. removed from Texas and settled on the Mézières confirmed that the Taovaya had Wichita Reserve in Indian Territory. Today, abandoned their fortified village and had the Tonkawa live near Tonkawa, Oklahoma. moved south. They also stated they were at war with the Lipan Apache, and that The Tawakoni (Wichita) the Comanche were at war with them. From the 16th through the 18th In 1771, the Taovaya agreed to a peace centuries, the Tawakoni moved gradually treaty with Spain. According to the terms away from the Arkansas River into the of this treaty, the Taovaya would not travel Wichita Mountains and the area north farther south than the Bexar Presidio, of the Red River. Before 1835, the Iscani, would return captives, and would persuade Keechi, (Kitsai) Taovaya, Tawakoni, the Comanche to refrain from committing Waco, and the Wichita proper were hostile acts. At that time, the Taovaya were politically autonomous groups that shared said to have between 2,000 and 3,000 linguistic and cultural characteristics. warriors. A year later, Mézières again After signing The Treaty of Camp Holmes visited the Wichita groups. The Tawakoni with the United States, in 1835, these village was located west of the Trinity River, groups became collectively known as but the Iscani lived in dispersed, smaller the Wichita. Still, unlike the Caddo in settlements about 20 miles from the Keechi. Texas and Louisiana, the Wichita groups Mézières also learned that the Tawakoni generally remained peripheral to Texas had established another village on the until the late Spanish Colonial period. Brazos River. In 1777, the Wichita tribes suffered an epidemic that affected many other tribes in East Texas, particularly the

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Tawakoni. The following year, the Taovaya particularly after the late 1680s. Some came had returned to the fortified village on with the Spanish expeditions; many more the Red River. During Mézières’ 1779 trickled in via the Texas-Louisiana border. visit to the Taovaya fortified villages, he In 1783, 19% of the Texas population estimated that there were 800 men and was classified as “colored,” terms that many children at the Taovaya villages. also included mestizo and mulatto, or In 1801, the Taovaya again suffered a mixed race, and anyone who did not fit smallpox epidemic that reduced their adult well in other race categories. The figures male population to 400. At this time, the in Texas slowly rose each subsequent year: Iscani, Taovaya, and Tawakoni were living 20% in 1784 and 21%; by 1790, though, it in villages located on both sides of the Red had dropped to 12%. Within Texas, 29% River. Their principal chief was Awakahea of the population of San Antonio was (or Awahakei) of the Tawakoni village, who classified as African American in 1780; by died in 1811. When the tribes could not agree 1790, that percentage had risen to 37%. on a successor, the groups dispersed. The At La Bahía, 36% of the population was Tawakoni, or part of the tribe, moved south. classified as colored in 1780; by 1790 that The Keechi, Tawakoni, Waco, and percentage had decreased to 19%. Skewing Wichita proper were present at the the numbers, however, is the fact that Tehuacana Creek Council of 1843, where many light-skinned people with African it was agreed that all hostilities were to ancestry were quite often classified as cease, trade would take place at the Brazos Spaniards, not mestizo or mulatto. trading post, and if a treaty was to be Africans occupied all sorts of trades concluded there would be mutual exchange and, while some were sold into slavery, of prisoners or captives. Chief Acaquash others were free. Records show that Pedro signed for all the tribes. The Republic of Ramírez was a ranch hand in San Antonio, Texas, the Keechi, the Tawakoni, and the but Felipe Ulúa, who had bought his own Waco signed a peace treaty at Bird’s Fort freedom, owned property and raised crops. on the Trinity River in September 1843. Still, their historical traces are difficult But horse stealing continued, despite to find because they did not advertise the treaties and the goodwill, angering their presence for fear of enslavement settlers and leading to the killing of Wichita and persecution, particularly after the people. At the next Tehuacana Council, 1800s, when British and Anglo-American the chiefs of other groups repeatedly pro-slavery policies affected the South. admonished the Tawakoni to listen to Some surviving records document the and uphold the recommendations of the presence of African Americans during council in order that they could be happy the early 1800s. For example, Kiamata and freely travel without fear of reprisals. Long was a slave girl who traveled to In 1846, the Keechi, Tawakoni, Taovaya, Texas with James Long from Louisiana and Waco signed an agreement with the and nursed his children. After his death United States to cease mutual hostilities. in Mexico, Kiamata and Long’s wife As pressures mounted, white settlement and children became part of Stephen F. expanded, and resources decreased, Austin’s colony. Kiamata and her children American Indian tribes, such as the served the Long family throughout their Wichita, resorted once more to raiding. lives. Moses Austin, Stephen’s father, had Ultimately, in 1859, the last of the Wichita an African slave, and so did many other groups were removed to Indian Territory. Anglos in the Texas colonies. Although Mexico abolished slavery after it gained African Americans its independence from Spain in 1821, Texas colonists obtained an exemption from Africans could be found living all along the abolition law and continued to own the El Camino Real de los Tejas corridor, slaves during the Mexican period. James

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Fannin, for instance, smuggled in 153 Mexico, where they joined communities African slaves from Cuba in 1833. In 1825, of Seminole Maroons, or Black Seminole. the Austin colony had 443 slaves owned Others remained in Texas and made their by 69 slaveholders. By 1836, this figure name working on ranches as cowhands. had swelled to 5,000 slaves; just four years Other Ethnic Groups later, the figure was 11,323. Most of the slaves worked as field hands in the cotton Beginning in the 18th century with fields of East Texas or on the coast. Canary Islanders, El Camino Real de los Tejas served as a migratory route for During the Texas Revolution, or War many European ethnic groups. After for Texas Independence (1835–1836), the 1840s, Belgians, Czechs, Frenchmen, several Africans fought alongside the Germans, Greeks, Hungarians, Italians, Texans to gain independence from Irishmen, Norwegians, Poles, and Mexico. Unfortunately, although they Swedes settled along the trail corridor were successful, the change in regime although most arrived by sea. Many of did not favor Africans; under the these communities still retain major Republic of Texas, the lot of Africans, elements of their ancestors’ culture. freed or enslaved, did not improve.

William Goyens, a light-skinned HISTORIC/ARCHEOLOGICAL African, was an exception. Goyens lived in RESOURCES Nacogdoches in 1820 and became wealthy as a blacksmith, wagon manufacturer, Information in this section is drawn and freight hauler between Nacogdoches from inventories of cultural resources and Natchitoches. He also owned his along El Camino Real de los Tejas National land, a mill, and traded in real estate. In Historic Trail carried out during the 1832, Goyens bought a track of land on planning effort for this Comprehensive El Camino Real de los Tejas, four miles Management Plan/Environmental west of Nacogdoches. During the Texas Assessment. The report and database Revolution, Sam Houston used Goyens of cultural resources along the Texas as an emissary, requesting that the portion of the trail includes close to Cherokee not side with Mexican forces. 300 sites. A similar report and database for the Louisiana portion of El Camino Samuel McCullough, another free Real de los Tejas includes 208 potential African American, was wounded trying sites and segments. Because many of the to repel Mexican troops during the Battle resources are privately owned, specific of Goliad in October 1835. When the geographical details are not available to the Texas Revolution was over, McCullough public. No systematic field investigations feared being deported. He successfully were conducted in obtaining trail-related requested special permission to remain data. The data for these inventories were in Texas on the basis of his service to the gathered from existing secondary sources, republic. Hendrick Arnold was in a similar in addition to some primary sources. A situation. Arnold fought with Colonel database of more than 500 references used Ben Milam in San Antonio in 1835, and to document trail-related resources was although, as a freed man he was supposed also compiled in the course of preparing to leave the country, he and his family this plan. Both of these databases will be remained in San Antonio, where he was updated and expanded as new information given land and operated a gristmill near is uncovered about trail-related resources. Mission San Juan Capistrano. It is perhaps significant that both McCullough and Goyens were married to white women. PREVIOUS RESEARCH During the mid-1800s, many freed For decades, researchers have and fugitive slaves crossed Texas along documented cultural resources El Camino Real de los Tejas, en route to associated with El Camino Real de los

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Tejas National Historic Trail. Records recognizes that a handful of researchers used to study Spanish Colonial history have spent decades investigating trail- and resources include travelers’ diaries, related cultural resources, and that this historic maps, General Land Office maps research will probably be ongoing for and land-grant documents, military decades. As mentioned above, during records, legal documents, memoirs, and the course of preparing this plan, the archeological and historical resource site planning team made a strong effort forms prepared by historic preservation to summarize and organize all data professionals. Many reports and books into a comprehensive database that summarize these primary sources. can be easily accessed for research At the local level, knowledge about the purposes and expanded and updated. trail has been transmitted through oral An analysis of the geographic tradition; however, corroborating historical distribution of historic resources along El and archeological evidence is often limited. Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Avocational and professional historians Trail suggests some interesting patterns. and archeologists have examined primary While some counties had no trail-related sources and conducted field research to sites previously recorded, other counties document the history of the trail, often had dozens of potential trail-related sites finding physical evidence of swales, for which studies were readily available. ruts, and related river crossings, camps, For example, more than 70 Spanish missions, presidios, battlefields, civilian Colonial and historic American Indian settlements, ranches, and other artifacts. sites were recorded for Bexar County. On a broader scale, state agencies This is the result of three main factors: have documented the history of the trail 1) Extensive urban development in throughout Texas. For example, the Bexar County has resulted in required Texas Department of Transportation has archeological studies to comply collected and documented trail-related with federal and state regulations; historical information throughout the state, 2) Several groups in Bexar County, including several counties through which including the NPS and other the Texas Department of Transportation government entities and academic right-of-way encompasses much of the institutions, have devoted resources original alignment of the trail’s main to the professional study and routes. Several books have been published preservation of a number of Spanish that interpret many of the historic Colonial period sites; and documents and diaries. They provide clues to the locations of the routes as they 3) The area was geographically may be found on modern landscapes. located at the intersection of several Such research and publications can help Spanish Colonial roads. clarify the locations of various segments, and improve our general understanding The inventory of trail-related resources of El Camino Real de los Tejas National focused primarily on previously recorded Historic Trail and its varying routes sites. It was not an exhaustive search for all through time and across the landscape. possible resources; therefore, it represents Several reports and publications only a sampling of the total number of summarizing various aspects of trail potential resources. This sample is neither history exist, but there has been no systematic nor random, and it is heavily comprehensive effort to collect all of the skewed by the fact that some areas have data in one place. Often, data are found in been studied intensively by historians and unpublished sources, such as the notes of archeologists, while others have not. As researchers, for which the original source a general rule, more professional studies data is not known. The planning team have been conducted in counties where

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major settlements, such as missions and to allow for modern travel, but they still presidios, are known to exist and more is retain a considerable integrity of setting. known about resources in these counties. River Crossings and Parajes Trail Segments Retaining Physical River and creek crossings, as well as Integrity parajes (traveler’s campsites, or more In some places, physical evidence of the broadly, stopping places), would have trail has been obliterated or obscured by existed in all of the counties crossed by development and other man-made changes the trail, including the counties where in the landscape, such as agricultural travelers would have passed through activities or tree harvesting; however, on their way to major destinations; yet, numerous original segments still survive relatively few of these fords (and the and anyone with a small amount of likely parajes associated with them) training in landscape surveying should have been documented. In some of these be able to follow them. Slight to extreme “pass-through” counties, documentation linear depressions, approximately 1 to 2 of resources was often accidental. meters (3.3 to 6.6 feet) wide, may appear During the Spanish Colonial period, in undisturbed locations. In those cases travelers mostly crossed the river at fords where the depressions cannot be explained that were, by definition, shallow and did by natural processes such as erosion or not require a ferry or bridge structure. by modern farming, hunting, logging, or However, some places where travelers forest management activities, and if the crossed the river were deep enough to depressions remain consistent in width, require simple bridge structures, such as the depressions could be the result of the fallen trees that were laid across the river, natural wearing of carts, wagons, oxen, or and there are occasional references to the foot traffic—in other words, they could be use of rafts along the trail, indicating deep- remaining traces of the trail. Archeological water crossings. It has been documented research would then be necessary to that people made river crossings at each of associate the trace, rut or swales with a the dams serving the five missions in Bexar period of time when the trail was in use. County. It is clear that, although favored Researchers have identified intact places to cross the river were typically trail segments in Bexar, Houston and undeveloped fords, deeper waters in other Sabine counties and in Natchitoches areas may have necessitated man-made Parish. Segments in Brazos, Karnes, structures to accomplish the river crossing. Nacogdoches, Robertson, San Augustine, While most maps show trails intersecting and Wilson counties have been physically at roughly perpendicular angles to rivers, identified, but their relationship to crossing the river using a ford often the period of significance for the required following a river for some distance trail has not yet been confirmed. away from the main trail, locating the ford Some segments of the original trail have and using it to cross the river, then traveling been upgraded into modern dirt roads; in back to the main trail, a fact corroborated some cases, they have been paved. Such is by travel narratives. The location of the case with Louisiana State Highway 120. fords along the trail is important in trail It roughly follows the original route used documentation because such locations by traffic crossing the Sabine River before help in mapping trail routes. Furthermore, 1822, when Fort Jesup was established and parajes were located next to many places El Camino Real de los Tejas alignment where river crossings were made and was no longer the only route from Texas can provide clues to life on the trail. In a to Natchitoches. Others, like Ormigas previous study of trail routes (McGraw et Road, the Texas Star Road, and the al 1991), dozens of fords and river crossing Camino Carretera have been upgraded places were recorded. Many of these were

Page 90 Chapter 3: Affected Environment - Previous Research confirmed by the use of a combination of few jacales, primitive wattle-and-daub aerial photography and field investigations. structures made of poles and mud with a Most parajes along the trail were thatch roof. Some of these unsuccessful simple campsites, usually located near missions were abandoned, never having river and creek crossing places, where accomplished their goal of converting travelers could find good water near the American Indians to Christianity, while trail. Some, however, included American others were reestablished at new locations, Indian villages, where travelers would in the hopes that Christianizing American receive hospitality and may have traded Indians would be more successful in goods. Additionally, missions, presidios, different environs. Despite moving to new villas, and ranch headquarters often locations, often changing names as they served the functions of parajes along did so, the majority of Spanish missions in the trail. For the following discussion, Texas were unsuccessful in their efforts to however, parajes refer to relatively isolated convert American Indians to Christianity. campsites, and those stopping places along Some missions grew large enough to the trail that were settlements are noted warrant the construction of elaborate under other historic-use categories. stonemasonry buildings and structures Information regarding several known and finely engineered acequia systems, river crossing places and their associated becoming a major part of the landscape parajes was entered into the trail database. with dense archeological deposits. Often Many of these parajes were noted in when missions were deemed a success, several different diaries and itineraries they were secularized, or transferred throughout the period of significance of from ecclesiastical to civil or lay use, the trail, but not all of these campsites and the mission lands turned over to have been confirmed archeologically. the neophytes, or new converts, at the missions. Secularization occurred only in the settlements in Bexar and Goliad American Indian Villages counties, beginning with the secularization In the 17th century, Spanish explorers of Mission San Antonio de Valero in 1793. making the earliest entradas (exploring Some of the buildings and structures military expeditions) into the future states of the more elaborate missions still retain of Texas and Louisiana, along routes that much of their physical integrity, and they would become El Camino Real de los Tejas serve as representations of the esthetics that National Historic Trail, noted in their have become inextricably linked with the journals that they accepted hospitality Spanish mission period over time. Other from several American Indian villages, Spanish mission sites are now represented or rancherías. Some of these rancherías only by archeological remains and would were referenced repeatedly as stopping require intensive study to properly places, or parajes, along the various routes. understand their historic significance. For instance, the paraje known as Indian Mission locations along El Camino Real Mounds is well documented as being at de los Tejas National Historic Trail include or near present-day Caddo Mounds State a combination of cultural resource types Park, and a Kickapoo village was located at that have been recorded as archeological a well-known crossing on the Trinity River. sites, historic buildings, historic structures, historic districts, and cultural landscapes. Spanish Missions When reestablishing a mission in a new Spanish missions were established location, missionaries brought with them for the religious and social conversion everything that defined the mission as a of American Indians. Because many religious entity. This included supplies, missions were short lived, some of them furnishings, and religious vestments that were never comprised of more than a had originally been brought along the main

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branch of El Camino Real de los Tejas, as Spanish Villas well as converts from the previous mission. Civilian settlements were established The multiple locations of certain missions at several areas along the designated are closely related to the changing routes trail, beginning with the villas of Bexar of the Spanish trails, and they serve as and Los Adaes in the early 1700s. Earlier reminders of the state of social flux in villas were usually established to help which the trails developed. One mission support Spanish soldiers, and to a lesser may have been located in several different degree, to support the missionaries and places over time, and the physical evidence their converts. After the 1750s—especially of a particular mission may be found at each after the founding of Nuevo Santander, a of these locations along the designated trail. primarily civilian venture—the trail saw Many mission locations, however, have an increase in civilian settlements. Unlike not yet been confirmed archeologically. the military and missionary settlements, villas often received little or no financial Presidios, Military Outposts, assistance from the Spanish crown, and and Forts they actually served as a tax base upon Beginning with the first mission to which the Spanish government could fund the Tejas in 1690, fortified settlements religious conversion and military efforts. manned by soldiers were an inseparable part of the Spanish colonial missionary Other Historic Sites effort along El Camino Real de los Tejas Further research is necessary to National Historic Trail. With the founding better understand how other sites, such of the first presidios, or garrisons along as quarries and ranch headquarters, are the trail—Bexar County in 1718, Victoria related to the development of the trail. County in 1721, and Los Adaes in 1721— the Spanish government increased its military defenses to protect missions National Historic Districts and villas. In the late 1700s and early The rich history of the areas crossed 1800s, the military presence along the by the trail is reflected in a number trail increased to include outposts of the of national historic districts: presidios and other military posts, such as • San Antonio River Valley informal guard stations staffed by civilian (West of Goliad) Rural soldiers from nearby settlements. Like National Historic District the missions, presidios sometimes moved • Goliad State Park National locations, so multiple sites along the trail Historic District may be associated with a single presidio. • Mission Parkway Historic and After Louisiana became part of the Archeological District United States, following the Louisiana • San Antonio Missions Purchase in 1803, several military National Historic District installations were built along the trail to • San José de Palafox National deter Spanish intrusions into American Historic District territory. For example, the U.S. Army at • San Xavier Mission Complex Fort Jesup built Louisiana State Highway Archeological District 6 using a trail blazed by General James Wilkinson in 1808 to avoid confrontations State Archeological Landmarks with the Spanish. In 1812, the U.S. Army built the Texas Star Road, as a route There are several state archeological between Fort Claiborne and Belmont landmarks along the trail corridor. under army observation to prevent aid Among them are the following two from the west reaching Spanish settlers properties in Bexar County: living in the Bayou Pierre community. • Pérez Cemetery/Rancho de Pérez • Sabinitas/Jett/Palo Alto Crossing, Page 92 Chapter 3: Affected Environment - Previous Research

Natural Landmarks Other commemorative monuments Natural landmarks were very important, and markers have been established by as their appearance in the landscape the Texas Historical Commission along reassured travelers that they were the trail during the 20th century. Today, following the right routes. They are often the commission continues to install mentioned in documents establishing markers providing historic information boundaries between properties. One at many sites related to El Camino Real such landmark is Loma Alta, identified de los Tejas National Historic Trail. in the 1765 legal case between Fray Pedro Ramírez de Arellano and Domingo Cemeteries Castelo regarding Rancho San Lucas. There are hundreds of burial sites along the various routes of El Camino Real de Commemorative Historic Markers los Tejas National Historic Trail. They Commemorative historic markers are reflect the ethnic and religious diversity common along El Camino Real de los of settlements along the trail and provide Tejas National Historic Trail. They are an important link to the trail’s human use important artifacts associated with the and formal development as communities rich history of organizations such as the and towns emerged along the trail. Daughters of the American Revolution, and have served to highlight some of the major trail alignments. In the early 20th century, the Daughters of the American Revolution lobbied both their organization and the state of Texas to have the route of El Camino Real de los Tejas recognized and commemorated. The route was surveyed by V. N. Zivley and was identified by granite markers every five miles inscribed with “Camino Real” and “King’s Highway.” In 1918, the markers and identification of the route were formally presented to the state of Texas and were enthusiastically accepted. In 1929, Senate Bill No. 570 formally identified the route, its significance, and towns along the way. The bill declared the trail to be “a historic road of Texas” and authorized the newly formed State Highway Department to identify, preserve, and maintain the historic route. This law is still in effect and was reaffirmed by Senate Concurrent resolution No. 2 in July 1989. Today, State Highway 21 in Texas mostly follows the Daughters of the American Revolution routes, except where signed Old San Antonio Road. A similar effort took place in Louisiana during the 1950s. The Daughters of the American Revolution erected comparable markers made of pink granite to commemorate the route of El Camino Real de los Tejas following today’s SR6.

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NATURAL RESOURCES and holistic description of ecosystems as they cross geographical boundaries. This section addresses the affected They can help establish patterns natural resources along the trail as it moves otherwise not easily discernible. The from the United States-Mexico border in map elements include not only vegetation South Texas; through south-central Texas, but physiography, soils, climate, geology, from San Antonio to Austin, into East wildlife, hydrology, and current land uses. Texas; eventually ending in Natchitoches, Louisiana. This section focuses on geology and soil, caves and karsts, paleontological VEGETATION COMMUNITIES resources, water resources, vegetation The study area in general is ecologically communities, special-status species, air and biologically diverse. El Camino Real de quality and visual resources, and land use. los Tejas passes through dry and subhumid In general, the region changes climate zones in the Southwest to a wetter climatically from a dry to a subhumid climate as the trail heads eastward through climate, as it moves east from Texas to the Deep South near the Gulf of Mexico. Louisiana, with brushy vegetation in the The trail crosses numerous rivers, including southwest portion of the trail, followed by major watercourses such as the Colorado, a wetter regime containing oak savannas Guadalupe, San Antonio, and Sabine and piney woods on its eastern end. The rivers. Outside the major watercourses, trail follows a segment of a geologic split vegetation changes from generally brushy created by an ancient mountain uplift plains in the southwest portion of the trail that now lies buried beneath sedimentary to post oak savanna in the east-central deposits from the Gulf of Mexico. The portion and piney woods in the east. For United States portion of the trail begins this project, a vegetation map delineating at the Río Grande and ends at the Red ecoregions and major rivers along the River in Louisiana, crossing many major trail corridor was prepared based on the rivers along its route. Land use generally U.S. Environmental Protection Agency varies along the trail, depending on climate data (see Appendix L: Map L-3, page 241). variations, available water, and both natural and mineral resources. Much of the South Texas landscape of El Camino Real de los Tejas South Texas Plains (Level III) has changed since its historic use, with increased urban development from central El Camino Real de los Tejas National Texas eastward and conversion of prairie Historic Trail has several branches in the land, forest lands, and fertile riverbottom South Texas plains; routes crossing at the lands to agricultural production. Mexican border were all located at the old Mission San Bernardo, near Guerrero, El Camino Real de los Tejas National Mexico, or farther to the south in or near Historic Trail encompasses a huge study Laredo. The trails move to the northeast in area, so the planning team used U.S. this region of shrub-dominated grasslands, Environmental Protection Agency maps commonly referred to as brush country. The as references for discussion of natural region historically contained vast grasslands resources, including vegetation, geologic, with low-growing shrubs in a savanna-type and other divisions as appropriate for structure. A natural fire regime kept the discussion of the natural resources along domination of brush species to a minimum. the trail (see Appendix L: Map L-3, page Increased livestock grazing, decreased fires, 241). Ecoregions are defined as landscapes and drought have altered the vegetation of exhibiting similarities in the mosaic of the region to one that is shrub dominated. environmental resources, ecosystems, and The terrain is primarily flat alluvial plains. effects of humans. This approach is very In spite of their aridity, parts of the region useful for environmental and resource contain numerous streams and springs. managers, as the maps allow for a seamless Some of the land, primarily near urban

Page 94 Chapter 3: Affected Environment - Vegetation Communities centers, contains irrigated agricultural continue north past Bryan along the fields, where crops such as corn and grains southern route from Goliad; the trails are grown. The more arid region is largely converge at Crockett. The area lies within dominated by livestock grazing. The area of two Level III ecoregions: the Texas the South Texas plains crossed by the trail Blackland Prairies and East Central Texas contains two major Level IV ecoregions: Plains. Overall, the region can be generally the Texas-Tamaulipan thornscrub and classified as oak woods and prairie. This the Northern Nueces alluvial plains. ecologically diverse area of post oak woods

Texas-Tamaulipan Thornscrub and savannas, intermixed with prairie and pockets of brush country, typifies The dominant ecoregion of the South the landscape. The savanna landscape Texas portion of the trail, near the Mexican historically was characterized by grasses border, is the Texas-Tamaulipan thornscrub, such as little bluestem, silver bluestem, commonly known as brush country. This and brownseed paspalum amongst clumps vast area is diverse, as it is a transitional of post oak trees. Other trees, including zone between the arid Chihuahuan blackjack oak, water oak, winged elm, Desert, the subtropical woodlands and hackberry, and yaupon, are found in this thornscrub of the Río Grande, and the region as well. Bottomland forests contain coastal grasslands near the Gulf of Mexico. water oak, post oak, willow oak, green ash, Precipitation is erratic and droughts are and eastern cottonwoods. The planting common, leading to a domination of of nonnative grasses or overgrazing has drought-tolerant, primarily thorny species caused the loss of much of the native prairie such as honey mesquite. Some areas vegetation. Several major watercourses contain dense understory of granjeno, cross this area of east-central Texas, kidneywood, and Texas paloverde. Mid including the Guadalupe, San Marcos, and short grasses found in this region Colorado, Brazos, and Trinity rivers. include sideoats grama, bristlegrass, lovegrass, tridens and Tobosa. Most of the Texas Blackland Prairies (Level III) area is open rangeland grazed by cattle. This ecoregion typifies the landscape

Northern Nueces Alluvial Plains around the northern route of the trail, including the trail from San Antonio to The Northern Nueces alluvial plains Austin and beyond to the northeast. The cover the area northeast of Carrizo Springs. region was historically dominated by prairie The region contains numerous streams grasses such as little bluestem, big bluestem, and springs and has higher precipitation yellow Indiangrass, and switchgrass, levels than surrounding areas. As a found on rolling to nearly level plains result, more land is used for agricultural (Griffith et al., 2004). The prairies have purposes. Some open grasslands of little now largely been converted to cropland, bluestem, sideoats grama, and lovegrass nonnative pasture, or urban development. tridens contain scattered honey mesquite and plateau live oak; other grasslands East Central Texas Plains (Level III) in shallower soils contain low-growing This ecoregion typifies the landscape brush such as guajillo, blackbrush, and around the Lower Road branch of the kidneywood. Floodplain forests of the trail, in the area between Goliad and Bryan region may contain hackberry, plateau and beyond to the northeast. The area live oak, pecan and cedar elm, with black is more forested than the surrounding willow and cottonwood along streambanks. prairie ecoregions: it contains hardwood forests and savannahs of post oak and East Central Texas some areas of invasive mesquite in the southern regions. The floodplains of East Central Texas has branches of the the major watercourses in this area are trail that begin roughly at San Antonio, broad and are primarily croplands, head northeast to near Crockett, and with water oak, post oak, green ash,

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cottonwoods, and hackberry dominating were commonly found. Shortleaf pine/ the forested portions of the bottomlands. hardwood, calcareous, mixed hardwood/ loblolly pine forests, and hardwood- East Texas, West Louisiana dominated forests, and other forest types occur in this region. Patches of South Central Plains (Level III) prairie support herbaceous species, The trail branches generally converge at including many rare plants associated the Trinity River along the eastward route with calcareous soils. The region’s of El Camino Real de los Tejas National vegetation cover currently is more pine Historic Trail and enter the ecoregion forest than oak/pine or pastureland.

known as the South-Central Plains. This Floodplains and Low Terraces region covers the route from approximately the Trinity River in East Texas to the end Floodplains and low terraces are nearly of the trail in Natchitoches, Louisiana. level, frequently flooded, and vegetated by Commonly known as the piney woods, it forested alluvial wetlands. The bottomland was historically pine and hardwood forests forests are comprised of mixed hardwood in the North and longleaf pine woodlands flanking large river systems and are and savannas in the South. Pines dominated maintained by a natural hydrologic regime the uplands, while hardwoods dominated of alternating wet and dry periods that the bottomlands. The area has been largely follow seasonal flooding events. Water replanted with plantations of loblolly pine oak, willow oak, sweetgum, American elm, and shortleaf pine or converted to pasture. and red maple are some of the tree species Several major watercourses cross the trail in represented in this ecoregion. Thousands this area, and include the Trinity, Neches, of acres of bottomland forests have been and Sabine rivers, ending at the Red River. lost due to conversion to agricultural Other croplands are limited primarily production and reservoir construction. to the floodplains of the Red River. GEOLOGY AND SOILS There are three Level IV ecoregions within this portion of the trail, as follows: Texas has a wide array of natural geologic resources, ranging from the Tertiary Uplands oil and gas fields to salt, sulfur, lignite, The tertiary uplands are gently to building stone, sandstone, gravel, sand, moderately sloping plains that cover clay, uranium, other minerals, and water. the majority of the eastern portion of A geologic split in the shape of an “S” the trail. It is a region that historically runs across the center of the state and contained loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, represents a geological rift zone formed southern red oak, post oak, white oak, by the ancient uplift and folding of the hickory, and sweetgum. The western Ouachita Mountains to the west, and portion of this region is drier, resulting in the eventual erosion and burial of that more oak/pine, oak/hickory forests, and mountain range, primarily by sedimentary pasture landscapes. Many areas have been deposits from the downward tipping replanted with loblolly pine plantations, of the Gulf Coast to the south. The San and much of the region has been converted Antonio and Austin areas are near this to livestock pastures; therefore, very split, where a shift in geological age is also little hardwood species remain. roughly defined. The geological age of the Southern Tertiary Uplands area crossed by the trail gets younger as The southern tertiary uplands it gets closer to the Gulf of Mexico. The historically were covered primarily in area around San Antonio and Austin falls longleaf pine forests. In more mesic, or within the Cretaceous Period (145 to 65 moderately moist, areas, American beech million years ago), whereas the branches of or magnolia-beech-loblolly pine forests the trail to the south and east (the Laredo Road) have rocks associated with the

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Tertiary Period (65 to 1.5 million years ago). the area, the divisions of ecoregions The geology of the trail in Texas varies discussed in the Vegetation Communities from tropical sand barriers along the Gulf section (page 94) are also used here. Coast to limestone plateaus that sweep across the south central part of the state. South Texas

The last uplift of the area— South Texas Plains approximately 10 million years ago, during the Tertiary Period of the most recent Two major branches of the trail move to Cenozoic Era (65 million years ago to the the northeast from the Mexican border in present)—formed the Edwards Plateau. this subhumid to dry region of flat alluvial The fracture line of the plateau is known as plains and sandstone. Some portions of the the Balcones fault zone. It passes through region, although arid, contain numerous San Antonio and naturally follows the streams and springs. Soils of the region are trending line of the buried Ouachita Range. mostly clay, clay loam, and sandy clay loam and range from alkaline to slightly acidic. As the seas rose and fell over the low- Rivers, tributaries, and other areas within lying Louisiana region, throughout the floodplains of the region contain alluvium Tertiary and later Quaternary periods, soils composed of floodplain deposits of some version of the Mississippi River was clay, silt, sand, gravel, and organic matter. carrying vast sediment loads from the Texas-Tamaulipan Thornscrub center of the North American continent and depositing them on the rim of the Caliche outcroppings and graveled Gulf of Mexico. The Holocene epoch of ridges and drainage divides are common the Quaternary Period represents only in this arid region of the plains. The the last 10,000 years of Earth’s history, underlying bedrock is generally Eocene but during the two million years of the Period sandstone and mudstone Pleistocene epoch that preceded it, the that formed one phase of Gulf Coast river wandered over the whole region, margin sedimentation about 50 million shifting course throughout time. As a years ago. Soils are varied and include result of the river’s peripatetic wanderings hyperthermic Alfisols, Aridisols, Mollisols, and deposition pattern, beneath the and Vertisols. The soils are varied and surface of Louisiana lie younger gray complex, ranging from deep sands Holocene epoch alluvial deposits, laid to clays and clay loams and they also down in or adjacent to rivers and deltas range from alkaline to slightly acidic. during the Quaternary Period, while most Northern Nueces Alluvial Plains surface exposures are composed of older Pleistocene Period sediments, a reversal of The Northern Nueces alluvial plains the usual older-to-younger deposition of cover the area of the trail northeast of strata, readily observed at highly eroded Carrizo Springs. Alluvial fans and other canyons such as Arizona’s Grand Canyon. alluvial plain deposits from the Holocene and later Quaternary periods characterize Soils along the trail corridor closely this area of the trail. Numerous follow the geological patterns and, in turn, streams and springs are contained in contribute to vegetation patterns. For this region of erratic precipitation. example, the pine forests of the eastern region follow the sandy ridges of Tertiary Period rocks in the area, whereas the East Central Texas live oaks of the central portion of Texas The East Central Texas region covers prefer the calcareous soils found on the branches of the trail from approximately Edwards Plateau, which is predominantly San Antonio northeast to near Crockett, limestone. For consistency’s sake, and and along the southern route from because of the close relationships among near Goliad north past Bryan, and up the geology, soils, and vegetation of to Crockett, where the trails converge.

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Irregular plains, commonly underlain Vertisols. Rivers along the trail are typically with clay pan, characterize the area. composed of alluvium floodplain deposits; Soils tend to be acidic and vary between however, fluviatile terrace deposits the upland ridges and the low-lying dominate the soil type of the Colorado valley areas. Sands and sandy loams River in the area around Austin and the San dominate the uplands, while clay to Marcos River, southeast of San Marcos. clay loams are found in the low areas. The area between Goliad and Bryan is East Texas, West Louisiana

primarily comprised of flat coastal plain South Central Plains terrain, although the area around Goliad contains an upland margin where Goliad Several branches of El Camino de los sandstone is found. This is a formation of Tejas National Historic Trail generally gray, cemented, pebbly sandstone from converge at the Trinity River, along the the Pliocene epoch. Goliad sandstone eastward route of the trail, and enter is used for construction materials in an area of rolling plains with nearly flat many historical buildings in the area. fluvial terraces, bottomlands, sandy Common soils of the Goliad area are clay, low hills, and low cuestas (hills). The sandstone, marl, caliche, and limestone uplands are underlain mainly by poorly and are underlain by Miocene, Oligocene, consolidated Tertiary Period coastal Eocene, and Paleocene epoch sediments. plain deposits, and the bottomlands and terraces are veneered with Quaternary Texas Blackland Prairies Period alluvium, terrace deposits, or The Texas Blackland Prairies region loess (wind-blown deposits). This region typifies the landscape around the northern covers the route from approximately the route of the trail, including the trail from Trinity River to the end of the trail in San Antonio to Austin and beyond to Natchitoches. This area, known as the the northeast. San Antonio is unique in piney woods, was historically pine forests that the nearly 30-mile-wide Balcones and woodlands and other vegetation, which fault system cuts through the city from prefer soils that are thin, sandy to sandy northeast to southwest, following the loam, silt loam, and sandy clay loam.

buried Ouachita Range. The area is a Tertiary Uplands zone of stair-stepping faults, leaving a trail of limestone blocks and fault slices. The tertiary uplands area of gently to Cretaceous Period limestone has been moderately sloping plains covers most of quarried in San Antonio for centuries, and the eastern portion of the trail. It contains many of the historic buildings of the city Tertiary Period deposits that are mostly were constructed with the sturdy blocks. Eocene epoch clays, silts, and sands, Soils are diverse but obviously divided in with some Paleocene epoch sediment. the city: the southern part of San Antonio Soils are mostly well- or moderately well- contains fluviatile terrace deposits; in the drained Ultisols and Alfisols, typically northern part, various limestones and with sandy and loamy surface textures. chalks are common. Austin is also near the Southern Tertiary Uplands Balcones fault system and straddles two The southern tertiary uplands contain geologic provinces. To the west of Austin is soils that are generally well drained over the uplifted plateau of Cretaceous Period permeable sediments. Soils are silt-loam limestone and to the east is the lowland to loamy-sand Ultisols and Alfisols. Blackland Prairie country. Fractures, It is a region of siltstones, sandstones, cracks, and cavities in the limestone of and calcareous and acidic clay. the region force waterways to surface; as a result, springs are common to this portion Floodplains and Low Terraces of the trail. Soil types are typically fine- The floodplains and low terraces are textured, dark, calcareous, and productive nearly level, veneered by Holocene epoch

Page 98 Chapter 3: Affected Environment - Air Quality and Visual Resources alluvium and is frequently flooded. Soils under the National Trails System Act of include Alfisols, Inceptisols, and Entisols. 1968. The Act, among other things, aims Soils are generally somewhat poorly drained to promote the preservation of the historic to very poorly drained heavy clay and loam. and scenic values of historic travel routes across the nation. El Camino Real de los AIR QUALITY AND VISUAL Tejas National Historic Trail crosses many RESOURCES historical districts that contain viewshed protections. Increased urban development Air quality in the region of El Camino has posed challenges to viewshed Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail preservation of historical districts, leading is distinguished by those areas that meet to increased municipal regulations for or exceed National Ambient Air Quality historical areas, and other landmarks and Standards for criteria pollutants. The U.S. significant landforms. Still other areas of Environmental Protection Agency has the trail contain land uses, such as timber designated the following pollutants as harvesting or industrial developments, indicators of air quality for the National that have altered viewsheds over time. Ambient Air Quality Standards: 1-hour ozone, 8-hour ozone, carbon monoxide, Visual resources are varied; however, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate since topographical changes are slight in matter (PM)-10, PM-2.5, and lead. These most of the region, no dramatic changes pollutants have been evaluated for the may be detected across the landscape maximum concentration whereby adverse as a whole. The areas surrounding San effects will occur to human health. The Antonio and Austin have the largest U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, change in topography, as the cities in conjunction with individual states, are within the heavily visited scenic measures areas for these pollutants. region of the Texas Hill Country. When an area does not meet the air quality standard for one of the criteria South Texas: Air Quality pollutants, it may be subject to the formal The portion of the trail that includes rule-making process that designates South Texas, from the United States- it as a “nonattainment area.” Those Mexico border northeast to San Antonio, nonattainment areas that do not meet has no areas of nonattainment, according to (or that contribute to inferior ambient air the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency quality in a nearby area) may be subjected national maps for the criteria pollutants. to control measures using the national The Texas Commission on Environmental primary or secondary air quality standards Quality collects air data from 20 air for a pollutant. “Attainment areas” are monitoring stations in the region. The those areas that do meet the primary or majority of these sites are located within secondary ambient air quality standard Bexar County, near San Antonio. The sites for the pollutant. According to the U.S. are grouped by the Texas Commission on Environmental Protection Agency national Environmental Quality into regions and are maps for the criteria pollutants, there are rated daily on a scale based on the National no areas along El Camino Real de los Tejas Air Ambient Quality Standards. The sites National Historic Trail that are currently in Bexar County are within Region 13. One considered nonattainment areas. State air monitoring site is located in Maverick monitoring stations are located at various County, and three are located within the sections along El Camino Real de los Tejas Laredo City area of Webb County. These National Historic Trail, primarily near large sites are grouped within Region 16. cities, and are discussed further below. El Camino Real de los Tejas National South Texas: Visual Resources Historic Trail itself is a visual resource that is designated a national historic trail The topography in this region is relatively flat until reaching the vicinity of

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San Antonio; therefore, the visual resources expected to change dramatically due to in this area would not be expected to shifts in elevation. Valuable scenic visual provide a dramatic effect from a change resources can still abound in this region in elevation. Historic towns in this as evidenced by places such as the Toledo- region include Laredo, Carrizo Springs, Bend Reservoir, where the large body of Goliad, and San Antonio, and most have water provides open and expansive vistas preservation guidelines for the historic of the landscape. Towns and cities with districts that include visual resources. San historic districts or significant landmarks Antonio has many historical sites, and include Crockett, Alto, Nacogdoches, San the city has implemented visual resource Augustine, and Natchitoches, Louisiana. protection regulations in order to “protect, preserve and enhance views and vistas” PALEONTOLOGICAL RESOURCES surrounding their historic districts. Modern mammals, birds, and flowering plants began to appear during the East Central Texas: Air Quality Cretaceous Period, from 145 to 65 million This portion of El Camino Real de years ago. By the end of the Cretaceous los Tejas National Historic Trail has no Period, changes in climate, the breakup of areas of nonattainment according to the the supercontinent Pangaea, and regional U.S. Environmental Protection Agency differences contributed to the mass national maps. East Central Texas has 12 extinction of many organisms, including air monitoring sites, with six of the sites dinosaurs (U.S. Geological Survey, www. located in the Austin-San Marcos area usgs.gov/states/texas). Much of the central (Region 11, which includes Travis, Bastrop, Texas portion of El Camino Real de los and Hays counties). Other counties with air Tejas National Historic Trail is composed of monitoring sites are Comal and Fayette. Cretaceous Period rock. Exotic dinosaurs, such as the mososaur, lived in the oceans East Central Texas: Visual Resources of the Cretaceous Period in Texas. Skeletons of the large serpentlike creature East Central Texas contains the most were found in Onion Creek, and the varied topography of the trail, thus creating fossilized skeletons of ancient amphibians more opportunities for visual impact. such as the Eryops megacephalus were Towns and cities with historic districts or found in Archer County, Texas. significant landmarks of this area include New Braunfels, San Marcos, Austin, Tertiary Period materials dominate Bastrop, and Bryan. Austin has ordinances the southern route of the trail through in place to protect the views as seen from its Texas and into western Louisiana and Hill Country roadways and help preserve contain a rich vertebrate fossil record. the scenic values of the corridor parkways. After the extinction of dinosaurs, mammalian diversity exploded as new species evolved (The Paleontology East Texas, West Louisiana: Portal, www.paleoportal.org). Massive Air Quality amounts of eroded sediments, washed This portion of the trail has no areas down from the rising Rocky Mountains of nonattainment. East Texas and West to the northwest, were deposited across Louisiana have no air monitoring sites. Texas and in the Gulf of Mexico. Many paleontological resources are East Texas, West Louisiana: Visual found in caves and karsts. Over time, such Resources environments become filled with species that have either fallen into the underground The topography of this region is locations, been eaten, or denned in the relatively flat; therefore, the visual dark caverns. Approximately 25 caves in resources in this area would not be Texas have yielded important fossils of

Page 100 Chapter 3: Affected Environment - Paleontological Resources vertebrate animals, including the scimitar climate was tropical to subtropical cat, a slender subspecies of the extinct during the Late Cretaceous Period. saber-toothed tiger, which lived in North America until approximately 10,000 years CAVES AND KARSTS ago. A nearly complete set of fossil remains of the scimitar cat have been found in Karst is a terrain formed by the Friesenhahn Cave near San Antonio. dissolution of carbonate bedrock by Alongside the cat’s fossilized remains acidic groundwater, and is generally were the bones of its prey, including characterized by sinkholes and caves baby mammoths, which the cat would that channel water underground. Most attack and drag to the cave. Friesenhahn of the caves and karst resources near Cave has yielded a variety of Pleistocene El Camino Real de los Tejas National Period vertebrate fossils, including the Historic Trail are found along the Central bones and teeth of more than 30 genera of Texas portion of the trail. The following mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds. discussion will focus only on these areas. Other caves in Central Texas contain Caves in Texas follow the geologic important paleontological resources. “S” shape of the buried ancestral Natural Bridges Caverns near San Antonio Ouachita Range across the central part contains not only human artifacts but of the state and are relatively uncommon faunal remains, including species that near the coastal areas. In the largely became extinct 12,000 years ago. Many sedimentary central Texas region, with its of the well-preserved animal bones preponderance of limestone and dolomite, found in the caverns were transported at least 9,500 caves, sinkholes, and springs there through paleolithic human activity, have been found. The nearest major karst such as hunting and butchering, and to El Camino Real de los Tejas National have provided insight into the diets Historic Trail is the Balcones Fault System, of prehistoric peoples of the area. where the Cretaceous Period limestone cave system contains many unique and diverse Louisiana’s geological strata are resources. Hundreds of ancient species, relatively young, making it difficult for specially adapted to an energy efficient life paleontologists to uncover fossil remains. in permanent darkness, live in these cave There are a few sites, however, with very environments, and many are endangered. important paleontological resources that Cave-adapted species include salamander, have been exposed in rare outcroppings catfish, shrimp, isopod, amphipod, snail, or through road cuts. One such site, the spider, harvestmen, pseudoscorpion, Cane River Site, is in the vicinity of El beetle, millipede, and centipede. Some Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic caves become temporary seasonal homes Trail as it passes near Natchitoches. The for other species, with nothing short of sedimentary Cane River Formation, spectacular results. Bracken Bat Cave, ranging in age from 44.5 to 46.5 million for example, is located approximately 20 years, was fortuitously exposed by a miles northeast of San Antonio and is a road construction project and contains summer breeding ground for at least 20 some of the oldest and best-preserved million Mexican free-tailed bats, the largest marine fossils found in Louisiana. The known mammal colony in the world. diversity of marine fossils found at the site is outstanding and includes dozens The discovery of the Texas blind of macroscopic (easily seen with the salamander (Eurycea rathbuni) in the naked eye) and microscopic species, such water-filled caves of the Edwards Aquifer as oysters, clams, corals, amoebas, even near San Marcos, in 1896, boosted shark’s teeth. The fossil record uncovered cave research in that state. It is still not at this site supports the geological record known how many of these endangered that indicates the region was covered salamanders exist; they have only been by a shallow ocean at a time when the recorded at this one location. The artesian

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well at San Marcos also contains at water resources are also used for timber least one unusual cave formation. The processing and petrochemical industries. Balcones Fault Line Cave in San Marcos El Camino Real de los Tejas National is one of the country’s more unusual Historic Trail generally passes from a drier caves: it was formed by an earthquake. regime to a wetter regime as the trail travels Natural Bridge Caverns is one of west to east from the Mexican border in the largest caverns in Texas. It contains the southwest to the end at Natchitoches, visibly distinct strata of Cretaceous Louisiana. The trail crosses 13 major Period limestone. The natural bridge (a rivers, including the two endpoints of span carved by a water source) cited in the trail: the Río Grande at the United the cavern name was formed in Kainer States-Mexico border and the Red River in Limestone and spans water-carved passages Natchitoches, Louisiana (see Appendix L; in the cavern. Natural Bridge Caverns is Map L-4 page 242 for a location of the rivers listed in the National Register of Historical and Table 3-1, page 103 for a listing of them). Places due to its cultural significance. As The trail crosses almost every major mentioned earlier, many artifacts have river basin in Texas before reaching been uncovered here, including projectile the Louisiana state line; in Louisiana, points, charred plants, and stone tools, as the trail ends in the Red River Basin. well as valuable paleontological resources These basins are a function of many that became extinct 12,000 years ago, factors, but one of the most important during the late Pleistocene Period. is precipitation. The average annual runoff from precipitation varies from 0.2 WATER RESOURCES inches along the South Texas portion of Regional water plans affected by El the trail to 11 inches or more along the Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic eastern portion of the trail in Louisiana. Trail Comprehensive Management Texas has 196 major reservoirs. The Plan/Environmental Assessment show trail crosses several of these, including existing water resources in a state of the largest reservoir in the south: Toledo flux as traditional uses of water change. Bend Reservoir. This massive reservoir Fluctuations in groundwater levels is located along the Texas-Louisiana accompany population dynamics, climate border and has a storage capacity of conditions, and land-use changes. Drought more than four million acre-feet. and other climatic conditions directly affect available water supply, and many of the regions the trail traverses, particularly Central Texas, are also being impacted by urban development, with the draw- down of regional aquifers as population increases. This is not set in stone, however; water supplies in some areas may actually increase as agricultural land use decreases. Water sources for South Texas are primarily associated with surface water resources; Central Texas water sources are a combination of surface and groundwater; and East Texas and West Louisiana primarily rely on surface water. Most, if not all, of the rivers that cross the trail are linked to reservoirs that supply water primarily for agricultural and urban uses. Along the eastern portion of the trail,

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Table 3-1: Major Rivers along El Camino square miles, with a subsurface area of 2,314 Real de Los Tejas National Historic Trail square miles. The Trinity Aquifer covers 10,652 square miles, with a subsurface area River Region of 21,308 square miles. The Trinity Aquifer Río Grande South Texas (United States- is composed of several individual aquifers Mexico border) contained within the Trinity Group. Nueces South Texas Frío South Texas East Central Texas San Antonio East Central Texas Medina East Central Texas The East Central portion of El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail Guadalupe East Central Texas includes the area east of San Antonio to San Marcos East Central Texas east of Bryan, Texas, and crosses six major Colorado East Central Texas rivers. Water resources along this part of San Gabriel East Central Texas the trail are a complex blend of surface Brazos East Central Texas and groundwater resources. The trail Trinity East Texas crosses a network of interwoven aquifers, including the four above-referenced major Neches East Texas aquifers, as well as four minor aquifers: Sabine Texas-Louisiana border the Queen City Aquifer (outcrop and Red Louisiana (Natchitoches) subsurface), the Sparta Aquifer (outcrop and subsurface), the Brazos River Alluvium The trail crosses four major aquifers Aquifer, and the Yegua-Jackson Aquifer. in Texas and Louisiana: the Carrizo- Wilcox (outcrop and subsurface), Edwards East Texas-West Louisiana (Balcones Fault Zone), the Trinity (outcrop and substrate), and the Gulf Coast aquifers. The trail continues northeastward Several minor aquifers are located along through East Texas, crossing three more or near the trail. Many areas along the major rivers, until it reaches its terminus trail route are experiencing a decline at the Red River in West Louisiana. in the water level of the major aquifers. Major water resources are centered Declines range from less than 50 feet to on these rivers and their associated greater than 200 feet in some areas. reservoirs. The trail crosses two major aquifers: the Carrizo-Wilcox Aquifer (outcrop and subsurface) and the Gulf South Texas Coast Aquifer. The end of the trail is From the United States-Mexico border within the Red River Alluvial Aquifer. north to San Antonio and south to Laredo and Goliad the arid landscape contains SPECIAL STATUS SPECIES three major rivers. Major water resources come from the Río Grande and the Nueces Due to the size of the study area, the trail River Basin, with interbasin transfers from is divided into three sections based on maps the Lavaca Region to the east. The trail from the U.S. Environmental Protection in this area crosses the Carrizo-Wilcox Agency that provide descriptions of the Aquifer and the Gulf Coast Aquifer. These vegetation classifications found within are major aquifers, with the Carrizo- the study area. County lists from the U.S. Wilcox outcrop covering an area of 11,186 Fish and Wildlife Service are included square miles and the Gulf Coast Aquifer within each of the three divisions. Species area covering 41,879 square miles. The trail counts and comparisons of state listed begins to cross two other major aquifers— species and federally listed species were the Edwards (Balcones Fault Zone) and made using the databases maintained the Trinity aquifers—in this region. The by the Texas Parks and Wildlife and the Edwards Aquifer outcrop area covers 5,560 Louisiana Department of Wildlife &

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Fisheries; however, only federally listed to occur in dense thorny shrublands of species are included in Appendix K.page 237 the Río Grande Valley, although sightings The study area, in general, is ecologically of the cat have not been reported for and biologically diverse and rich in species several years. Much of the habitat of listed diversity. There are 52 federally listed species has been fragmented as a result species within the counties where the trail of development for agricultural or other corridor is located, and 16 species have purposes. As a result, species that once designated critical habitat. The species claimed large territories are now confined with critical habitat designations vary to remnant pieces of the original habitat from invertebrates that spend their lives type. The ocelot for example, is now only underground in mesocaverns (humanly known to occur at or near Laguna Atascosa impassable voids in karst limestone) and National Wildlife Refuge, where its habitat caves to species confined to springs or of dense, thorny shrubs remains intact. other isolated waterways. Nine listed Conversely, some listed species may now invertebrates with designated critical be on the increase in areas the trail once habitat are underground cave dwellers and crossed. The Louisiana black bear, one of four of the nine occur in only one cave. Two 16 subspecies of the American black bear, insects (the Comal Springs dryopid beetle historically roamed most of East Texas, and the Comal Springs riffle beetle) and thriving in swamps, thickets, bottomland one crustaceous species (the Peck’s cave hardwood forests, and other forest types. amphipod) have designated habitat in two The black bear is now known mostly springs in Comal and Hays counties, Texas. within the Atchafalaya River and Tensas San Marcos, in Hays County, also contains River basins in Louisiana. Neighboring critical habitat designations for four other populations in Arkansas and Oklahoma are floral and faunal species: Texas wild rice, stable or increasing. This has resulted in San Marcos salamander, fountain darter, more sightings of black bears in East Texas, and the San Marcos Gambosia. Bastrop suggesting that populations are on the rise. and Burleson counties contain critical habitat for the Houston toad, with prime habitat located near the town of Bastrop. LAND USE Land uses along El Camino Real de Some species, such as the whooping los Tejas National Historic Trail generally crane, are listed in several counties. During change with variations in landscape, water annual migrations, whooping cranes stop resources, and climate. Land use in more in flooded playas, wetlands, or fields, and arid South Texas is dominated by livestock near rivers or lakes, to feed or rest, but grazing on vast, largely empty rangelands, not necessarily to reside. Other species where the human population density is also have specific requirements related to relatively low compared with other areas seasonal fluctuations in precipitation and of the trail. Land uses in the region also soil type. The Neches River rose-mallow include oil and natural gas production, is listed in Houston County and requires and many of the ranches supplement seasonally wet soils. Sites where the mallow their income by issuing hunting licenses. may be found are typically flooded during Agricultural lands are located in the area late winter and early spring, but the surface north and northwest of Carrizo Springs, soils are often quite dry by late summer. where irrigated crops of corn, cotton, Little is known about some of the other small grains, and vegetables are grown. species listed in counties that the trail In East Central Texas, much of the crosses. The jaguarundi, for example, is one prairie has been converted to cropland. of the rarest cats in Texas, and much of the This region has a higher population data available on its existence along the trail density than other areas of the trail, is gathered from anecdotal or historical and urban development is displacing writings. Jaguarundi habitat is thought croplands at an increasing rate. The post

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oak savanna vegetation zone, south of employment are generally considered the cities of San Antonio and Austin, to be among the best gauges of such has irregular topography, and land use circumstances. An analysis of ethnicity was is dominated by livestock grazing. conducted to satisfy the requirements of East Texas and West Louisiana lie within Executive Order 12898, “General Actions the piney woods vegetation zone, where to Address Environmental Justice in the major industry is lumber and wood- Minority and Low-Income Populations.” pulp production. Other land uses include poultry rearing, oil and gas production, and POPULATION GROWTH livestock grazing. The fertile bottomlands With the exception of Zavala and of the Red River basin near Natchitoches, Dimmit counties, all the counties and Louisiana, are used for croplands. parishes crossed by the trail experienced Land uses within towns and cities along population growth. In 14 instances the the trail include residential, commercial, growth was moderate, less than 10%, light industrial, public, agricultural, and with Natchitoches and Sabine parishes transportation. Portions of the trail are in Louisiana included in this group. The now existing roads or highways, or are most dramatic increase in population crossed or paralleled by railroads and was found in two Texas counties, Comal highways. Many towns and cities along the and Williamson, where populations grew trail are steeped in history, and preserved more than 75% between 1990 and 2000. landmarks are a valuable resource for Bastrop, Guadalupe, Hays, Medina, Travis, attracting tourism to the area. Not and Webb counties also registered major surprisingly, then, much of the trail route demographic growth spurts. Appendix has areas with historical designations. L , Table L-2, page 250 and Map L-5, page El Camino Real de los Tejas National 243 show an interesting pattern of major Historic Trail does not cross any growth linked with geographic location designated wild and scenic rivers, nor occurring in areas around Austin, the does it cross any designated wildernesses San Antonio suburbs, and the some of or public lands managed by the Bureau the counties along the Mexican border. of Land Management. The only lands managed by the U.S.D.A. Forest Service INCOME/POVERTY RATE BY crossed by the trail are in East Texas. COUNTY/PARISH An examination of the census data SOCIOECONOMIC reveals very significant inequality in CONDITIONS levels of income and poverty among the different counties/parishes (see Appendix The data for this section is derived from L; Table L-1, page 249 and Map L-6, page the latest census information available at the 244). One way to establish a meaningful county and parish level in 2000, except for assessment is to compare the data for each population growth, where the information county and parish with the average for comes from returns for 1990 and 2000. It is the state as a whole. In both Texas and clear to the planning team that substantial Louisiana, it should be noted, the state changes are likely to have taken place median household income is below the in the last nine years. Unfortunately, national average. Only the two Louisiana there is no way to extrapolate trends at parishes and seven of the 40 Texas counties the state levels with any accuracy, given reported a median household income the variability among the counties and above the state average. In the case of parishes crossed by the trail. The variables Williamson County, the median household selected for analysis appear to be good income was twice the state average. indicators of socioeconomic conditions along the trail. Income, education, and

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Hispanic origins; Natchitoches Parish, a through Louisiana. However, many mere 1.4%. In Texas, the situation is segments of the trail either parallel dramatically different, but the data show existing roads or have become a part of major discrepancies. Six counties report the modern highway system, meaning that Hispanos constitute more than 75% of drivers can get a sense of what it was like their population, in the case of Maverick to travel these routes. This is especially reaching 95%. At the other extreme, Sabine, true on rural roads, where much of the San Augustine, Houston, and Leon counties original landscape has been preserved. show percentages of Hispanos well below In addition to segments and rights-of- the national average. way, opportunities to experience and learn about the trail can also be found at publicly LANDOWNERSHIP accessible historic sites and national, state, Landownership along the trail is and county parks and other facilities, predominantly private and closely such as museums and visitor centers. parallels overall landownership patterns Alternative B, the preferred alternative, in Louisiana and Texas. Slightly more supports the enhancement of interpretive than 1% of the land crossed by the trail and educational programs about the trail in Texas is owned by federal or state in existing museums and visitor centers. government; in Louisiana, slightly less Information on the trail is also available than 1% of the land is government owned. online on both private and government-run websites as well as through publications and other media, and are listed below. VISITOR USE AND EXPERIENCE Orientation/Information: Orientation Although El Camino Real de los to and information about El Camino Real Tejas National Historic Trail has had a de los Tejas National Historic Trail are tremendous influence on the shaping currently available in the following formats: of Texas and Louisiana history, few • A government-run website hosted visitors are familiar with the story of by the National Park Service/ the trail and its resources. Interpreting National Trails Intermountain El Camino Real de los Tejas National Region at http://www.nps.gov/elte Historic Trail, and providing access to its resources, is particularly challenging, • A privately run website hosted by El because the majority of the designated Camino Real de los Tejas National trail routes (more than 98%) cross privately Historic Trail Association at http:// owned land. This poses a challenge not elcaminorealdelostejas.org only in interpreting and administering • A colorful, 15-page brochure the trail but also in gaining public produced by the Texas access to valuable trail resources. Department of Transportation Despite the large percentage of privately • A DVD, On the Road to Partnerships, owned land, visitors can still see and produced by the National Park Service/ experience historic sites and segments National Trails Intermountain Region. located along the trail. Opportunities to retrace the trail are readily available along Interpretation/Education: Facilities/ public lands and rights-of-way, and trail parks that currently offer some users may potentially access trail sites interpretation of the trail include but are and segments on private lands, with the not limited to: consent and cooperation of the landowner. • San Antonio Missions National There are currently no federal scenic/ Historical Park – San Antonio, Texas historic byway designations in Texas, or along El Camino Real de los Tejas • Fort St. Jean Baptiste State Historic National Historic Trail’s main route Site – Natchitoches, Louisiana

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• Goliad State Park and Historic tourism sectors by attracting regional, Site – Goliad, Texas national, and international visitors. • Los Adaes State Historic Park- Robeline, Louisiana LOUISIANA TOURISM SUMMARY FOR 2 • Mission Nuestra Señora de los Dolores 2007 de los Ais – San Augustine, Texas • Total Louisiana visitor spending • Mission Tejas State Park for 2007 was $9 billion – Grapeland, Texas • More than 143,000 Louisiana residents • Caddo Mounds State Historic were directly employed in the travel Site – Alto, Texas and tourism industry in 2007. This implies that the travel and tourism • Casa Navarro State Historic industry directly employed 7.7% of Site – San Antonio, Texas the Louisiana workforce in 2007 • Stone Fort Museum – • $5.6 billion of 2007 Louisiana Nacogdoches, Texas production (2.6% of gross state product) was directly attributable TRAIL-RELATED SITES AND to expenditures in the travel SEGMENTS and tourism industry Sites and segments related to the trail • In terms of taxes, fees, and and open to the public include, but are not license revenues, visitor spending limited to, the following locations: accounted for $782 million of 2007 Louisiana revenues, or 8.7% of Mission Tejas State Park this major revenue category. – Grapeland, Texas Los Adaes State Historic Park TEXAS TOURISM SUMMARY FOR – Robeline, Louisiana 20073 The exact numbers of visitors to trail • Total direct travel spending in resources is very difficult to compile since Texas was $56.7 billion in 2007. This most of these facilities seldom offer a represents a 5.4% increase over the possibility to indicate the purpose of the preceding year. In constant (inflation- visit. However, Table 3-7 shows the latest adjusted) dollars, travel spending visitation data available for trail-related increased by 2% from 2006 to 2007. parks and sites along El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail. • Increased room rates and motor fuel prices were the primary inflationary factors in the travel industry. TOURISM • Local and state tax revenues directly Tourism is a major national industry. generated by travel spending were Heritage tourism is becoming a significant $3.8 billion in 2007, not including part of this industry, contributing to property tax payments. This represents both local and regional economies. approximately 8% of all local and Heritage tourism dollars generate state tax revenues, not including sales for travel-related retail and property taxes. Travel spending service businesses, support job growth, generated an additional $3.6 billion and contribute tax revenue to local 2 - Extracted from The 2007 Louisiana Tourism Satellite and state governments. El Camino Account, An Update by the Louisiana Department of Real de los Tejas National Historic Culture, Recreation, and Tourism and the Office of the Trail is an important asset to the Lieutenant Governor. Web site: www.crt.state.la.us states of Louisiana and Texas and is 3 - Extracted from The Economic Impact of Travel expected to contribute to the travel and on Texas, August 2008 by Dean Runyan Associates. Website: www.deanrunyan.com

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in federal tax receipts. The total tax revenues of $7.4 billion are equivalent to $880 for each Texas household. • Visitors who stayed overnight in commercial lodging (hotels, motels, resorts, bed and breakfasts) spent $25.8 billion in 2007. This represents more than one-half of all visitors spending at destinations in the state. • During 2007, travel spending in Texas directly supported 534,000 jobs, with earnings of $16.3 billion. About three-quarters of these jobs were in the leisure and hospitality sector (accommodations, food services, arts, entertainment, and recreation). • Travel spending supported jobs in other industries through the recirculation of travel dollars among local businesses and individuals, creating a multiplier effect. The secondary impacts in 2007 were 469,000 jobs and $16.3 billion in earnings. • The gross domestic product of the Texas travel industry was $23.1 billion in 2007. This is similar to other export-oriented industries, such as microelectronics and agriculture/food production. Only oil and gas production and related manufacturing has a significantly greater gross domestic product. • Even though most of the travel spending and travel-generated impacts occur in the larger metropolitan areas of Texas, this is misleading: travel is actually more important for many of the non-metropolitan areas in the state. In terms of the relative importance of travel-generated employment, six of the top 10 counties in Texas are in non-metropolitan areas.

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CHAPTER 4: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES INTRODUCTION future administration of the trail. Impact topics were selected based on federal laws, This section analyzes the potential orders, and regulations, National Park environmental consequences or impacts Service management policies, and issues associated with the implementation of the and concerns expressed during public alternatives presented. The alternatives scoping. Impact topics allow for a offer general strategies for the long-term standardized comparison of the potential administration and protection of trail environmental consequences that each resources and related visitor use. They are alternative could trigger. Selected impact conceptual in nature and do not include any topics considered relevant to this plan specific development activities or any include cultural resources (ethnographic, site-specific action. Because no site-specific archeologic, and historic resources), natural actions, such as major construction projects resources (vegetation and wildlife), visitor or specific land purchases, are proposed in use and experience, landownership and use, the alternatives, the analysis of impacts and socioeconomic conditions. consists of an overview of the potential impacts of implementing each alternative. And because of the broad nature of the METHODOLOGY alternatives, the analysis of environmental Impact analyses are presented in this consequences is equally broad. This section document by describing the impacts of each also describes generalized measures to alternative on each resource topic. Each minimize potential impacts, but this plan impact topic includes a description of the does not suggest that these measures would impact of the alternative, a discussion of work for every site, or that they should be cumulative effects, and a conclusion. applied without further study of specific development projects. Several factors inform impact analyses and conclusions. They include National The parties responsible for the Park Service staff knowledge of resources, protection of cultural resources in both the the project area, and administration and states of Louisiana and Texas concurred at management of other national historic trails the beginning of the planning process that and a review of existing literature and the project did not meet the criteria of a information provided by experts in the federal undertaking. Nevertheless, National Park Service, other agencies or consistent with National Environmental organizations, or knowledgeable Policy Act and National Historic individuals. Any effects described in this Preservation Act, Section 106, any federally section are based on the proposals for the proposed action in the future would require alternatives and the reasonable specific compliance for each site or segment expectations of the impacts they might along the congressionally designated routes have; therefore, the best professional and may require consultation with the judgment was used in determining potential Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Fish effects. and Wildlife Service, Louisiana and Texas departments of transportation, state historic preservation officers, federally recognized American Indian tribes, and other state and federal agencies. Chapter 3 covered the Affected Environment and identified the existing conditions for all impact topics that are analyzed and provide additional information that could prove useful in the

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IMPACT TERMINOLOGY intensity has been categorized into Using the guidelines from the National negligible, minor, moderate, and major. Environmental Policy Act, the potential Because definitions of intensity vary by consequences of the actions in the resource topic, intensity definitions are alternatives are discussed and analyzed. provided separately for each impact topic Direct, indirect, and cumulative effects are analyzed in this environmental assessment. analyzed for each resource topic carried forward. Potential impacts are described in CUMULATIVE IMPACT terms of type, context, duration, and SCENARIO intensity. General definitions are defined below, while more specific impact The Council on Environmental Quality thresholds are identified for each resource (CEQ) regulations, which implement the at the beginning of each resource section. National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 USC 4321 et seq.), require assessment of Type describes the classification of the cumulative impacts in the decision-making impact as either beneficial or adverse, direct process for federal projects. Cumulative or indirect: impacts are defined as “the impact on the Beneficial: A positive change in the condi- environment which results from the tion or appearance of the resource or a incremental impact of the action when added change that moves the resource toward a to other past, present, and reasonably desired condition. foreseeable future actions regardless of what agency (federal or nonfederal) or person Adverse: A change that moves the re- undertakes such other actions” (40 CFR source away from a desired condition or 1508.7). Cumulative impacts can result from detracts from its appearance or condition. individually minor but collectively significant actions taking place over a period of time. Direct: An effect that is caused by an Cumulative impacts are considered for both action, and occurs in the same time and the no action and preferred alternative. place. The alternatives presented in this plan were also evaluated based on external factors Indirect: An effect that is caused by an that, together with the actions of each action but is later in time or farther re- alternative, could have cumulative impacts. moved in distance, but is still reasonably External factors consist largely of the foreseeable. independent land-use decisions of possibly Context describes the area or location in thousands of private, state, county, and which the impact will occur municipal property owners along close to Duration describes the length of time an 2,600 miles of designated trail routes. Some effect will occur, either short term or long of these decisions may be somewhat term: influenced by the trail designation, but they are most likely driven by local economic -Short-term impacts generally last only factors and community values, which can be during construction, and the resources expected to vary across the two parishes and resume their preconstruction conditions 40 counties crossed by the designated routes. following construction. Another factor is the degree to which the -Long-term impacts last beyond the tourism and the hospitality industries would construction period, and the resources may participate in trail promotion and in not resume their preconstruction encouraging visitation. conditions for a longer period of time Several trends along El Camino Real de los following construction. Tejas National Historic Trail have been Intensity describes the degree, level, or identified for conducting the cumulative strength of an impact. For this analysis, effects analysis:

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• Increased urban development, A list of such projects has been identified in particularly housing, commercial Chapter 1, under Gaps in Information and businesses, and highways Research Needs, page 24. • Energy development projects, such as the construction of gas and oil IMPACTS OF THE pipelines ALTERNATIVES • Private individual development National historic trails are conceived projects that aim to attract visitors but and designated as routes with beginning do not consider the need to retain the and end points, but lack formally defined historic fabric of trail-related resources corridor-edge boundaries. They allow • Major changes in the ecoregions as a for—but do not require or legislatively result of changes in land use, such as: establish—public access, ownership,  large timber industry operations easements, or rights-of-way to trail in Louisiana and East Texas segments for outdoor recreation purposes. Landowners and land managers along the  agricultural activities designated routes retain full ownership and  livestock grazing control of their lands, can continue to use and develop their property as they wish,  large hunting preserves in South and are not required to open their lands to Texas the public. They are offered opportunities • Increase in heritage tourism in Texas to cooperate voluntarily with the trail’s and Louisiana, expanding designated federal lead agency, to provide opportunities for retail trade and for public access, resource protection, visitor services interpretation, and limited development. In • Increase in websites, exhibits, and the case of El Camino Real de los Tejas facilities that offer visitors the National Historic Trail, the designated opportunity to learn and appreciate federal lead agency is the National Park trail resources along El Camino Real Service. The role of the National Park de los Tejas National Historic Trail Service is to set and maintain signage and interpretive standards; help ensure consistent preservation, education, and INFORMATION SOURCES public-use programs; manage the use of the AND GAPS official trail logo; and provide technical and The impact analysis and conclusions are limited financial assistance to partners. The based on information available in the impacts of any alternative depend upon the literature; data from studies, records, and interest of state and local landowners in information provided by experts, other initiating projects and working with the agencies, and nonprofit groups; and field National Park Service to provide for trail work conducted by the planning team. In visitation and interpretation, as well as in addition, relevant laws, regulations, and the interest of local businesses in promoting National Park Service management policies trail-related heritage tourism activities. were used in analyzing impacts. CULTURAL RESOURCES In association with the preparation of the document, several studies, mentioned in Cultural resources that may be affected the Affected Environment chapter, were by the alternatives include ethnographic, completed. However, due to the length of archeological, and historic resources. the corridor, the long period of significance, Ethnographic Resources and the complex history of the areas crossed by the trail, it will be crucial that The National Park Service defines additional research projects be undertaken. ethnographic resources as any “site, structure, object, landscape, or natural

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resource feature assigned traditional the affiliated group’s body of practices legendary, religious, subsistence, or other and beliefs. significance in the cultural system of a Minor: Impacts would be minor but group traditionally associated with it.” El noticeable, but would neither appreciably Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic alter resource conditions, such as Trail consists of routes that were developed traditional access or site preservation, by American Indian tribes who occupied nor the relationship between the lands along the trail corridor. In the 19th resources and the affiliated group’s body century, several of these groups were forced of practices and beliefs. by the federal government to relocate to Oklahoma; however, these lands and their Moderate: Impacts would be apparent resources along the trail corridor still hold and would alter resource conditions and great cultural significance for many of the interfere with traditional access, site federally designated tribes associated with preservation, or the relationship between this project. the resources and the affiliated group’s practices and beliefs, even though the Consulting tribes are also extremely group’s practices would survive. concerned about how stories about the trail are interpreted. Because their ancestors Major: Impacts would alter resource played a key role in the development of conditions and/or block or greatly affect trade networks and because they were the traditional access, site preservation, or focus of Spanish missionary activities, tribal the relationship between the resource members often regard these stories as and the affiliated group’s practices and deeply meaningful on personal, spiritual, beliefs, to the extent that the survival of political, and cultural levels. Affected tribes the group’s practices and beliefs would take a deep interest in how they and their be jeopardized. ancestors are portrayed to the public. Federal and most state agencies are Alternative A. Continuation of Current required to consult with affected tribes on Conditions (No Action) such matters; however, local and private Under this alternative, National Park landowners are not. Service activities, including federally mandated government-to-government Methodology relations with federally recognized Indian Among the issues of concern to tribes, would continue. American Indian tribes are public The National Trails Intermountain knowledge of significant American Indian Region would have limited opportunity to sites, potential impacts to physical increase current knowledge about the ethnographic resources, and whether relationship between American Indian ethnographic information concerning the groups and trail resources; they would not events and impacts to affected tribes would be incorporated into the management of the be considered in developing interpretive trail high potential sites and segments media for public use. associated with the various tribes who Effects on ethnographic resources can played a key role in the development of El be beneficial or adverse, direct or indirect, Camino Real de los Tejas. Lack of short or long term. For the purposes of this knowledge about the specific location of analysis, levels of impact to ethnographic sacred sites together with the absence of a resources were defined as follows: communication network would result in impacts, resulting from the construction of Negligible: Impacts would be barely oil and gas pipelines, and possibly private perceptible and would neither alter development projects designed to attract resource conditions, such as traditional visitors. access or site preservation, nor the relationship between the resource and Public awareness of ethnographic

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resources would continue to be limited to because of the limited awareness of the special interest groups and motivated resources that could be impacted. This individuals. It is quite likely that some alternative would have negligible effects landowners, nonprofit historic preservation on American Indian concerns about the and/or conservation groups, and even some interpretation of the stories associated local governments would take action to with El Camino Real de los Tejas identify, interpret, and protect National Historic Trail. Cumulatively, this ethnographic trail resources that have not action would only add a minor degree of been yet recognized. Interpretation of El impact to the overall effect on Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic ethnographic resources. Trail, as it relates to American Indians who lived along the trail corridor during various Alternative B, Preferred Alternative. periods, would involve discussing cultures, Trail Development through Partnerships actions, and the motivations of these This alternative places emphasis on groups. As mentioned before, individual enhancing knowledge about trail resources, landowners and local governments are not particularly the relationships among these required legally to consult American Indian resources and various American Indians tribes regarding interpretation of their tribes. The National Park Service would history, the cultural and personal make a serious effort to identify, protect, consequences of the removal of the tribes to and interpret high potential sites associated Oklahoma, or potential impacts to with those tribes who played a key role in culturally significant resources. Moreover, the development of El Camino Real de los even well-meaning individuals often fail to Tejas. Impacts could still result due to the understand that their efforts at recognizing lack of information about the specific American Indian contributions can cause location of some sacred sites and due to adverse impacts to ethnographic resources. incompatible use practices, such as the There is also a real danger that such construction of oil and gas pipelines. programs would not present accurate However, on-the-ground trail stewards and interpretation of these groups’ experiences. the communication network associated Cumulative Effects: Trail-related with this alternative would help identify ethnographic resources on private lands such projects early on, and as a result, could be impacted by urban construction would be more likely rerouted development, such as housing, to less sensitive areas. Advance notice of commercial businesses, and highways. these projects would also allow for the They could also continue to be affected implementation of proper mitigation. by private projects, such as the Public awareness of ethnographic construction of oil and gas pipelines, resources would be greatly enhanced, since which are often planned with limited this alternative emphasizes research on awareness of the existence and trail-related issues that have received significance of these resources. American limited attention. It is still likely that some Indian trail routes and associated landowners, nonprofit historic preservation resources closely parallel major state and and/or conservation groups, and even some federal highways, so they might also be local governments would take action to impacted by road enhancement projects identify, interpret, and protect as well as by increases in agricultural ethnographic trail resources without activities and livestock grazing. This consulting with appropriate American alternative would add a minor degree to Indian tribes. However, given the emphasis the overall cumulative impacts on on landowner education, such actions ethnographic resources. would be less likely to occur under Conclusion: Alternative A would have a Alternative B. minor, long-term, and indirect adverse The enhanced interpretive program this impact on ethnographic resources alternative envisions would involve Page 117 Chapter 4: Environmental Consequences

discussions about the cultures, actions, and add impacts to the overall effect on motivations of the American Indian tribes ethnographic resources. who lived along the El Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail corridor. Archeological Resources Under Alternative B, it is unlikely that interpretive programs would present Methodology inaccurate information about the The National Historic Preservation Act experiences of these groups and their role requires federal agencies to take into in the development of the trail. account the effects of their actions on Cumulative Effects: Trail-related properties listed or eligible for listing in the ethnographic resources on private lands National Register of Historic Places. The would continue to be impacted by urban process begins with the identification and development, such as housing, evaluation of cultural resources for national commercial businesses, and highways. register eligibility, followed by an However, at a minimum greater assessment of the effects the proposed awareness of ethnographic resources undertaking might have on those eligible would lessen the likelihood of impacts resources. Section 106 of the National from nonfederal projects, such as the Historic Preservation Act provides criteria construction of oil and gas pipelines, for evaluating the kind of effect, if any, an which are often planned with limited undertaking might have on historic awareness of the existence and resources. significance of these resources. American If a federal undertaking has no potential Indian trail routes and associated to change the characteristics that qualify resources closely parallel major state and the resource for inclusion in the national federal highways, so they would be likely register, then it is considered to have no impacted by road enhancement projects effect on the historic property. If the as well as by increases in agriculture and undertaking could change those livestock grazing. However, this characteristics, then it is considered to have alternative would result in minor an effect, which could be adverse or not cumulative impacts on ethnographic adverse. No adverse effect means that the resources, because the greater awareness effect would not be harmful (it could be of resources would be more likely to benign or beneficial) to those prevent projects that might cause characteristics that qualify the resource for negative impacts. the national register. Adverse effect means Conclusion: Alternative B would have that the undertaking could diminish the minor, long-term, and indirect beneficial integrity of those characteristics. impacts on ethnographic resources Effects on archeological resources can because there would be greater be beneficial or adverse, direct or indirect, awareness of the resources likely to be short or long term. For the purposes of this impacted. This alternative might have analysis, levels of impact to archeological negligible effects on American Indian resources were defined as follows: concerns about the interpretation of the Negligible: Impact is at the lowest levels stories associated with El Camino Real de of detection, with neither adverse nor los Tejas National Historic Trail; however, beneficial consequences. the efforts to highlight the contribution of American Indians to the development Minor: Adverse–Disturbance of site of this trail would bring about more results in little, if any, loss of integrity. awareness of the significance of No adverse effect. resources and would be more likely to Beneficial–Maintenance and lead to their protection. Cumulatively, preservation of the site. No adverse the minor beneficial effect of this action effect. on ethnographic resources would not

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Moderate: Adverse–Disturbance results Individual landowners, nonprofit in loss of integrity. Determination would preservation and conservation groups, and be adverse effect. If so, a memorandum local governments would be at liberty to of agreement would be executed independently recognize, interpret, and between the National Park Service and protect trail resources. These activities the state historic preservation officer, often involve the installation of structures and, if necessary, the Advisory Council that might impair significant resources, and on Historic Preservation. A can also entail roadside or interpretive memorandum of agreement identifies signs, increased visitation, guided tours, measure(s) to minimize or mitigate maintenance, and protection of adverse impacts and reduce intensity archeological remains and historic from major to moderate. buildings, and possibly other activities. Beneficial–Site stabilization. The Sometimes a local government will establish determination would be no adverse a park, roadside pullout, or walking trail. effect. Such on-site activities could affect, either Major: Adverse–Disturbance results in beneficially or adversely, trail-related loss of integrity. Determination would be archeological properties with adverse effect. Measures to minimize or characteristics that make them eligible for mitigate cannot be agreed upon, and no listing on the National Register for Historic memorandum of agreement is executed. Places. However, as such nonfederal Beneficial–Active intervention to projects are beyond the boundaries of preserve site. Determination would be federal lands and without federal support no adverse effect. or permitting, such independent activities typically receive no review from archeological-resource professionals, state Alternative A. Continuation of Current historic preservation officers, or others Conditions (No Action) qualified to evaluate and develop Under this alternative, the National Park appropriate mitigation for effects on such Service would continue to work with properties. resource owners to protect high potential The National Park Service, the lead sites and segments associated with the trail, federal agency for the trail, has no oversight to place signs along trail routes, to develop authority over these types of landowner appropriate visitor access and activities. Since most of the trail routes interpretation, and to help protect other associated with El Camino Real de los Tejas trail-related historic properties. Land National Historic Trail are in private hands, use-related activities and practices, with this could become a problem. A general lack potential to affect archeological resources, of awareness about trail resources, their would continue at current levels. fragile nature, and the subtle characteristics Any proposed National Park Service that imbue them with meaning would funded undertaking on any lands, private possibly contribute to continued misguided or public, must comply with Section 106 of development. The current lack of a the National Historic Preservation Act, trailwide communications network to warn which requires federal agencies to consider about projects, such as the construction of the effects of their actions on archeological oil and gas pipelines that would harm trail properties. It should be noted, however, that resources, would mean that many after more than 20 years of managing archeological resources could be either lost historic trails, the National Park Service has or adversely affected. undertaken no trail-related project that Cumulative Effects: Trail-related resulted in adverse effects to archeological archeological resources on private lands resources. could be impacted by urban development, such as housing, commercial businesses, and highways.

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They would also continue to be affected forum for scholars interested in exploring by private projects, such as the issues associated with the history of the construction of oil and gas pipelines, trail that have yet to deserve proper which are often planned with limited attention. This would be part of the effort awareness of the existence and to raise awareness about the trail. significance of these resources. Historic Even with increased awareness, it is trail routes and associated resources possible that individual landowners, closely parallel major state and federal nonprofit historic preservation and highways, so they might also be impacted conservation groups, and local by road enhancement projects as well as governments would still undertake projects by increases in agricultural activities and that might adversely impact archeological livestock grazing. This alternative would resources. The National Park Service still incrementally add a minor degree to the would have no oversight authority over overall cumulative impacts on these types of landowner activities. Most of archeological resources. the trail routes associated with El Camino Conclusion: Alternative A would have Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail minor, long-term, and indirect adverse routes are in private hands, so this could impacts on archeological resources still become a serious problem. A general because there would be little awareness lack of awareness about trail resources, of the existence and location of the their fragile nature, and the subtle resources. For that reason they would be characteristics that imbue them with more likely to be impacted. Cumulatively, meaning would contribute to continued this action would only add a minor misguided development. degree of impact to the overall It is likely, however, that it would be far cumulative effect on ethnographic easier to prevent loss of resources or resources. adverse effects if there were an active trailwide communications network to warn Alternative B, Preferred Alternative. Trail about potentially harmful projects Development through Partnerships undertaken by private landowners or by Under this alternative the National Park private corporations. It is also likely that, Service, as the lead federal agency, would with increased awareness about trail interact more regularly with landowners, resources, landowners would be more likely encouraging land-management practices to work jointly with the trail administration that protect archeological resources. The to take advantage of the technical and National Park Service would work with limited financial assistance offered by the individual landowners and nonfederal land National Trails Intermountain Region. managers along the trail corridor to develop Such partnerships would offer National appropriate visitor access, public education Trails Intermountain Region staff, in opportunities, and interpretation of consultation with the two state historic significant resources. These activities preservation officers, an opportunity to would enhance knowledge of the trail, identify potential adverse effects and to would promote awareness of trail-related propose avoidance or mitigation measures. sites and segments, and foster interest in Any proposed National Park Service and concern for their protection. funded undertaking on any lands, private Under this alternative, the National Park or public, would have to comply with Service would encourage continued Section 106 of the National Historic research to verify trail routes and to identify Preservation Act, which requires federal additional sites and segments that have not agencies to consider the effects of their yet received attention from investigators. actions on historic properties. Typically, The National Park Service would sponsor National Park Service-supported activities activities, such as conferences, to provide a along historic trails that have the potential

Page 120 Chapter 4: Environmental Consequences - Archeological Resources to affect archeological resources include the minor beneficial effect of this action the following: small-scale site development would only add a minor degree of impact to improve visitor access and interpretation; to the overall cumulative effect on trail marking; site protection and ethnographic resources. stabilization; outdoor interpretation projects; rehabilitation, renovation, and Historic Resources maintenance of historic buildings and structures; and development of exhibits and Methodology programs in already existing facilities. If The National Historic Preservation Act some of these projects are carried out, there requires federal agencies to take into may be an increase in visitation and account the effects of their actions on activities and increased interest in the trail properties listed or eligible for listing in the and related National Park Service National Register of Historic Places. The programs. It is also possible that, by process begins with the identification and studying new trail-related sites, there may evaluation of cultural resources for national be greater opportunities to enter into register eligibility, followed by an partnership agreements. Greater interest in assessment of the effects the proposed trail resources is likely to result in enhanced undertaking might have on those eligible interpretation and education programs, resources. Section 106 of the National higher-quality exhibits, and other projects, Historic Preservation Act provides criteria which would have little or no potential to for evaluating the kind of effect, if any an affect archeological resources. undertaking might have on historic

Cumulative Effects: A few trail-related resources. archeological resources on private lands If a federal undertaking has no potential could be gradually lost to development, to change the characteristics that qualify such as housing, commercial businesses, the resource for inclusion in the national and highways; but under this alternative, register, then it is considered to have no the losses would be considerably smaller. effect on the historic property. If the Increased knowledge about trail undertaking could change those resources, heightened awareness of their characteristics, then it is considered to have nature, and the substantial involvement an effect, which could be adverse or not of volunteers along the trail—both in the adverse. No adverse effect means that the identification and protection of effect would not be harmful (it could be resources—would significantly improve benign or beneficial) to those the ability to protect significant trail characteristics that qualify the resource for resources and prevent their the national register. Adverse effect means disappearance due to the trends that the undertaking could diminish the identified under the cumulative impacts integrity of those characteristics. scenario. This alternative would result in Effects on historic resources can be long-term beneficial minor impacts on beneficial or adverse, direct or indirect, archeological resources, because there short or long term. For the purposes of this would be a greater awareness of the analysis, levels of impact to historic resources likely to be impacted. resources were defined as follows: Conclusion: Alternative B would have Negligible: Impact is at the lowest levels minor, long-term, and indirect beneficial of detection, with neither adverse nor impacts on archeological resources since beneficial consequences. there would be greater awareness of the resources likely to be impacted. Minor: Adverse–Disturbance of site Increased knowledge about trail results in little, if any, loss of integrity. No resources and compliance with Section adverse effect. 106 would result in beneficial impacts to Beneficial–Maintenance and preservation archeological resources. Cumulatively, of the site. No adverse effect.

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Moderate: Adverse–Disturbance results groups, and local governments can in loss of integrity. Determination would independently recognize, interpret, and be adverse effect. If so, a memorandum protect trail resources. These activities of agreement would be executed often involve the installation of structures between the National Park Service and that might impair significant resources, and the state historic preservation officer, can also entail roadside or interpretive and, if necessary, the Advisory Council signs, increased visitation, guided tours, on Historic Preservation. A maintenance and protection of historic memorandum of agreement identifies buildings, and possibly other activities. measure(s) to minimize or mitigate Sometimes a local government will establish adverse impacts and reduce intensity a park, roadside pullout, or walking trail. from major to moderate. Such on-site activities could affect, either Beneficial–Site stabilization. The beneficially or adversely, trail-related determination would be no adverse historic properties with characteristics that effect. make them eligible for listing on the Major: Adverse–Disturbance results in National Register for Historic Places. loss of integrity. Determination would be However, as such nonfederal projects are adverse effect. Measures to minimize or beyond the boundaries of federal lands and mitigate cannot be agreed upon, and no without federal support or permitting, such memorandum of agreement is executed. independent activities typically receive no Beneficial–Active intervention to review from historic-resource professionals, preserve site. Determination would be state historic preservation officers, or no adverse effect. others qualified to evaluate and develop appropriate mitigation for effects on such properties. Alternative A. Continuation of Current Conditions (No Action) The National Park Service, the federal lead agency for the trail, has no oversight Under this alternative, the National Park authority over these types of landowner Service would continue to work with activities. Since most of the trail routes resource owners to protect high potential associated with El Camino Real de los Tejas sites and segments associated with the trail, National Historic Trail are in private hands, to place signs along trail routes, to develop this could become a problem. A general lack appropriate visitor access and of awareness about trail resources, their interpretation, and to help protect other fragile nature, and the subtle characteristics trail-related historic properties. Those land that imbue them with meaning would use-related activities and practices, with contribute to continued misguided potential to affect historic resources, would development. The current lack of a continue at current levels. trailwide communications network to warn Any proposed National Park Service about projects, such as oil and gas pipelines funded undertaking on any lands, private projects that would harm trail resources, or public, must comply with Section 106 of would mean that many historic resources the National Historic Preservation Act, would be either lost or adversely affected. which requires federal agencies to consider Cumulative Effects: Historic trail the effects of their actions on historic resources on nonfederal lands would properties. It should be noted, however, that continue to be impacted by increased after more than 20 years of managing urban development, such as housing, historic trails, the National Park Service has commercial businesses, and highways. undertaken no trail-related project that They would also continue to be affected resulted in adverse effects to historic by private development, such as the resources. construction of oil and gas pipelines Individual landowners, nonprofit which are often planned with limited historic preservation and conservation awareness of the significance of these

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resources. Trail routes and associated possible that individual landowners, historic resources closely parallel major nonprofit historic preservation and state and federal highways, so they would conservation groups, and local be likely impacted by economic governments would still undertake projects development activities, such as urban that might adversely impact historic development as well as increases in resources. The National Park Service still agriculture and livestock grazing. This would have no oversight authority over alternative would result in minor, long- these types of landowner activities. Most of term, and indirect cumulative impacts on the trail routes associated with El Camino historic resources. Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail Conclusion: Alternative A may have a routes are in private hands, so this could moderate, long-term, and indirect still become a problem. A general lack of adverse cumulative impact on historic awareness about trail resources, their resources since there would be little fragile nature, and the subtle characteristics awareness of the resources likely to be that imbue them with meaning in the impacted. Cumulatively, the minor historical record would contribute to adverse effect of this action would only continued misguided development. add a minor degree of impact to the It is likely, however, that it would be far overall cumulative effect on historic easier to prevent loss of resources or resources. adverse effects if there were an active trailwide communications network to warn Alternative B, Preferred Alternative. about potentially harmful projects Trail Development through Partnerships undertaken by private landowners or by private corporations. It is also likely that, Under this alternative, the National Park with increased awareness about trail Service, as the federal lead agency, would resources, landowners would be more likely interact more regularly with landowners, to take advantage of the technical and encouraging land-management practices financial assistance offered by the National that protect historic resources. The Trails Intermountain Region. Such National Park Service would work with partnerships would offer National Trails individual landowners and nonfederal land Intermountain Region staff, in consultation managers along the trail corridor to develop with the two state historic preservation appropriate visitor access, public education officers, an opportunity to identify opportunities, and interpretation of potential adverse effects and to propose significant trail resources. These activities avoidance or mitigation measures. would enhance awareness of the trail, promote awareness of trail-related sites and Any proposed National Park Service segments, and foster interest in and concern funded undertaking on any lands, private for their protection. or public, would have to comply with Section 106 of the National Historic Under this alternative, the National Park Preservation Act, which requires federal Service would also encourage continued agencies to consider the effects of their research to verify trail routes and to identify actions on historic properties. Typically, additional sites and segments that have not National Park Service-supported activities yet received attention from investigators. along historic trails that have the potential The National Park Service would sponsor to affect historic resources include the activities, such as conferences, to provide a following: small-scale site development to forum for scholars interested in exploring improve visitor access and interpretation; issues associated with the history of the trail marking; site protection and trail that have not yet received the attention stabilization; outdoor interpretation they deserve. This would be part of the projects; rehabilitation, renovation, and effort to raise awareness about the trail. maintenance of historic buildings and Even with increased awareness, it is structures; and development of exhibits and

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programs in already existing facilities. If with trail-related development and some of these projects were to be carried visitor-use activities. out, there may be an increase in visitation Effects on natural resources can be and activities and increased interest in the beneficial or adverse, direct or indirect, trail and related National Park Service short or long term. For the purposes of this programs. It is also possible that, by analysis, levels of impact to natural studying new trail-related sites, there may resources (vegetation) were defined as be an increase in partnership opportunities. follows: Greater interest in trail resources is likely to result in enhanced exhibits and Negligible: Individual native plants may interpretation and education programs and be affected, but measurable or other educational projects, which have little perceptible changes in plant community or no potential to affect historic resources. size, integrity, or continuity would not occur. Cumulative Effects: Trail-related historic resources on private lands could Minor: Effects on native plants would be continue to be impacted by development, measurable or perceptible, but would be such as housing, commercial businesses, localized within a small geographic area. and highways; however, under this The viability to the plant community alternative, the losses would be would not be affected, and if left alone, considerably smaller. Increased the community would recover. knowledge about trail resources, Moderate: Changes would occur over a heightened awareness of their nature, relatively large area in the native plant and the substantial involvement of communities that would be readily volunteers along the trail, both in the measurable in terms of abundance, identification and protection of resources distribution, quantity, or quality. and in preventing projects that might Mitigation measures would probably be cause adverse impacts, would necessary to offset adverse effects, but significantly improve the ability to would likely be successful. prevent their disappearance. This Major: Effects on native plant alternative would result in long-term communities would be readily apparent beneficial minor cumulative impacts on and would substantially change historic resources. community types over a large geographic Conclusion: Alternative B would have area. Extensive mitigation would be minor, long-term, and indirect beneficial needed to offset adverse effects, and its impacts on historic resources because success would not be assured. there would be greater awareness of the resources likely to be impacted. Alternative A. Continuation of Current Cumulatively, the minor beneficial effect Conditions (No Action) of this action on historic resources would add a minor degree of impact to the Under this alternative, the National Park overall effect on historic resources. Service would continue working with Cumulative impacts would have minor, landowners to place signs along trail routes, long-term, and indirect widespread develop appropriate visitor access and beneficial impacts on historic resources. interpretation, and help protect trail-related sites. These land-related activities would continue at current levels. Any National Natural Resources: Native Vegetation Park Service-supported activities that might Methodology disturb lands or increase visitation to Issues of concern with regard to native sensitive natural areas or wildlife vegetation may be associated with the populations would undergo additional removal of vegetative cover in association environmental analysis to evaluate impacts. Based on current information, it is highly

Page 124 Chapter 4: Environmental Consequences - Natural Resources: Native Vegetation unlikely that trail-related projects would Alternative B, Preferred Alternative. have adverse impacts on any natural Trail Development through Partnerships resource along the designated trail routes. Habitat loss, such as its reduction due to Cumulative Effects: During the last two road construction or improvements, could centuries, major changes in vegetative be a factor in jeopardizing the native flora, cover have occurred throughout the and represents a potentially serious threat counties and parishes crossed by the to the long-term survival of endangered or trail. The practice of agriculture has led threatened species. Before any kind of to large areas being converted from undertaking, a comprehensive survey and native vegetation to croplands and/or consultation would be conducted with the pastures of nonnative grasses. Timber appropriate U.S. Fish and Wildlife office. harvesting for fuel or lumber has Exhibits and/or trails would be sited to removed the extensive woodlands that avoid habitats of native wildlife. Some covered the eastern sections of the trail, small-scale construction might occur, but it and livestock grazing has reduced native would be carefully designed to avoid plant densities in some areas and impacts to native vegetation and its critical changed the composition of native habitat. To confirm the presence of a vegetation communities. Extensive species, it would be normal practice to residential, commercial, energy, and conduct species surveys of suspected road-associated development have associated habitats. If a population were to removed native vegetation habitat. be detected at the project location, or However, some communities of native within the affected area, mitigation plant species continue to exist, measures would be incorporated into the particularly within protected public project proposals in consultation with the lands. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Louisiana and Texas departments of Natural resources on private lands natural resources. could continue to be impacted by increased urban development and the Under this alternative, National Park construction of oil and gas pipelines, Service would continue working with projects that tend to show little landowners to place signs along trail routes, awareness of the importance of develop appropriate visitor access and preserving the native vegetation and interpretation, and help protect trail-related wildlife. Trail routes closely parallel major sites. These land-related activities would state and federal highways, so they would continue at current levels. Any National be likely impacted by a variety of Park Service-supported activity that might economic development activities. This disturb land or increase visitation to alternative would result in minor, long- sensitive natural areas would undergo term and adverse cumulative impacts on additional environmental analysis to native vegetation evaluate impacts. Based on current information, it is highly unlikely that Conclusion: Alternative A would have a trail-related projects would have adverse minor, long-term, and indirect adverse impact on any natural resource along the impact on native vegetation since there designated trail routes. would be little awareness of the resources likely to be impacted. Cumulatively, the Typical trail activities that have the minor adverse effect of this action on potential to impact vegetation include native vegetation would only collaborative projects with landowners to incrementally add a minor degree of provide for appropriate visitor access and impact to the overall impact on natural use, the development of outdoor resources. interpretive trails and exhibits, and collaboration with landowners to protect trail resources. Impacts of native vegetation

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from these activities would be rare and disturbance of wildlife habitat in negligible, if they occur at all. association with trail-related development Increased recreational uses, such as and visitor-use activities. hiking and biking, that might result in some Effects on natural resources can be areas under Alternative B could adversely beneficial or adverse, direct or indirect, impact native vegetation. Such potential short or long term. For the purposes of this impacts would be reviewed and carefully analysis, levels of impact to natural considered under a separate National resources (wildlife) were defined as follows: Environmental Policy Act process, so that Negligible: Individual wildlife may be any adverse effects to natural resources affected, but measurable or perceptible would be avoided or mitigated. changes in plant community size, Cumulative Effects: Because of raised integrity, or continuity would not occur. awareness about trail resources, it is Minor: Effects on wildlife would be possible that some property owners measurable or perceptible, but would be might choose not to initiate activities, localized within a small geographic area. such as development or land clearing, The viability of the animal community which might impact vegetation. In such would not be affected, and if left alone, cases, the impact of this alternative the community would recover. would be local and beneficial to the native flora. Moderate: Changes would occur over a relatively large area in the wildlife Heightened awareness of development communities that would be readily opportunities from increased visitation measurable in terms of abundance, might result in an expansion of retail distribution, quantity, or quality. trade and visitor services. However, Mitigation measures would probably be under this alternative, there would be a necessary to offset adverse effects, but greater understanding of the need to would likely be successful. protect the historic setting of trail resources and this would minimize the Major: Effects on native fauna would be negative impacts of development readily apparent and would substantially associated with expanding services. change community types over a large geographic area. Extensive mitigation Conclusion: The preferred alternative would be needed to offset adverse would cause minor, long-term beneficial, effects, and its success would not be and indirect effects because the majority assured. of developers would be more cognizant of the impacts of their actions on trail resources. Furthermore, any federal Alternative A. Continuation of Current Conditions (No Action) project resulting directly from the implementation of Alternative B would Under this alternative, the National Park undergo site-specific environmental Service would continue working with analysis, and care would be taken to landowners to place signs along trail routes, avoid and minimize impacts to these develop appropriate visitor access and resources. Cumulatively, the minor interpretation, and help protect trail-related beneficial effect of this action would only sites. These land-related activities would add a minor degree of impact to the continue at current levels. Any National overall impact on natural vegetation. Park Service-supported activities that might disturb lands or increase visitation to sensitive natural areas would undergo Natural Resources: Wildlife additional environmental analysis to Methodology evaluate impacts. Based on current Issues of concern with regard to native information, it is highly unlikely that fauna may be associated with the trail-related projects would have adverse

Page 126 Chapter 4: Environmental Consequences - Natural Resources: Wildlife impacts on any natural resource along the but it would be carefully designed to avoid designated trail routes. impacts to native wildlife and its critical Cumulative Effects: During the last two habitat. To confirm the presence of a centuries, major changes in wildlife species, it would be normal practice to habitat have occurred throughout the conduct species surveys of suspected counties and parishes crossed by the associated habitats. If a population were to trail. The practice of agriculture has led be detected at the project location, or to large areas being converted from within the affected area, mitigation wildlife habitat to croplands and/or measures would be incorporated into the pastures of nonnative grasses. Timber project proposals in consultation with the harvesting for fuel or lumber has U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the removed the extensive woodlands that Louisiana and Texas departments of covered the eastern sections of the trail, natural resources. and livestock grazing has reduced animal In addition, when potential projects densities in some areas and changed the along specific segments of El Camino Real composition of animal communities. de los Tejas National Historic Trail are Extensive residential, commercial, proposed, project information would be energy, and road-associated development submitted to the Wildlife Habitat have removed wildlife habitat. However, Assessment Program for comments and some communities of native animal recommendations regarding potential species continue to exist, particularly impacts to wildlife habitat and potential within protected public lands. impacts to state listed rare, threatened, and Natural resources on private lands could endangered species. continue to be impacted by increased Under this alternative, National Park urban development and the construction Service would continue working with of oil and gas pipelines, projects that tend landowners to place signs along trail routes, to show little awareness of the develop appropriate visitor access and importance of preserving the native interpretation, and help protect trail-related wildlife. Trail routes closely parallel major sites. These land-related activities would state and federal highways, so they would continue at current levels. Any National likely be impacted by a variety of Park Service-supported activity that might economic development activities. This disturb land or increase visitation to alternative would result in minor, long- sensitive wildlife habitat areas would term and adverse cumulative impacts on undergo additional environmental analysis native fauna. to evaluate impacts. Based on current Conclusion: Alternative A would have a information, it is highly unlikely that minor, long-term, and indirect adverse trail-related projects would have adverse impact on wildlife since there would be impact on any natural resource along the little awareness of the resources likely to designated trail routes. be impacted. Cumulatively, the minor Typical trail activities that have the adverse effect of this action on native potential to impact native fauna include fauna would only incrementally add a collaborative projects with landowners to minor degree of impact to the overall provide for appropriate visitor access and impact on natural resources. use, the development of outdoor interpretive trails and exhibits, and Alternative B, Preferred Alternative. collaboration with landowners to protect Trail Development through Partnerships trail resources. Impacts on native wildlife from these activities would be rare and Habitat loss, such as its reduction due to negligible, if they occur at all. road construction or improvements, could be a factor in jeopardizing native wildlife. Increased recreational uses, such as Some small-scale construction might occur, hiking and biking, that might result in some

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areas under Alternative B could adversely perception of crowding. Recreation aspects impact native wildlife. Such potential include the range of experiences available. impacts would be reviewed and carefully The intellectual/emotional aspects of user considered under a separate National experience include the absence or presence Environmental Policy Act process, so that and quality of information, interpretation, any adverse effects to natural resources and education and the opportunities to would be avoided or mitigated. understand the significance of the trail. Cumulative Effects: Because of raised The potential for change in user awareness about trail resources, it is experience under each alternative was possible that some property owners evaluated by identifying projected increases might choose not to initiate activities, or decreases in user experience and such as development or land clearing, enjoyment, and determining how these which might impact native wildlife. In projected changes would affect the desired such cases, the impact of this alternative user experience and to what degree. would be local and beneficial to natural Effects on visitor use and experience can fauna. be beneficial or adverse, direct or indirect, Heightened awareness of development short or long term. For the purposes of this opportunities from increased visitation analysis, levels of impact associated with might result in an expansion of retail visitor use and experience were defined as trade and visitor services. However, follows: under this alternative there would be a Negligible: No noticeable change in greater understanding of the need to visitor use or experience or in indicators protect the historic setting of trail of visitor satisfaction or behavior. resources and this would minimize the negative impacts of development Minor: Adverse–Slight, detectable associated with expanding services. changes in visitor use and/or experience, but the changes would not appreciably Conclusion: The preferred alternative alter characteristics of the visitor would cause minor, long-term beneficial experience. and indirect effects because the majority Beneficial–Effects would be noticeable of developers would be more cognizant and would somewhat enhance critical of the impacts of their actions on trail characteristics of the visitor experience. resources. Furthermore, any federal project resulting directly from the Moderate: Adverse–Critical implementation of Alternative B would characteristics of the desired experience undergo site-specific environmental would be changed, or the number of analysis, and care would be taken to participants engaging in an activity would avoid and minimize impacts to these be substantially altered. Visitor resources. Cumulatively, the minor satisfaction would change as a result of beneficial effect of this action would only this alternative. add a minor degree of impact to the Beneficial–Effects would substantially overall impact on natural wildlife. enhance visitor satisfaction. Major: Multiple critical characteristics Visitor Use and Experience of the desired experience would be impacted. Methodology Adverse–Effects would detract from Visitor use and experience along a visitor satisfaction. Participation in national historic trail is made up of three desired experiences would be fundamental components: social, considerably reduced and would result in recreational, and intellectual/emotional. substantial changes in defined indicators The social aspects of user experience of visitor satisfaction or behavior. include, among others, crowding or the Beneficial–Effects would add to or

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enhance visitor satisfaction. Participation Conclusion: Under Alternative A, in desired experiences would result in developing an interpretive program and substantial changes in defined indicators. appropriate visitor access, and installing Alternative A. Continuation of Current trail signs would result in minor Conditions (No Action) beneficial effects. Cumulatively, the minor beneficial effect of this alternative Under this alternative, the National on the visitor experience would only add Trails Intermountain Region would a minor degree of impact to the overall continue to work with resource owners, cumulative effect on the current visitor particularly state or local agencies, to use and experience. develop trail-related interpretive programs, install trail signage, and develop appropriate visitor access. There would be Alternative B, Preferred Alternative. potential to raise awareness of the trail and Trail Development through Partnerships to increase public understanding of its Under this alternative, the National Park significance. Although only a relatively Service, as the federal lead agency, would small percentage of the designated routes facilitate a coordinated effort by the trail are accessible to the public, visitor use and community to provide a high quality enjoyment of significant trail resources experience that would promote public would still be available at state parks and understanding and appreciation of cultural some privately owned heritage sites and and natural resources along the designated museums. route. The quality of the interpretation and Overall, existing interpretive and educational programs that are currently education programs would be enhanced, being offered would be greatly enhanced by and there would be potential for slight working cooperatively with entities that increases in visitation and for greater visitor own high potential sites and segments along satisfaction. Trail awareness among visitors the designated trail, such as San Antonio would also increase due to signage along Mission National Historical Park, and state trail routes. Expected minor increases in agencies, such as the Texas Parks and visitation would not likely impact social Wildlife Department and the Texas conditions and would not be likely to result Historical Commission. in crowding. Appropriate signage and There are large numbers of Hispanic interpretation would result in minor residents along certain sections of the trail beneficial impacts to the visitor experience. and the trail has the potential to attract The potential to visit some protected sites visitors from Mexico. The emphasis on and segments that are interpreted and bilingual interpretation and education monitored would provide a long-term programs would serve the needs of this minor beneficial effect to the visitor audience, which has not been effectively experience. targeted in the past. Bilingual brochures Cumulative Impacts: Development and other interpretive media could be made projects that attract large numbers of available and shared with public and private visitors, but that do not consider the schools. need to retain the historic fabric of The experiences of African Americans trail-related resources would detract and American Indian tribes would also be from a high-quality experience. emphasized in the enhanced Increased urban growth, including interpretation program developed under housing, commercial business, and this alternative. This would help spotlight highway projects would limit the contribution of these groups to the geographical opportunities of providing history of the trail and likely result in a rewarding trail experience. All these increased visitation and awareness both factors would add a minor cumulative on the part of visitors and African- impact on the visitor experience. Americans and American Indian tribes.

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All of the public sites along the trail would result in long-term minor beneficial currently experience low levels of visitation effect to the visitor experience.

(see Appendix L; Table L-6, page 254); Cumulative Impacts: The high quality therefore, it is highly unlikely that the visitor experience that would result from implementation of this alternative would the implementation of Alternative B is result in overcrowding. Moreover, some of likely to foster widespread interest in the the provisions—for example, the trail and its resources among a broader development of a flexible and easily spectrum of society than at the time this updatable database in conjunction with the document is being prepared. Such work of local trail stewards—would make it interest would heighten awareness of the easier and more effective to monitor the potential damage that unrestricted condition of resources. In some ways, this development and changes in land use approach would replace the current process could cause to trail resources. Other used to assess user capacity, which was projects identified in the cumulative designed to be applied to public lands of impact scenario, such as increase in limited size, with well-defined public access heritage tourism and increase in websites, and clearly established boundaries, where exhibits, and facilities that offer the closures or other management actions are opportunity to learn and appreciate possible. about trail resources, would have minor A meaningful and up-to-date beneficial impacts. interpretation of historic developments Conclusion: The preferred alternative along the trail, as provided under this would cause moderate beneficial effects, alternative, would allow visitors to forge because a larger and more diverse emotional and intellectual connections audience would be able to learn and with trail resources. Such engagement can appreciate trail resources. Recreational only have a positive effect on the long-term activities would provide opportunities protection of the resources, as visitors for trail audiences to establish meaningful become personally committed to the future connections with the resources and will of trail resources. A variety of media, from result in long-term beneficial effects to print materials to computer programs, the visitor experience. Cumulatively, the would be used to reach different age groups. minor adverse effect of this action would It is also to be expected that, by providing only add a minor degree of impact to the technical assistance to visitor centers and overall cumulative effect on the visitor museums to expand and improve their experience and would result in moderate, current interpretive program, more visitors long-term beneficial, and indirect would be attracted to visiting trail sites. The impacts. development of a sign and interpretive plan would enhance the visitor experience because it would improve the ability to LANDOWNERSHIP AND USE retrace a substantial portion of the original Impacts on land ownership and use are routes. The preferred alternative's emphasis addressed in this section of the document on recreational activities, such as trail because of the initial concern among retracement, would offer visitors the owners of property along the trail that opportunity to engage intimately with trail designation might in some way affect resources and experience vicariously what property rights. The enabling legislation, travel along the trail might have been like however, makes it clear that this is not the during the period of significance. It would case. It includes, among other requirements, help to provide opportunities for trail the following guidelines regarding land audiences to forge emotional and acquisition: intellectual connections with the meanings • The Secretary of the Interior shall of those resources by actually travelling administer those portions of the trail along these routes. This level of engagement

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on nonfederal land only with the Minor: Changes in land ownership and consent of the owner of such land and use patterns may be detectable and when such trail portion qualifies for appear likely to have resulted from the certification as an officially established trail designation. They occur locally component of the trail; along trail routes and impact a few • The designation of the trail does not properties. authorize any person to enter private Moderate: Changes in land ownership property without the consent of the and use patterns are apparent and are owner; clearly attributable to the trail • The United States shall not acquire for designation. They occur locally along the trail any land or interest in land trail routes and impact a number of outside the exterior boundary of any properties along the designated routes. federally administered area without the Major: Changes in land ownership and consent of the owner of the land. use patterns are apparent and are clearly Issues of concern on this topic expressed attributable to trail designation. They by private landowners include the occur locally along trail routes and possibility of changes in landownership and impact a substantial number of use practices; however, the National Park properties along designated routes. Service would not be acquiring any properties, even on a willing-seller basis. Alternative A. Continuation of Current Conditions (No Action) Methodology Participation of landowners in activities associated with El Camino Real de los Tejas More than 2,500 miles of the designated National Historic Trail is voluntary. The routes of El Camino Real de los Tejas National Park Service would continue to National Historic Trail are privately owned. work with local governments and local Because of the sheer scale of the trail and landowners to place signs along trail routes, the diversity of ownership, it has not been develop appropriate visitor access and possible as part of the analysis for this interpretation of trail sites, and help protect Comprehensive Management Plan/ trail-related resources. Environmental Assessment to acquire data on the ownership and use of specific The presence of trail-related site or properties and address issues individually. segments on privately owned land along Several general issues of concern have been other National Park Service-administered expressed by landowners, however, historic trails has rarely influenced including how trail designation would property sales or proposed private affect their ability to use their lands and the developments. Real estate values have effect of trail designation on real estate seldom been significantly influenced by the values and potential future sale of land or presence of trail sites or segments; instead, easements along the trail. they have been based on the intended use of the property and the value and use of Effects on visitor use and experience can neighboring real estate. be beneficial or adverse, direct or indirect, short or long term. For the purposes of this The National Park Service would not be analysis, levels of impact associated with acquiring any land even on a willing-seller visitor use and experience were defined as basis, so there is no anticipated impact to follows: landownership and use resulting from alternative A. Negligible: Changes in land ownership and use patterns are not detectable or Cumulative Impacts: Several trends cannot be attributed to the trail identified in the cumulative impact designation. scenario are closely associated with landownership and use. However, at the

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time this document is being prepared the The partnership certification program is planning team is not aware of any specific another tool that can be used to encourage project that would have an overall landowners to protect the integrity of their negative effect on landownership and use properties. It is likely that because of the along the trail. Alternative A would have heightened public awareness along the trail negligible cumulative impacts on associated with Alternative B, there would landownership and use. be a surge in partnership certifications. Still, Conclusion: Although the participation because this is a program that is initiated by of landowners would be voluntary, it is the landowners and tends to be used in likely that the trail designation would conjunction with existing land-use raise awareness of issues associated with practices, it would be viewed both by the the impact of incompatible land uses on landowner and the National Park Service as the trail. No additional impacts on beneficial. landownership and use would result After a national historic trail has been from the implementation of this authorized by Congress, local governments alternative. Alternative A would have along the trail corridor will often establish minor, beneficial, and indirect effects on parks, roadside pullouts, or trails for ownership and use along the trail educational and recreational purposes. Such corridor. activities coincide with the designation of the trail and are compatible with continuing Alternative B, Preferred Alternative. agricultural, residential, recreational, Trail Development through Partnerships commercial, and other ongoing land uses. They are viewed as beneficial by Along all of the historic trails it manages, landowners, governments, the general the National Park Service actively works public, and the National Park Service. Some with private landowners to install trail site landowners may benefit from the sale of signs, mark trail routes, establish land or easements used for resource opportunities for trail retracement and protection or for trail-related cultural, install signs to facilitate this activity, develop recreational, or educational facilities. Under appropriate visitor access and interpretation, this alternative, these activities are expected and help protect trail-related resources. to increase slightly because of heightened These projects are supported through the awareness of the trail and greater public Challenge Cost Share Program, an interest in the trail and its resources. appropriation from Congress that may not be available every year and THAT requires Under Section 106 of the National partners to provide a minimum of 50% Historic Preservation Act, the National Park matching contribution in the form of funds, Service is required to consider the effects of equipment, in-kind labor, or supplies from undertakings on public properties. The nonfederal sources. Interest in this program development of a trail generally increases is likely to increase—at least temporarily—as public awareness of the routes and publicity associated with the authorization associated resources, and with that of the trail creates interest in trail-related awareness comes an increased sensitivity to National Park Service programs and as new activities that might affect trail resources, partnership opportunities arise. However, encouraging managers to review more changes in land use as a result of these carefully any potential impacts. activities are likely to be rare and minor. Programs that increase awareness about Furthermore, as these projects are initiated the existence of El Camino Real de los Tejas by landowners, they tend to be compatible National Historic Trail may lead to the with existing land-use practices and are development of guidelines designed to viewed both by landowners and the reduce visual and physical impacts from National Park Service as beneficial. development along the trail, helping managers accommodate recreational

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motorized use, hiking, bicycling, equestrian, Clear and consistent hard data about the and other activities along the route. Under economic impact of historic trail this alternative, there would be additional designations are not available. The only funding available for trail-related protection existing study concerns the Overmountain and recreation projects. The National Park Victory National Historic Trail, where the Service views practices that enhance data suggest that the biggest beneficiaries of protection of trail resources as beneficial. trail designation are establishments serving Cumulative Impacts: Although food and beverages and the retail and increased urban development would not lodging industries along the trail route. necessarily decline due to the trail Issues of concern include opportunities to designation, greater awareness of trail create jobs related to tourism and hospitality resources might result in less detectable and federal government expenditures changes in land use. The same would be associated with the administration of the true for other forms of development funds, such as Challenge Cost Share, an described in the cumulative impact appropriation from Congress that may not scenario. Alternative B would encourage be available every year. This program more interest in the protection of requires partners to provide a minimum of resources along the trail, which could 50% matching contribution in the form of entail changes in land use and funds, equipment, in-kind labor, or supplies development trends. These cumulative from nonfederal sources. impacts would be moderate and Socioeconomic impacts were determined beneficial. based on professional expertise and Conclusion: The trends identified under judgment. A qualitative analysis is sufficient the cumulative impacts scenario have the to compare the alternatives for decision- potential to impact land use along the making purposes. trail. However, at the time this plan is The thresholds of change for the intensity being prepared there are no specific of impacts on socioeconomic conditions are development projects being considered defined as follows: that would have major impacts on Negligible: Socioeconomic conditions landownership and use. Alternative B would not be affected, or effects would would result in moderate, beneficial, and not be measurable, or any changes would indirect cumulative impacts on not be related to the trail. landownership and use along the trail. Minor: Changes in socioeconomic conditions would be noticeable and SOCIOECONOMIC CONDITIONS measurable. They would be linked to the Socioeconomic factors include the trail’s designation of the trail and associated effects on social and economic conditions in interpretation and development and counties and parishes crossed by the trail would affect a small percentage of and on landownership. households in the counties and parishes Methodology crossed by the trail. Adverse–Impacts would slightly diminish Socioeconomic data derived from the median household income and United States Census (see Appendix L; employment opportunities. Tables L1-L3, page 249-page 251) and the latest Beneficial–Impacts would result in available tourism information for the states enhanced median household income and of Louisiana and Texas (see Chapter 3, employment opportunities and possibly a Affected Environment, Section on Tourism, slight increase in high school graduation page 108) were used to identify and discuss levels. potential impacts. Moderate: Changes in economic conditions would be very apparent and

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widespread within many of the counties Increased visitation is likely to result in and parishes and would be closely linked small increases in revenues and to trail development. employment associated with expanded Adverse–Impacts would substantially opportunities to provide services and retail reduce median household income and trade to visitors in the communities crossed employment opportunities in various by the trail. Work opportunities in the counties and parishes. heritage tourism program and associated Beneficial–Impacts would substantially industries would increase slightly. The increase median household income and percentage of the population interested in employment opportunities in various furthering their education might increase counties and parishes. slightly, since the heritage tourism industry Major: Changes would be readily would require a certain level of education apparent and clearly attributable to and knowledge about the trail. development associated with the trail. It A very slight impact on economic would substantially change conditions might result from direct socioeconomic conditions, median government expenditures associated with household income, and employment the administration of the trail. Under this opportunities in most of the area crossed alternative, such expenditures would be by the trail. relatively small and geographically Adverse–Impacts would greatly reduce circumscribed. median household income and Cumulative Impacts: Several projects employment opportunities in various identified in the cumulative impact counties and parishes. scenario have the potential to impact Beneficial–Impacts would greatly increase socioeconomic conditions along the trail. median household income and However, at the time this document is employment opportunities in various being prepared, there is no information counties and parishes. on specific projects that would have any type of impact on socioeconomic Alternative A. Continuation of Current conditions along the trail. At this time, it Conditions (No Action) is not possible to speculate on the overall With the exception of San Antonio cumulative effect that these projects Missions National Historical Park and The would have on such conditions. Alamo, most sites along El Camino Real de Conclusion: Some minor los Tejas National Historic Trail receive socioeconomic benefits are likely to relatively few visitors. Total visitation result from trail development activities: figures for all 15 state sites and museums for increased visitation and government which data are available (see Chapter 3, expenditures associated with the Affected Environment, Table L-6, page 254) development of this alternative. indicate a total of slightly in excess of Alternative A would result in minor, one-quarter million visitors a year, but long-term, and indirect beneficial many of those visits are not associated with impacts on socioeconomic conditions the designated trail. Visitors are mostly along the trail. attracted to the recreational opportunities offered by sites along the trail, and even Alternative B, Preferred Alternative. though several of these facilities have trail Trail Development through Partnerships resources, few have interpretation programs that are specifically trail related. Efforts to protect, develop, maintain, and interpret the trail would create some Trail development activities, such as the new localized and relatively minor installation of signage and expansion of spending. Expenditures for labor and interpretation programs, have the potential materials would be short term and would to attract additional visitors to the trail. accrue to a few individuals or firms. Some

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of the small communities along the trail learn about natural and cultural history would likely benefit from increased and to search for the trail. Federal visitation and related expenditures. Local expenditures under this alternative businesses, such as food service, lodging, would be greater and possibly less camping stores, sporting goods, and circumscribed geographically. While bookstores would receive some benefits there would be a beneficial impact from from sales to visitors. It would be possible such expenditures, it would be minor. that small bed and breakfast establishments Alternative B would result in minor, operated by private landowners would open beneficial, long-term, and indirect as a result. cumulative impacts on socioeconomic With the exception of San Antonio conditions along the trail Missions National Historical Park and The Alamo, most sites along El Camino Real de UNACCEPTABLE IMPACTS los Tejas National Historic Trail receive The National Park Service must prevent relatively few visitors. Total visitation any activities that would impair park figures for all 15 state sites and museums for resources and values. The impact threshold which data are available (see Appendix L, at which impairment occurs is not always Table L-6, page 254) indicate a total of slightly readily apparent. Therefore, the National in excess of one-quarter million visitors a Park Service applies standards that offer year. It should be noted that many of those greater assurance that impairment will not visits are not triggered by the presence of occur. The National Park Service will do the designated trail. Visitors are mostly this by avoiding impacts that it determines attracted to the recreational opportunities to be unacceptable. These are impacts that offered by sites along the trail, and even fall short of impairment, but are still not though many of these facilities have trail acceptable within a particular park’s resources, few have any interpretation environment. Park managers must not program that is specifically trail related. allow uses that would cause unacceptable Cumulative Impacts: Several projects impacts; they must evaluate existing or identified in the cumulative impact proposed uses and determine whether the scenario have the potential to impact associated impacts on resources and values socioeconomic conditions along the trail. are acceptable. However, at the time this document is To determine if unacceptable impacts being prepared, there is no information could occur to the resources and values of on specific projects that would have any El Camino Real de los Tejas, the impacts of type of impact on socioeconomic the proposed actions in this environmental conditions along the trail. At this time it is assessment were evaluated based on not possible to speculate on the overall monitoring information, published cumulative effect that these projects research, and professional expertise, and would have on such conditions. compared to the guidance on unacceptable Conclusion: Implementing this impacts provided in Management Policies alternative is likely to strengthen the 1.4.7.1 that defines unacceptable impacts as regional and state economies through impacts that, individually or cumulatively, increased tourism revenues. Increased would: visitation to trail-related sites, segments, • Be inconsistent with a trail’s purposes and establishments would result in minor or values, or growth in economic activity not only in those communities along the trail • Impede the attainment of a trail’s corridor but possibly in Texas and desired future conditions for natural Louisiana as a whole, because visitors and cultural resources as identified might extend their stay in the trail area if through the trail’s planning process, or there are additional opportunities to

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• Create an unsafe or unhealthful for natural and cultural resources along environment for visitors or employees, or the trail. Alternative A would be less • Diminish opportunities for current or likely to enhance research and foster future generations to enjoy, learn the development of more adequate about, or be inspired by trail resources protection strategies. or values, or • Neither alternative would create an • Unreasonably interfere with: unsafe or unhealthful environment for visitors or employees. Under  trail programs or activities, or Alternative B, trail development an appropriate use, or projects would be more likely to enhance visitor safety by providing the atmosphere of peace and adequate parking and safe access to tranquility, or the natural resources. soundscape maintained in wilderness and natural, historic, or • Under either alternative, visitors would commemorative locations along the continue to have opportunities to trail. enjoy, learn about, or be inspired by trail resources and values. Neither By preventing unacceptable impacts, alternative would change the overall trail administrators work with partners to opportunities available to visitors. ensure that the proposed use of trail Alternative A would maintain visitor resources will not conflict with the use and experience exactly as it is now. conservation of those resources. In this Alternative B would substantially manner, the trail administrators ensure enhance opportunities for visitors to compliance with the National Park Service understand and appreciate resources Organic Act’s separate mandate to conserve and would provide enhanced resources and values. Using the guidance recreational opportunities. above (see bullets), the following text analyzes the potential for unacceptable • Neither alternative would interfere impacts for all alternatives carried forward with programs or activities, in this Environmental Assessment. appropriate uses, or an atmosphere of peace and tranquility along the trail. • Both alternatives are consistent with Alternative B, through its emphasis on the trail’s purposes and values. The partnerships, would enhance all trail trail was established with the purpose programs. Through its emphasis on of identifying and protecting a trail awareness it would tend to “historic route and its historic maintain an atmosphere of peace and remnants and artifacts for public use tranquility along the designated routes and enjoyment.” If Alternative A were and would be more likely to encourage selected, this might result in the loss of appropriate uses. resources, a loss that would increase with the passage of time. This loss Overall, the analysis of effects on trail would limit opportunities for the resources, interpretation, and visitor use public to use the trail and enjoy its indicates that there are no major adverse resources. If Alternative B, the effects under either alternative; effects were preferred alternative, were selected, analyzed as negligible to moderate. Based the trail administration would be on this, and the above analysis, there would better able to prevent the loss of be no unacceptable impacts from resources and would be better Alternative A (No Action) or Alternative B equipped to provide for public use and (Preferred) enjoyment. • Neither alternative would impede the attainment of desired future conditions

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IMPAIRMENT would have major or significant effects. This Environmental Assessment identifies Impairment is an impact that in the less than major effects for all resource professional judgment of responsible topics. Guided by this analysis and the National Park Service’s managers would Superintendent’s professional judgment, harm the integrity of resources and values. there would be no impairment of trail National Park Service’s Management resources and values from the Policies, 2006 require the analysis of potential effects to determine whether or implementation of either alternative. not actions would impair resources. The fundamental purpose of the National Park System, established by the Organic Act and reaffirmed by the General Authorities Act, as amended, begins with a mandate to conserve resources and values. National Park Service managers must always seek ways to avoid, or to minimize to the greatest degree practicable, adversely impacting resources and values. However, the laws do give the National Park Service management discretion to allow impacts to resources and values when necessary and appropriate, as long as the impact does not constitute impairment of the affected resources and values. Although Congress has given the National Park Service the management discretion to allow certain impacts, that discretion is limited by the statutory requirement that the National Park Service must leave resources and values unimpaired, unless a particular law directly and specifically provides otherwise. An impact to any resource or value may, but does not necessarily, constitute an impairment, but an impact would be more likely to constitute an impairment when there is a major or severe adverse effect upon a resource or value whose conservation is: • necessary to fulfill specific purposes identified in the establishing legislation; • key to the natural or cultural integrity of the trail; or • identified as a goal in the trail’s general management plan or other relevant National Park Service planning documents. The National Park Service’s threshold for considering whether there could be an impairment is based on whether an action

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INTRODUCTION 4) How will the perspectives of all people associated with the trail’s history be included in interpretive and SCOPING MEETINGS educational materials? During the scoping process, the 5) How can American and Mexican planning team informed local, state, and perspectives on the trail be increased? federal agencies and the public about the 6) What is the most effective use of development of the Comprehensive partnerships to achieve goals for the Management Plan/Environmental trail’s future? Assessment and solicited their comments in Verbal and written comments received order to identify issues and questions to during the scoping period and during these consider when developing the management meetings were considered in the plan. The 60-day scoping period took place development of the alternatives presented in between March 28 and May 31, 2007. this draft. The scoping meetings were announced through media releases, in two different FEDERAL AGENCIES websites, and in a newsletter specifying local schedules and meeting venues. The Less than 1% of land along El Camino Texas Historical Commission assisted by Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail is announcing the scoping meetings and the publicly owned. Aside from San Antonio scoping process through their listserv at Missions National Historical Park and Cane [email protected]. River Creole National Historical Park, tx.us which are managed by the National Park Service, the only other public lands adjacent Chambers of commerce in individual to the trail are portions of lands managed communities also released scoping meeting by the U.S.D.A. Forest Service. U.S.D.A. information. Eight public meetings took Forest Service personnel were contacted place in locations along the trail, from during the early stage of the planning Laredo, Texas, to Natchitoches, Louisiana. process. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service The meetings were attended by nearly 200 scientists from the Southwest and Southeast people. Among the attendees were regional offices were consulted about representatives from 60 private, state, and federally listed threatened and endangered federal entities. Written and verbal species found along the trail corridor. comments are summarized and available at www.nps.gov/elte STATE AND LOCAL AGENCIES A series of planning issues, posed as the questions listed below, were presented to the This document was developed in close public for consideration, both in the consultation with the Texas Historical newsletter and in the public meetings: Commission, the agency designatedas a key partner in this project by the Texas State 1) How will trail-related resources, Legislature. Staff from the Texas Division of including historic buildings and sites, Archeology at the Texas Historical archeological resources, and cultural Commission offered valuable assistance in landscapes be identified and identifying high potential sites and protected? segments. The National Trails 2) How will visitors learn about and be Intermountain Region has also taken the directed to trail-related cultural and lead in highlighting possible construction recreational activities? projects that might adversely impact 3) How will coordinated trailwide significant trail resources. The Louisiana interpretation and education be Department of Culture, Recreation, and provided to visitors and local residents? Tourism has been equally helpful.

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The Texas Historical Commission also The planning team traveled the entire conducted a preliminary survey of length of the trail several times. Concerted information on resources associated with efforts to assess resources and to gather the trail. The information received was input from interested trail advocates and voluminous and demonstrated widespread landowners took place throughout the enthusiasm for the trail. It included process. Starting in the fall of 2007, several documentation on museums, visitor trips were made to Louisiana and East and centers, community events, and festivals, as South Texas to meet with interested parties, well as the description of numerous sites discuss trail-related issues, and develop and segments. These materials were familiarity with the resources. Meetings compiled and were of assistance to the took place in Yorktown (DeWitt County), contractor who developed the historic Pearsall (Frio County), Victoria (Victoria resource database for the state of Texas. County), Goliad, Bryan/College Station Both the Texas and the Louisiana (Brazos County), Rockdale (Milam departments of transportation have been County), and many other locations. important partners in developing this plan. Presentations at professional meetings and They will continue to collaborate with the workshops also attempted to provide the National Trails Intermountain Region to public with updates about the planning develop signage plans and other pertinent document. projects. In Louisiana, members of the planning The planning team received great team also met with representatives of two support during this process by staff from state-recognized tribes: the Adai Indian McKinney Falls, Fort Boggy, and Mission Nation and the Choctaw-Apache Tejas state parks, managed by the Texas Community of Ebarb. Parks and Wildlife Department, and Caddo Mounds State Historic Park, managed by ORGANIZATIONS the Texas Historical Commission; these are El Camino Real de los Tejas National all public parks with significant trail Historic Trail Association played a key role resources. Staff from the Texas Parks and in the development of this draft plan. Wildlife Department Division of Historic Members contributed information and Sites also joined the planning team in assisted the planning team in identifying assessing high potential sites and segments. resources of significance and arranging for They have worked closely with the National landowners to become involved in this Trails Intermountain Region and will planning effort. County and parish historic become an important partner in the commissions were also important in implementation phase of the plan. providing information and assisting in Interested landowners, members of El organizing meetings and visiting sites. Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Trail Association, and other trail advocates EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS also assisted the team in providing access to significant sites or important information. There are several institutions of higher learning along the trail. An effort was made throughout this planning effort to contact PUBLIC OUTREACH those faculty members who are recognized The planning team developed a list of trail experts or who could make a sizable contacts of nearly 1,000 individuals and contribution to this project. entities who have received newsletters and other pertinent materials, such as a DVD, On the Road to Partnerships, prepared to support the planning effort.

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CONSULTATION WITH AMERICAN and other tribes. Some tribes voluntarily INDIAN TRIBES removed to other states. Today, many of their descendants have still not been GOVERNMENT-TO-GOVERNMENT granted federal recognition as American CONSULTATION Indian tribes, even though they are Government-to-government acknowledged as “State Recognized Tribes” consultation is the basic means by which in the state where they live. American Indian tribes and federal agencies It is the policy of the National Trails approach and resolve differences in the Intermountain Region to abide by the application of policies and regulations. language contained in the National Historic Government-to-government consultation Preservation Act (16 U.S.C. 470w): recognizes that tribes are sovereign nations An Indian tribe means an Indian tribe, within the United States and that there is a band, nation, or other organized group unique legal and historic relationship of community, including a Native Vil- between the United States government and lage, Regional Corporation or Village Indian tribes, shaped by treaties, Corporation, as those terms are defined congressional acts, court decisions, in Section 3 of the Alaska Native Claims executive orders, and other actions of the Settlement Act (43 U.S.C. 1602), which Executive Branch. is recognized as eligible for the special Numerous laws require agencies to programs and services provided by the consult with American Indian tribes on United States to Indians because of their federal actions. Federal actions are defined status as Indians. as projects, activities, or programs funded The key word in this law is “recognized,” in whole or in part under the direct or meaning federally recognized tribes. It is indirect jurisdiction of a federal agency, the policy of the National Trails including those carried out by or on behalf Intermountain Region to abide by a of a federal agency; those carried out with government-to-government relationship federal financial assistance; those requiring with federally recognized tribes; however, a federal permit, license, or approval; and this government-to-government those subject to state or local regulation, relationship does not apply to groups who pursuant to a delegation or approval by a are not federally recognized. federal agency. The decision for an agency to enter into government-to-government consultation with American Indian tribes Methodology depends upon the agency’s adherence to Recognizing the important role played federal law, regulation, and agency policy, by American Indian groups in establishing as well as on the nature and scale of the routes that later became El Camino Real de project. Tribal governments may also, at los Tejas National Historic Trail, the their discretion, request formal planning team made a special effort to consultation on issues of interest. engage all potentially affected American The challenge for administrators of El Indian groups in the planning process. Camino Real de los Tejas National Historic Formal consultation began in October Trail is that, historically, Louisiana and 2007. All federally recognized tribes in Texas, the states through which the trail Texas and Louisiana were contacted. Some passes, had a very aggressive policy of of these tribes reside in Texas and removing American Indian tribes from Louisiana, while others are located in their native lands. Federal removal Oklahoma. The former include the programs in the 19th century required Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas, the many American tribes to move to lands that Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas, the were not their home. Such was the case for Louisiana Coushatta Indian Tribe, the the Caddo, Wichita, Tonkawa, Comanche, Louisiana Jena Band of Choctaw Indians,

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the Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana, and the reflect the Caddo’s perspective. Louisiana Tunica-Biloxi Tribe. Federally The Caddo Tribal Council also recognized tribes residing in Oklahoma expressed support for signage and include the Caddo, the Comanche, the interpretation programs along the trail, Tonkawa, the Kiowa, and the Wichita & particularly at Caddo sites. The tribal Affiliated tribes. council reminded the National Trails After initial phone contacts, members of Intermountain Region that all Caddo site the planning team made visits to a number are sacred and should be accorded that of these groups: the Kickapoo in April 2008; recognition in resource management and the Caddo in October 2007, February and interpretation activities. March 2008, and March 2009; and the The executive director of the Comanche Comanche, the Tonkawa, and the Wichita Nation of Oklahoma has also expressed & Affiliated tribes in October 2007. interest in participating in the development In an effort to solicit input from as many of El Camino Real de los Tejas National associated and interested parties as Historic Trail. possible, the planning team also met with TRIBAL LISTENING SESSIONS representatives from two non-federally recognized tribal entities in Louisiana in Tribal listening sessions in association September 2007. These meetings did not with public review of the Comprehensive represent government-to-government Management Plan for El Camino Real los consultation. And, although the Tejas National Historic Trail took place in representatives expressed interest in Austin, Texas (August 31-September 1, 2010) participating in the project, the input they and in Lawton, Oklahoma (December 9, offered for incorporation in this plan was 2010). limited, due to changes in personnel or The overall objective of these sessions other issues. The planning team will was to encourage the participation of the continue to work with these groups, as their federally recognized tribes in planning for perspectives are key in the future the future development of the trail and to interpretive program for the trail. help them understand the role of trail administration, the strength of partnership On March 2009, at a meeting with the efforts, and how the National Park Service Caddo Nation Tribal Council in Binger, can support such efforts. Oklahoma, further government-to- The specific objectives of the listening government consultation took place, and sessions included the following: focused on the development of this • Explain the designation of a national document. Several issues were discussed, historic trail and the role of the National among them the identification of sites, Trails Intermountain Region office in landmarks, and sacred places along the administering trails; trail-designated routes that are important • Explain the role of partnerships in trail to the Caddo Nation. administration using El Camino Real de The discussion also focused on the Los Tejas National Historic Trail development of an oral history program to Association as an example; record stories from tribal elders before they • Provide opportunities for dialogue pass on. The Caddo Tribal Council among tribes, the National Park Service expressed interest in working with the and the trail association; National Trails Intermountain Region to • Explain the Challenge Cost Share tell the ”real” stories of the Caddo and El Program and the process of Cooperative Camino Real. The tribal council viewed the Agreements and how this would benefit the opportunity to participate in the tribes; development of this document as a way to • request tribal response to the following allow the Caddo Nation to partner in questions: developing interpretive materials that a. How can we actively involve the tribes? Page 144 Chapter 5: Consultation and Coordination

b. How can we incorporate tribal interests in resource identification and protection as well as education? c. How can we include tribal perspectives in telling the story of El Camino Real de Los Tejas National Historic Trail? All federally recognized tribes identified in this document as associated with the trail were invited. The Superintendent of the National Trails Intermountain Region, who attended both sessions, highlighted the crucial role of establishing a dialogue with federally recognized American Indian tribes early on in the process of trail administration. He stressed that tribal involvement is highly essential in identifying and protecting resources, including traditional cultural properties, as well as in the development of educational opportunities. He also explained the potential for technical assistance to the tribes through the Challenge Cost Share Program as well as interpretive/educational programs that would highlight the American Indian perspective in narrating the history of the American Indian peoples and their association to the trail. The tribal representatives who attended these sessions believe that archival materials on which history is based, quite often only present one point of view and fail to accurately reflect the whole truth and, in particular, the perspective of the tribes. Tribal representatives also expressed the need to develop a relationship of trust. All participants acknowledged that building trust would take considerable time and effort on the part of the American Indians as well as the National Trails Intermountain Region staff and the members of the trail association. Both listening sessions ended with a series of recommendations that would foster better communication between the National Park Service and the tribes, lead to more effective cooperation, and eventually bring about a level of confidence and trust among a wide array of trail partners.

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