Introduction: 'Those Far-Reaching Visions of the Past'

Notes

Introduction: ‘Those Far-Reaching Visions of the Past’

1. G. Eliot, Adam Bede (1859), with an introduction by Stephen Gill (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 49. 2. L. P. Hartley, The Go-Between (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1958), p. 7. The quote is also used, but to an entirely different effect, by William Baker, in ‘Memory: Eliot and Lewes “The Past is a Foreign Country: They Do Things Differently There”’, George Eliot–George Henry Lewes Studies, 24–5 (September 1993), pp. 118–31. 3. E. Said, Culture and Imperialism (London: Vintage, 1994), p. xiii. 4. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), p. 6. 5. Ibid. 6. Throughout this study a discrimination will be made between ‘History’ as signifier, i.e. the representation of past events (e.g. historiography), and ‘history’ as signified, i.e. the past events themselves. This implies a distinction between representation and historical event that is unfortunate (and probably, outside the context of this study, unsustainable). However, it is a vocabulary intended to reflect a separation in the minds of the philosophers and writers alluded to, not to reflect an inevitability. This distinction is also delineated, with great clarity and perspicacity, in Jim Reilly’s Shadowtime: History and Representation in Hardy, Conrad and George Eliot (London: Routledge, 1993). 7. Though this term has become definitely associated with one particular critic, Hayden White, the term metahistory does have a more general reso- nance, as highlighted in Adrian Kuzminski’s ‘Defending Historical Realism’, History and Theory, 18:1 (1979), pp. 326–49. Kuzminski sees metahistory as that strand of criticism whose subject matter is historiography: that which deals often, though not exclusively, with the rhetorical or structural premises on which historiography is founded. 8. A. Dwight Culler, The Victorian Mirror of History (London: Yale University Press, 1985), p. viii. Unlike Georg Lukács, Culler implicates Walter Scott as being ‘primarily responsible for historicizing the imagination of the

147 148 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

English people’. Quite what influenced Scott himself in his interest in history, Culler is less forthcoming about. 9. P. A. Dale, The Victorian Critic and the Idea of History: Carlyle, Arnold, Pater (London: Harvard University Press, 1977), p. 2. 10. G. Lukács, The Historical Novel, translated from the German by Hannah and Stanley Mitchell (London: Pelican, 1981), p. 20. Lukács explains the development of this mass experience in terms of the French Revolution and its aftermath. 11. Ibid., p. 22. 12. T. Carlyle, ‘On History’, in A Carlyle Reader, ed. G. B. Tennyson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 56. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid. 15. Culler, The Victorian Mirror of History, p. vii. 16. A. Sanders, The Victorian Historical Novel 1840–1880 (London: Macmillan, 1978), p. 1. 17. J. S. Mill, ‘Of the Inverse Deductive, or Historical Method’, in John Stuart Mill: On Politics and Society, ed. Geraint L. Williams (Glasgow: Fontana/Collins, 1976), p. 75. 18. See J. S. Mill, Auguste Comte and Positivism (London: Longmans, 1865). 19. J. Buckley, The Triumph of Time: A Study of the Victorian Concepts of Time, History, Progress, and Decadence (London: Harvard University Press, 1967), p. 6. 20. R. Aron, Main Currents in Sociological Thought Vol. 1 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977), p. 63. 21. See W. Baker (ed.), The George Eliot–George Henry Lewes Library: An Annotated Catalogue of Their Books at Dr. Williams’s Library, London (London: Garland, 1977), p. xx (Table I). According to Baker 40 per cent of the books in the library were on broadly scientific themes. 22. G. Beer, Darwin’s Plots: Evolutionary Narrative in Darwin, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Fiction (London: Ark, 1985), p. 154. 23. S. Shuttleworth, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Science: The Make- Believe of a Beginning (London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. xii. 24. Eliot, Adam Bede, p. 218. 25. G. Eliot, Middlemarch (1872), with an introduction by W. J. Harvey (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 25. 26. GE to Mme Bodichon, 5 December 1859, The George Eliot Letters: Vols 1–9, ed. Gordon S. Haight (London: Yale University Press, 1954–78), III, p. 227. 27. GE to Sara Sophia Hennell, 6 November 1858, The George Eliot Letters, II, p. 496. 28. GE to Mrs Richard Congreve, 16 January 1867, The George Eliot Letters, IV, p. 333. 29. GHL and GE to Sara Sophia Hennell, 9–10 July 1860, The George Eliot Letters, III, p. 320. 30. See Frederic Harrison to GE, 12 June 1877, The George Eliot Letters, IX, p. 194. 31. T. R. Wright, ‘George Eliot and Positivism’, Modern Language Review, 76 (1981), pp. 257–72. 32. T. R. Wright, ‘From Bumps to Morals: the Phrenological Background to Notes 149

George Eliot’s Moral Framework’, Review of English Studies, 33 (1982), pp. 35–46. 33. GE to Frederic Harrison, 15 August 1866, The George Eliot Letters, IV, p. 300. 34. A. Comte, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte in Two Volumes, trans. Harriet Martineau (London: J. Chapman, 1853), I, p. 3. 35. B. Paris, Experiments in Life: George Eliot’s Quest for Values (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1965), p. 15. 36. J. F. Stephen, ‘Buckle’s History of Civilization in England’, Edinburgh Review, 107 (1858), p. 466. 37. J. P. Kenyon, The History Men: The Historical Profession in England Since the Renaissance (London: Wiedenfeld & Nicolson, 1983), p. 108. Kenyon explains that although Macaulay, Carlyle and Acton scoffed at his work, Spencer, Huxley and Mill craved his company. He was elected to the Athenaeum and gave a lecture at the Royal Institution (p. 133). 38. J. W. Cross, George Eliot’s Life: As Related in her Letters and Journals (Edinburgh: William Blackwood, 1885), p. 232. 39. Ibid., p. 235. 40. Ibid., pp. 253–4. 41. Ibid., p. 338. 42. See Baker, The George Eliot–George Henry Lewes Library, p. 196 (entry 2107). The essay, deeply critical of Buckle, appeared in Fraser’s Magazine, 87 (April 1873) pp. 482–99. 43. In The Liberal Anglican Idea of History (London: Cambridge University Press, 1952), Duncan Forbes discriminates between the Liberal Anglican ‘science of history’ (process) and the ‘philosophy of history’ (progress) (p. 60). Natural development is governed by laws whereas moral development was by free will (‘under God’s Providence’ (p. 145)). 44. Ibid., p. 149. 45. Ibid., p. 4. 46. T. Arnold, ‘Essay on the Social Progress of States’ (1830), in The Miscellaneous Works of Thomas Arnold: Collected and Republished, ed. A. P. Stanley (London: B. Fellowes, 1845), p. 81. 47. Arnold, ‘Essay on the Social Progress of States’, p. 111. 48. Sanders, The Victorian Historical Novel, p. 176. 49. H. Fraser, The Victorians and Renaissance Italy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), p. 38. 50. H. Witemeyer, in ‘George Eliot’s Romola and Bulwer-Lytton’s Rienzi’ (Studies in the Novel, 15 (1983), pp. 62–73) has explained this demand for historiographical accuracy in relation to the dominance of empiricism within historical circles during this period. 51. Sanders, The Victorian Historical Novel, p. 3. 52. H. E. Shaw, The Forms of Historical Fiction (London: Cornell University Press, 1983), p. 30. 53. H. James, ‘The Life of George Eliot’, in Essays on Literature: American Writers, English Writers, ed. Library of America (New York: Library of America, 1984), p. 1005. 54. L. Stephen, George Eliot (London: Macmillan, 1904), p. 137. 55. K. M. Newton, George Eliot: Romantic Humanist (London: Macmillan, 1981), p. 14. 150 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

56. G. Eliot, ‘Silly Novels by Lady Novelists’, in George Eliot: Selected Critical Writings, ed. Rosemary Ashton (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 316. 57. J. Bayley, ‘The Pastoral of Intellect’, in Critical Essays on George Eliot, ed. Barbara Hardy (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970), p. 200. 58. U. C. Knoepflmacher, George Eliot’s Early Novels – the Limits of Realism (Berkeley: California University Press, 1968), p. 22. 59. D. Morse, High Victorian Culture (London: Macmillan, 1993), p. 337. 60. Ibid. 61. J. Goode, ‘Adam Bede’, in Critical Essays on George Eliot, p. 37. 62. A. Kettle, ‘Felix Holt the Radical’, Critical Essays on George Eliot, p. 99. 63. B. Semmel, The Liberal Ideal and the Demons of Empire: Theories of Imperialism from Adam Smith to Lenin (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), p. 4. 64. GHL to John Blackwood, 28 May 1861, The George Eliot Letters, III, p. 420. 65. J. Dollimore and A. Sinfield (eds), Political Shakespeare: Essays in Cultural Materialism (London: Manchester University Press, 1994), p. 6. 66. Ibid., p. 10. Dollimore identifies these three as relating to, respectively, the ‘means whereby a dominant order seeks to perpetuate itself’, the ‘subversion of that order’ and the ‘containment of ostensibly subversive pressures’. 67. Ibid., p. 7. 68. P. Coveney, ‘Introduction’ to Felix Holt (1866) (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980), p. 8. 69. U. C. Knoepflmacher, ‘Fusing Fact and Myth: the New Reality of Middlemarch’, in Essays on ‘Middlemarch’: This Particular Web, ed. Ian Adam (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1975), p. 68. 70. H. James, ‘Middlemarch: A Study of Provincial Life’, in Essays on Literature: American Writers, English Writers, p. 965. 71. Anderson, Imagined Communities, p. 19. 72. Fraser, The Victorians and Renaissance Italy, p. 2. 73. Ibid., p. 34. 74. Reilly, Shadowtime, p. 114. 75. Ibid., p. 39. 76. R. Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 80. 77. Ibid., p. 22. 78. C. Parker, The English Historical Tradition Since 1850 (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1990), p. 4. 79. Semmel, The Liberal Ideal and the Demons of Empire, p. 11. 80. As Parker illustrates, in The English Historical Tradition, six ‘types’ of philosophy of History (chance, Divine Providence, decadence, progress, cycles and antithesis) are represented within British historiography; however, they are not exclusive to it (see p. 87 for instance). Notes 151

Chapter 1 George Eliot and the (Meta)Narrativity of History

1. ‘George Eliot’ will be used throughout, even when referring to material written prior to the adoption of the pseudonym. Although anachronistic, the intention is to provide clarity. 2. G. Eliot, ‘Leaves from a Notebook’, in Essays of George Eliot, ed. Thomas Pinney (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963), p. 446. 3. D. Carroll, ‘Middlemarch and the Externality of Fact’, in Essays on ‘Middlemarch’: This Particular Web, ed. Ian Adam (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1975), p. 73. 4. Of the so-called ‘official Realists’ in French nineteenth-century art (a loose collective that included Tassaert, Ribot and Pils) Gustave Courbet is perhaps the most well known. Stephen Eisenman, in Nineteenth-Century Art: A Critical History (London: Thames & Hudson, 1994), sees such works as A Burial at Ornans, The Stonebreakers and Peasants of Flagey Returning from the Fair, in which colours are ‘earthen and clotted’ and the subjects treated ‘unflinchingly and so monumentally’, as marks of a distinct ‘kind of liberation from the reigning juste milieu’ (p. 212). 5. This is a not unnoticed parallel. See Karen B. Mann’s ‘George Eliot and Wordsworth: The Power of Sound and the Power of the Mind’, Studies in English Literature, 20 (1980), pp. 675–94 and also Q. D. Leavis’s introduction to Silas Marner (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985). 6. G. Eliot, ‘The Morality of Wilhelm Meister’, in George Eliot: Selected Essays, Poems and Other Writings, eds A. S. Byatt and Nicholas Warren (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990), p. 309. 7. Ibid. 8. R. Williams, The Country and the City (London: Chatto & Windus, 1973), p. 168. 9. D. Cottom, Social Figures: George Eliot, Social History, and Literary Representation, with a foreword by T. Eagleton (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1987), p. 60. 10. S. Dentith, George Eliot (Brighton: Harvester, 1986), p. 36. 11. Eliot’s failure to realize an authentic working-class experience is surely inevitable; such an authenticity must always be mythical. As Sneja Gunew has perceptively argued, ‘the whole notion of authenticity, of the authentic . . . experience, is one that comes to us constructed by hegemonic voices’: ‘Questions of Multiculturalism’, in Sarah Harasym (ed.), The Post-Colonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 61. What is of concern in this study is the character of these hegemonic voices, i.e. the ideological imprints that are most apparent in Eliot’s attempt to achieve authenticity, and what the implications of these might be. 12. Eliot, ‘Worldliness and Other-Worldliness: The Poet Young’, in Byatt and Warren (eds) (1990), p. 194. 13. Ibid. 14. Eliot, ‘Leaves from a Notebook: Historic Imagination’, in Pinney (ed.) (1963), p. 447. 15. Eliot, ‘Westward Ho! and Constance Herbert’, in Pinney (ed.) (1963), p. 134. 16. Eliot, ‘The Natural History of German Life’, in Pinney (ed.) (1963), p. 268. 152 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

17. Ibid., pp. 268–9. 18. Ibid., p. 271. She judges artistic production as more real, or rather less arti- ficial than aspects such as ‘the manners and conversation of beaux and duchesses’. 19. Eliot, ‘R. W. Mackay’s The Progress of the Intellect’, in Byatt and Warren (eds) (1990), p. 268. 20. Ibid., p. 269. 21. Though by this point the Westminster Review was under the ownership of John Chapman, critics have been in little doubt that the driving force behind the editorial policy for the magazine in these early stages (this article was published in January 1852) was George Eliot. 22. Eliot, ‘Prospectus of the Westminster and Foreign Quarterly Review’, in Byatt and Warren (eds) (1990), p. 4. 23. These areas included the extension of the franchise (with the ultimate aim of universality), the extension of constitutional government to the colonies, free trade, and judicial reform (especially the Court of Chancery). Ecclesiastical revenues were to be revised, a national education established, and university and public school discrimination on the grounds of sect abolished. 24. Eliot, ‘Silly Novels by Lady Novelists’, in Byatt and Warren (eds) (1990), p. 128. 25. Eliot, ‘Worldliness and Other-Worldliness: The Poet Young’, in Byatt & Warren (eds) (1990), p. 164. 26. Eliot, ‘The Natural History of German Life’, in Byatt & Warren (eds) (1990), p. 122. 27. Ibid., p. 128. 28. G. Eliot, ‘Ruskin’s Lectures’, in George Eliot: A Writer’s Notebook (1854– 1879) and Uncollected Writings, ed. Joseph Wiesenfarth (Charlottesville: Virginia University Press, 1981), p. 240. 29. Eliot, ‘The Natural History of German Life’, in Pinney (ed.) (1963), p. 279. 30. Eliot, ‘Worldliness and Other-Worldliness: The Poet Young’, in Byatt and Warren (eds) (1990), p. 198. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid. 33. Eliot, ‘The Natural History of German Life’, in Pinney (ed.) (1963), p. 271. 34. G. Eliot, Romola (1863), with an introduction by Andrew Sanders (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980), p. 182. 35. Eliot, ‘Charles Kingsley’s Westward Ho!’, in Pinney (ed.) (1963), p. 126. 36. L. Bersani, ‘Realism and the Fear of Desire’, in Realism, ed. Lilian Furst (London: Longman, 1992), p. 241. 37. The interrelation of different subject areas and disciplines is placed in context by Noel Annan in his essay ‘Science, Religion, and the Critical Mind’, in 1859: Entering an Age of Crisis, eds Philip Appleman, William A. Madden and Michael Wolff (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1959), p. 30. He says ‘today we think of knowledge as a set of different subjects, each with its own discipline; but when in 1852 Cambridge, responding to demands to broaden its curriculum, instituted the Natural Sciences and the Moral Science Triposes, the names reflected the implicit assumption that knowledge was a unity.’ Notes 153

38. A. Tilley, ‘The New School of Fiction’, in A Victorian Art of Fiction, Vol. III, ed. John Charles Olmstead (London: Garland, 1979), p. 262. 39. J. C. Olmstead, Preface to A Victorian Art of Fiction, Vol. II (London: Garland, 1979), p. xiii. 40. H. James, The House of Fiction, ed. Leon Edel (London: Mercury, 1962), p. 33. 41. S. Bann, The Clothing of Clio: A Study of the Representation of History in Nineteenth-Century Britain and France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 2. Bann sees the production of these ‘forgeries’, ill- conceived and executed historical recreations, as the most ‘distinguishing mark’ of the period 1750–1850 in England. 42. See Eliot, ‘Silly Novels by Lady Novelists’, in Byatt and Warren (eds) (1990). 43. As Gordon Haight reveals in his George Eliot: A Biography (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), this applies to all the novels. For instance, those critics who ‘draw a sharp distinction’ between the early novels, ‘inspired by imagination working through memory’, and the later ones, ‘contrived laboriously by intellect’, simply ‘do not realize how care- fully George Eliot studied the background for the most natural of them, Adam Bede’ (p. 249). 44. See ‘Interesting Intelligence from various parts of the country’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 69 (January 1799), ‘The Royal Excursion’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 69 (September 1799), and ‘Domestic Occurrences’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 69 (February 1799). These feature as items 62 and 63 in George Eliot: A Writer’s Notebook, Wiesenfarth (ed.) (1981). 45. See entry 68 of George Eliot: A Writer’s Notebook. This includes ‘Proceedings in Parliament, 1801’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 71 (July 1801); ‘Proceedings of the last session of Parliament’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 71 (September 1801); ‘Residence of Clergy’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 71 (October 1801); ‘Dignity of Clergy’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 71 (December 1801), and ‘Appendix to the Chronicle’, Annual Register, 1799 (the latter regarding bread prices). 46. See entry 63 in Wiesenfarth (ed.) (1981); J. Holt, ‘Meteorological Diaries for July and August 1799’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 69 (August 1799); ‘Meteorological Diaries for August and September 1799’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 69 (September 1799); ‘Meteorological Diaries for September and October 1799’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 69 (October 1799); ‘Meteorological Diaries for October and November 1799’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 69 (November 1799), and also ‘County News, September 8’, Gentleman’s Magazine, 69 (October 1799). 47. Entry 69 in Wiesenfarth (ed.) (1981) illustrates how, in January 1859, George Eliot copied accounts of inundations from the register in the British Museum. For example, she notes how in November 1771 the weather ‘brought on the great floods’, and she looked up details on the River Trent to ascertain what the physical conditions of rivers were where inundations had occurred. In addition, the Carl H. Pforzheimer Library’s Eliot notebooks reveal that the Annual Register was accessed by George Eliot in 1852 (MS 707, entry no. 2), 1855 (MS 711, entry no. 2), 1856 (MS 711, entry no. 2), 1861 (MS 711, nos 1,2), 1865 (MS 711, entry nos 3–8), 154 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

1866 (MS 711, entry nos 1–11) and 1867 (MS 711, entry nos 1–3). See W. Baker (ed.), Some George Eliot Notebooks: An Edition of the Carl H. Pforzheimer Library’s George Eliot Holograph Notebooks, MSS 707, 708, 709, 710, 711 (Salzburg: University of Salzburg, 1976–85). 48. In addition to the five-week visit to Florence as a whole, Haight (p. 344) draws attention to the five solid days she spent in the Magliabecchian library. 49. Haight, George Eliot: A Biography, p. 381. 50. Ibid., p. 469. The superstitions were discussed in Cornhill, 25 (June 1872) in an article by R. A. Proctor. 51. The appendix to G. Eliot, Middlemarch Notebooks: A Transcription, eds J. C. Pratt and V. A. Neufeldt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), contains a list of all the works known to have been consulted during this period, though it concedes that it is far from exhaustive. 52. Eliot, Middlemarch Notebooks, p. xxiv. 53. Ibid. 54. J. Reilly, Shadowtime: History and Representation in Hardy, Conrad and George Eliot (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 11. 55. D. Lodge, Working with Structuralism: Essays and Reviews on Nineteenth and Twentieth-Century Literature (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 11. 56. Ibid., p. 12. This is a view also expressed by Hillis Miller, ‘Optic and Semiotic in Middlemarch’, in The Worlds of Victorian Fiction, ed. Jerome Buckley (London: Harvard University Press, 1977), p. 126. The synec- dochic method of representation is, he claims, the only way to reconcile an aim of artistic totality with the ‘infinite complexity’ of Victorian society (p.126). 57. This counters the view, common in discussions of George Eliot, that her realism involves a static and non-historical conception of society. A ratio- nale for this is offered by Edmund Duranty who, writing in the journal Réalisme, 2 (December 1856), suggested that ‘realism bans the historical in painting, the novel, and the theatre so that no lie can creep in’ (in Furst (ed.) (1992), p. 31). 58. S. Shuttleworth, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Science: The Make- Believe of a Beginning (London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 51. 59. P. Hamon, ‘Un discours contraint’, in Furst (ed.), trans. Lilian R. Furst and Seán Hand, p. 166. 60. Ibid., p. 167. 61. E. Said, Beginnings: Intention and Method (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), p. 10. 62. J. Beaty, ‘History by Indirection: The Era of Reform in Middlemarch’, Victorian Studies, 1 (1957), 173–9. Suzanne Graver also uses the phrase in her essay ‘“Incarnate History”: The Feminism of Middlemarch’, in Approaches to Teaching Eliot’s ‘Middlemarch’, ed. Kathleen Blake (New York: MLA, 1990), p. 64. 63. Beaty, ‘History by Indirection: The Era of Reform in Middlemarch’, p.175. 64. G. Eliot, Scenes of Clerical Life, with an introduction by David Lodge (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 43. 65. Ibid., p. 56. 66. Ibid., p. 147. Notes 155

67. Ibid. 68. G. Eliot, Adam Bede, with an introduction by Stephen Gill (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 110. The ‘news from Egypt’ came in August 1798 when Nelson destroyed a French fleet in the mouth of the Nile. 69. J. Gerhard, ‘Hegel, Derrida, George Eliot, and the Novel’, Literature–Interpretation–Theory, 1(1989), p. 66. 70. Erwin Hester, in his essay ‘George Eliot’s Use of Historical Events in Daniel Deronda’, English Language Notes, 4 (1966), pp. 115–18, disagrees. He notes a progression across the Eliot canon in which the relationship between the fictional narrative and history becomes increasingly complex. He is right to note how the increasing complexity of the novels makes the text/history relationship increasingly problematic. However, apart from Romola and Daniel Deronda (and even these are qualified exceptions), the indirect nature of the relationship is still broadly maintained. 71. Eliot, Romola, p. 267. 72. R. Barthes, ‘The Reality Effect’, in French Literary Theory Today: A Reader, ed. Tzvetan Todorov (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 15. 73. Hamon, ‘Un discours contraint’, p. 166. 74. Ibid., p. 167. This is viewed by Hamon as just one of fifteen characteristics of the realist discourse. 75. Ibid. 76. Eliot, Adam Bede, p. 223. 77. Ibid., pp. 258–9. 78. Ibid., p. 341. 79. Ibid., p. 566. 80. G. Eliot, The Mill on the Floss, with an introduction by A. S. Byatt (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 185. 81. Ibid., p. 362. 82. J. King, Tragedy in the Victorian Novel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 81. 83. Furst, Introduction to Realism (1992), p. 10. 84. Eliot, Adam Bede, p. 396. 85. Ibid., p. 299. 86. Ibid., pp. 300–1. 87. H. Witemeyer, ‘George Eliot’s Romola and Bulwer-Lytton’s Rienzi’, Studies in the Novel, 15 (1983), p. 70. 88. G. Eliot, Middlemarch, with an introduction by W. J. Harvey (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 29. 89. Ibid., p. 31. 90. Ibid., p. 392. 91. Ibid., p. 598. 92. S. Dentith, A Rhetoric of the Real: Studies in Post-Enlightenment Writing from 1790 to the Present (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester, 1990), p. 10. 93. Hamon, ‘Un discours contraint’, p. 167. 94. G. Beer, ‘Beyond Determinism: George Eliot and Virginia Woolf’, in Women Writing and Writing About Women, ed. Mary Jacobus (London: Croom Helm, 1979), p. 81. 156 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

95. Beer, ‘Beyond Determinism: George Eliot and Virginia Woolf’, p. 82. 96. Eliot, Adam Bede, p. 528. 97. G. Eliot, Felix Holt, with an introduction by Peter Coveney (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980), p. 124. 98. H. White, Tropics of Discourse: Essays in Cultural Criticism (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), p. 4. 99. See J. W. Burrow’s A Liberal Descent: Victorian Historians and the English Past (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Burrow identifies 1848–78 as years of ‘a remarkable flowering of English narrative history’ (p. 1). Notably, these years very closely mark the boundaries of Eliot’s writing career. 100. This comes as an editorial comment on a review of Eliot in The Times of 7 March 1873, in George Eliot and Her Readers, eds L. Lerner and J. Holmstrom (London: Bodley Head, 1966), pp. 117–18. 101. F. Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 34. 102. In his foreword to Lyotard’s The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994) Jameson notes the prevalence of the two master narratives of Science in culture and society. There is the ‘rhetoric of liberation’ and the ‘rhetoric of totality and totalization’ (p. xix). 103. J. M. Bernstein, ‘Grand Narratives’, in On Paul Ricoeur: Narrative and Interpretation, ed. David Wood (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 102. 104. C. MacCabe, James Joyce and the Revolution of the Word (London: Macmillan, 1979), p. 15. 105. Ibid., p. 14. 106. Ibid., p. 15. 107. G. McLennan, ‘History and Theory’, Literature and History, 10: 2 (1984), p. 141. 108. A. Kuzminski, ‘Defending Historical Realism’, History and Theory, 18: 3 (1979), p. 322. 109. Ibid., p. 341. 110. B. C. Hurst, ‘The Myth of Historical Evidence’, History and Theory, 20: 3 (1981), p. 278. 111. R. Barthes, ‘The Discourse of History’, Comparative Criticism, 3 (1981), p. 11. 112. H. Gilliam, ‘The Dialectics of Realism and Idealism in Modern Historiographical Theory’, History and Theory, 15: 1 (1976), p. 251. 113. H. Kozicki (ed.), Western and Russian Historiography: Recent Views, with an introduction by Sidney Monas (London: Macmillan, 1993), p. 1. 114. Ibid. 115. C. Parker, The English Historical Tradition Since 1850 (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1990), p. 242. 116. F. Kermode, The Sense of an Ending (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 56. 117. E. H. Carr, What is History? (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987), p. 109. 118. P. A. Dale, The Victorian Critic and the Idea of History: Carlyle, Arnold, Pater (London: Harvard University Press, 1977), p. 3. 119. Ibid. Notes 157

120. C. Guillén, Literature as System (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), p. 6. 121. The notion of the Immanent Will is present throughout Hardy’s works, perhaps most overtly in The Mayor of Casterbridge and the poem ‘The Convergence of the Twain’. In the latter, for instance, he notes ‘The Immanent Will that stirs and urges everything’: The Collected Poems of Thomas Hardy, 4th edn (London: Macmillan, 1968), p. 289 (Stanza VI). Jerome Buckley sees such an immanent will as typical of Western philoso- phies of history, ranging across Kant (who saw progress toward rationalism), Marx (progress toward socialism), Comte (progress toward positivism), Spencer (progress toward heterogeneity), and Macaulay (progress toward constitutional liberty). See The Triumph of Time: A Study of the Victorian Concepts of Time, History, Progress, and Decadence (London: Harvard University Press, 1967. 122. H. White, The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), p. 151. These are seen to be the inclusive grand narratives of historical development, which for White range from Greek fatalism, Christian redemptionism, bourgeois progressivism, to Marxist utopianism. 123. G. Martin, ‘Daniel Deronda: George Eliot and Political Change’, in Critical Essays on George Eliot, ed. Barbara Hardy (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970), p. 135. 124. M. Rudnik-Smalbraak, ‘Women and Utopia: Some Reflections and Explorations’, in Between Dream and Nature: Essays on Utopia and Dystopia, eds Dominic Baker-Smith and C. C. Barfoot (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1978), p. 186. 125. D. David, Fictions of Resolution in Three Victorian Novels: ‘North and South’, ‘Our Mutual Friend’, ‘Daniel Deronda’ (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), p. xi. 126. P. Ricoeur, Time and Narrative, Vol. III, eds Kathleen Blamey and David Pellauer (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1988), p. 190. 127. E. Said, Culture and Imperialism (London: Vintage, 1994), p. xiii. 128. Ibid., p. 93 129. R. Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 80. 130. U. C. Knoepflmacher, among others, has seen this process embodied in the lives of Eliot’s characters. For him Lydgate is Eliot’s foil for the way in which he attempts to impose his own mental structures on the reality of Middlemarch. As such, it is argued, he is involved in the same process as Eliot herself. See ‘Fusing Fact and Myth: the New Reality of Middlemarch’, in This Particular Web. 131. H. Bhabha, ‘DissemiNation: Time, Narrative, and the Margins of the Modern Nation’, in Nation and Narration, ed. Homi K. Bhabha (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 308. 132. J. Uglow, George Eliot (London: Virago, 1987), p. 180. 133. Eliot, Middlemarch, p. 123. 134. Jameson, The Political Unconscious, p. 34. 135. Eliot, Romola, p. 309. 136. R. Radhakrishnan, ‘Nationalism, Gender, and the Narrative of Identity’, 158 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

in Nationalisms and Sexualities, eds Andrew Parker, Mary Russo, Doris Sommer and Patricia Yaeger (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 89. 137. Cottom, Social Figures, p. 82. 138. Williams, The Country and the City, p. 174. 139. F. Jameson, Marxism and Form: Twentieth-Century Dialectical Theories of Literature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974), p. 169. 140. E. Said, ‘Orientalism Considered’, in Europe and Its Others: Vol.1, eds Francis Barker, Peter Hulme, Margaret Iversen and Diana Loxley (Colchester: Essex University Press, 1985), p. 22. Said has identified this as a characteristic of Historicism.

Chapter 2 Imagining the National Past

1. A. Brundage, The People’s Historian: John Richard Green and the Writing of History in Victorian England (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994), p. 2. 2. Ibid., p. 3. 3. J. P. Kenyon, The History Men: The Historical Profession in England since the Renaissance (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1983), p. 154. 4. Entry 43 of George Eliot: A Writer’s Notebook (1854–1879) and Uncollected Writings, ed. by Joseph Wiesenfarth (Charlottesville, VA: Virginia University Press, 1981) cites chapter 3, Vol. 1 (‘The State of England in 1685’). See also The George Eliot–George Henry Lewes Library: An Annotated Catalogue of Their Books at Dr. Williams’s Library, London, ed. William Baker (London: Garland, 1977). The latter reveals that Eliot was also distinctly familiar with works written about Macaulay. These included François Auguste Marie Mignet’s Éloges Historiques: Jouffray, Baron de Gerando, Laromiguière, LaKaaal, Schelling, Comte Portalis, Hallam, Lord Macaulay (1864) and John Paget’s The New ‘Examen’: On Certain Passages in Macaulay’s History on W. Penn: Duke of Marlborough and Glencoe (1861). 5. H. Butterfield, The Englishman and His History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944), p. 5. 6. On several occasions G. H. Lewes’s journal mentions Macaulay. For example, see The George Eliot Letters: Vols 1–9, III, ed. Gordon S. Haight (London: Yale University Press, 1954–78), p. 392 (fn 8): ‘Polly read Macaulay as we sat under the cliff’, and also The George Eliot Letters, VI, p. 240 (fn 9): ‘Polly unwell and kept in bed. Sat with her the greater part of the day – read aloud papers and Macaulay’s Life.’ Both History of England and the article ‘Machiavelli’ (Edinburgh Review, XCV (March 1827)) are also listed in Middlemarch Notebooks: A Transcription, ed. J. C. Pratt and V. A. Neufeldt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), p. 284. 7. GE to Sara Sophia Hennell, 4 February 1849, The George Eliot Letters, I, p. 275. 8. The first two texts are listed in Middlemarch Notebooks, p. 214 and p. 282. The third is in The George Eliot–George Henry Lewes Library, p. 68. 9. The GHL Diary of 19–21 May 1877 reads: ‘16 again at dinner – Stubbs, Bradley, Sir C. Trevelyan, Butcher etc.’, in The George Eliot Letters, VI, p. 375. 10. J. W. Burrow, A Liberal Descent: Victorian Historians and the English Past Notes 159

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 3. 11. Ibid., p. 297. 12. C. Parker, The English Historical Tradition Since 1850 (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1990), p. 10. 13. Ibid., p. 10. 14. A. Howkins, ‘A Defence of National History’, in Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity Vol. 1: History and Politics, ed. Raphael Samuel (London: Routledge, 1989), p. 19. 15. D. Cannadine, ‘British History as a “New Subject”: Politics, Perspectives and Prospects’, in Uniting the Kingdom? The Making of British History, eds Alexander Grant and Keith J. Stringer (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 12. 16. Burrow, A Liberal Descent, p. 297. 17. Witemeyer, ‘George Eliot’s Romola and Bulwer-Lytton’s Rienzi’, Studies in the Novel, 15 (1983), 66. 18. Burrow, A Liberal Descent, p. 107. 19. G. Martin, ‘Daniel Deronda: George Eliot and Political Change’, in Critical Essays on George Eliot, ed. by Barbara Hardy (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970), p. 140. 20. P. B. M. Blaas, Continuity and Anachronism: Parliamentary and Constitutional Development in Whig Historiography and in the Anti-Whig Reaction between 1890 and 1930 (London: Martinus Nijhoff, 1978), p. 15. 21. Ibid., p. 16. 22. H. Butterfield, The Whig Interpretation of History (New York: Norton, 1965), p. 12. 23. T. B. Macaulay, The History of England from the Accession of James II, 5 Vols, 3rd edn (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1849–61), II, p. 669. 24. G. Eliot, ‘Looking Backward’, in Impressions of Theophrastus Such, ed. Nancy Henry (London: William Pickering, 1994), p. 17. 25. Apparently, in 1856 (after vols III and IV were published), ‘Longmans sold 26,500 copies of the work in ten weeks, and eleven weeks after publica- tions the author received a cheque for £20,000 from his publisher.’ For this and further details see Sir Charles Firth, A Commentary on Macaulay’s ‘History of England’ (London: Frank Cass, 1964), p. 13. 26. Ibid., p. 14. 27. A. Dwight Culler, The Victorian Mirror of History (London: Yale University Press, 1985), p. 20. 28. Ibid., p. 31. 29. F. Klug, ‘“Oh to be in England”: the British Case Study’, in Woman–Nation–State, eds Nira Yuval-Davis and Floya Anthias (London: Macmillan, 1989), p. 16. 30. Ibid., p. 17. 31. R. Samuel, ‘Introduction: the Figures of National Myth’, in Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity Vol. 3: National Fictions, ed. Raphael Samuel (London: Routledge, 1989), p. xxxii. 32. G. Eliot, Silas Marner (1861), with an introduction by Q. D. Leavis (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 68. 33. G. Eliot, Adam Bede (1859), with an introduction by Stephen Gill (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980), p. 50. 160 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

34. Ibid., p. 61. 35. See also S. L. Kayfetz, ‘Counterfeit Coins and Traffic Jams: Rewriting Masculinity in Adam Bede’, New Orleans Review, 24: 2 (1998), 62–72. 36. Eliot, Adam Bede, p. 209. 37. Ibid., p. 278. 38. G. Eliot, The Mill on the Floss (1860), with an introduction by A. S. Byatt (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 127. 39. Ibid., p. 222. 40. S. L. Meyer, Gender and Empire: Figurative Structures in the Fiction of Charlotte Brontë and George Eliot, DPhil Dissertation, Yale University, 1989, p. 44. 41. Eliot, The Mill on the Floss, p. 181. 42. Ibid., p. 183. 43. Samuel, ‘Introduction: the Figures of National Myth’, p. xxxii. 44. H. Butterfield, The Englishman and His History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944), p. 2. 45. It is interesting to note the overlap between German histories of England and dominant English trends. Ranke, for example, wrote (with a quasi- Whiggish edge) that ‘nowhere have more of the institutions of the Middle Ages been retained than in England’ (A History of England Principally in the Seventeenth Century, in six volumes (Oxford: Clarendon, 1875), I, p. vi). He also wrote of ‘the historical progress of England’ (V, p. 291). His chief dissension from the Whiggish paradigm comes in Vol. II, where he shows himself to be on the side of the monarchists during the revolution. 46. Blaas, Continuity and Anachronism, p. 34. 47. E. A. Freeman, The Growth of the English Constitution: From the Earliest Times (London: Macmillan, 1872), p. 66. 48. Ibid., I, p. 44. 49. Macaulay, The History of England, IV, p. 808. 50. Freeman, The Growth of the English Constitution, p. 8. 51. Ibid., p. 18. 52. J. Buckley, The Triumph of Time: A Study of the Victorian Concepts of Time, History, Progress, and Decadence (London: Harvard University Press, 1967), p. 36. 53. Ibid., p. 41. 54. Ibid., p. 42. 55. Ibid., p. 48. 56. R. Samuel, ‘Continuous National History’, in Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity Vol. 1: History & Politics, p. 12. 57. J. Plamenatz, ‘Two types of Nationalism’, in Nationalism: The Nature and Evolution of an Idea, ed. by Eugene Kamenka (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), p. 23. 58. S. Shuttleworth, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Science: The Make- Believe of a Beginning (London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 28. 59. G. Eliot, Scenes of Clerical Life (1858), with an introduction by David Lodge (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 41. 60. Eliot, Adam Bede, p. 53. 61. Ibid., p. 91. 62. Eliot, The Mill on the Floss, p. 127. Notes 161

63. T. Eagleton, Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Literary Theory (London: NLB, 1976), p. 113. 64. Eliot, The Mill on the Floss, p. 176. 65. G. Haight, George Eliot: A Biography (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 397. 66. Eliot, The Mill on the Floss, p. 185. 67. Ibid. 68. Ibid., p. 219. 69. Eliot, Adam Bede, p. 481. 70. Eliot, Scenes of Clerical Life, p. 252. 71. Ibid., p. 253. 72. Buckley, The Triumph of Time, pp. 50–1. 73. R. Colls, ‘Englishness and the Political Culture’, in Englishness: Politics and Culture 1880–1920, eds Robert Colls and Philip Dodd (London: Croom Helm, 1986), p. 30. 74. This is a similar point as that made by Michael York Mason, ‘Middlemarch and History’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 25 (1971), p. 427. Mason regards Eliot’s reservations about progress as ‘limited or isolated’, and that her irony was just an ‘undirected sniping’ at naive optimists such as H. T. Buckle. In History of Civilization in England: Vol. I, 2nd edn (London: J. W. Parker, 1858) Buckle wrote of England as ‘the land of opportunity’ (p. 180). 75. Buckle, History of Civilization in England: Vol. II (London: Parker, Son, & Bourn, 1861), p. 37. 76. Eliot, Scenes of Clerical Life, p. 41. 77. Eliot, Adam Bede, p. 207. 78. Ibid. 79. Ibid. 80. Eliot, The Mill on the Floss, pp. 111–12. 81. Ibid., p. 149. 82. G. Eliot, Middlemarch (1872), with an introduction by W. J. Harvey (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 302. 83. T. B. Macaulay, ‘Lord Bacon’, in Literary Essays Contributed to the ‘Edinburgh Review’ (London: Oxford University Press, 1923), p. 301. 84. Eliot, Middlemarch, p. 31. 85. Eliot, The Mill on the Floss, p. 184. 86. Ibid., p. 185. 87. G. Eliot, ‘Evangelical Teaching: Dr Cumming’, in Selected Essays, Poems and Other Writings, eds A. S. Byatt and Nicholas Warren (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990), p. 43. 88. S. Dentith, George Eliot (Brighton: Harvester, 1986), p. 59. 89. Eliot, Middlemarch, p. 225. 90. S. Dentith, A Rhetoric of the Real: Studies in Post-Enlightenment Writing from 1790 to the Present (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester, 1990), p. 10. 91. T. R. Wright, The Religion of Humanity: the Impact of Comtean Positivism on Victorian Britain (London: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 190. 92. Eliot, ‘The Natural History of German Life’, in Byatt and Warren (eds), p. 129. 93. T. Lovell, ‘Gender and Englishness in Villette’, in Political Gender: Texts and 162 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

Contexts, eds Sally Ledger, Josephine McDonagh and Jane Spencer (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994), p. 49. The point was first made by Raphael Samuel. 94. GE to John Sibree, Jr, 8 March 1840, in The George Eliot Letters, I, pp. 254–5. 95. Eliot, ‘Looking Backward’, p. 14. Eliot notes how at the end of the last century ‘the troublesome Irish were more miserable’. 96. GE to Sara Sophia Hennell, 3 March 1844, The George Eliot Letters, I, p. 172. 97. GE to Mrs Henry Houghton, 2 October 1852, in The George Eliot Letters, VIII, p. 62. 98. GE to Mrs Richard Congreve, 17 April 1868, in The George Eliot Letters, IV, p. 430. 99. R. Congreve, ‘Ireland’, in Essays: Political, Social, and Religious (London: Longmans, 1874), p. 179. 100. Ibid., p. 186. 101. Ibid., p. 189. 102. In the Yale Notebook, found on microfilm in the British Library (M890), there is a section entitled ‘notes for a projected novel’. Some of these notes are drawn from W. Lecky’s A History of England in the Eighteenth Century (1878), and concern Irish history of the period. William Baker, in his article ‘George Eliot’s Projected Napoleonic War Novel: An Unnoted Reading List’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 29 (1975), 453–60, claims that this interest may have been sparked by the Fenian activity of the 1860s. Among other things, he notes, Eliot was interested in the legislation that forbade Catholics marrying Protestants, something he suggests may have become an aspect of the plot of this unwritten novel.

Chapter 3 A Natural History of English Life

1. G. Eliot, Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1878), ed. Nancy Henry (London: William Pickering, 1994), p. 144. All subsequent quotations are taken from this edition. Page numbers will follow in brackets. Nancy Henry, the editor of this recent edition of the text, also identifies this reference to Green, p. 144 (fn 6). 2. See Some George Eliot Notebooks: An Edition of the Carl H. Pforzheimer Library’s George Eliot Holograph Notebooks, MSS 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, Vol. III, ed. William Baker (Salzburg: University of Salzburg, 1985), p. 118. 3. GE to Mme Eugène Bodichon, 17 January 1878, The George Eliot Letters, Vols I–IX, ed. Gordon Haight (London: Yale University Press, 1954–78), VI, p. 6. 4. G. Haight, George Eliot: A Biography (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 522. 5. A. Dwight Culler, The Victorian Mirror of History (London: Yale University Press, 1985), p. 38. 6. B. Cheyette, Constructions of ‘the Jew’ in English Literature and Society: Racial Representations 1875–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 50. Notes 163

7. W. Cowper, ‘Expostulation’, in Cowper: Poetical Works, ed. H. S. Milford (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 47 (lines 165 and 166). 8. R. Browning, ‘Holy-Cross Day’, in The Poetical Works of Robert Browning: In Two Volumes, with Portraits (London: John Murray, 1929), p. 429. 9. F. Kobler, The Vision Was There: A History of the British Movement for the Restoration of the Jews to Palestine (London: Lincolns-Prager, 1956), p. 51. 10. A. Pope, ‘Messiah. A Sacred Eclogue, In imitation of Virgil’s POLLIO’, in The Poems of Alexander Pope, Volume 1: Pastoral Poetry and an Essay in Criticism, eds E. Audra and Aubrey Williams (London: Methuen, 1969), p. 112. 11. J. Milton, Paradise Regained, in The Poetical Works of John Milton: Vol. 2 ‘Paradise Regained’, ‘Samson Agonistes’, poems upon several occasions, ed. Helen Darbishire (Oxford: Clarendon, 1955), p. 16 (line 36). 12. Lord Byron, ‘Oh! Weep for Those’, Hebrew Melodies, in Byron: Poetical Works, ed. Frederick Page (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 78. 13. W. Wordsworth, ‘A Jewish Family’, in William Wordsworth: The Poems Vol. 2 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977), p. 651. 14. E. Said, Orientalism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978), p. 12. 15. An assumption is being made here that the narrative voice of Theophrastus embodies George Eliot’s own perceptions. This close relation of narrative persona and author is also confidently asserted by Frederick Karl in his recent biography of Eliot when he notes that the essay is ‘full of Eliot’s own perspectives’, George Eliot: A Biography (London: HarperCollins, 1995), p. 605. 16. GE to Harriet Beecher Stowe, 29 October 1876, The George Eliot Letters, VI, p. 301. 17. Ibid., p. 302. 18. G. Eliot, Romola (1863), with an introduction by Andrew Sanders (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980), p. 44. 19. E. A. Freeman, The Growth of the English Constitution: From the Earliest Times (London: Macmillan, 1872), p. vii. 20. Ibid., p. 18. 21. E. Said, Culture and Imperialism (London: Vintage, 1994), p. xiii. 22. K. Löwith, ‘The Question of Meaning in History’, in Nature, History, and Existentialism and Other Essays in the Philosophy of History, ed. with an introduction by Arnold Levison (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1966), p. 131. 23. Alice Stopford Green, introduction to J. R. Green, A Short History of the English People (London: Macmillan, 1898), Vol. I, p. xix. 24. G. Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism: A Cultural History 1740–1830 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987), p. 55. 25. Ibid. 26. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), p. 15. 27. H. Seton-Watson, Nations and States: An Enquiry into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism (London: Methuen, 1977), p. 465. 28. Alice Stopford Green, introduction to A Short History of the English People, I, p. xvii. 29. D. Born, The Birth of Liberal Guilt in the English Novel: Charles Dickens to 164 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

H. G. Wells (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 53. 30. Freeman, The Growth of the English Constitution: From the Earliest Times, p. 19. 31. Ibid., p. 52. 32. Ibid., p. 64. 33. Ibid., p. 8. 34. Ibid., p. 9. 35. Ibid., p. 55. 36. W. Stubbs, The Constitutional History of England: In Its Origin and Development: Vol. III, 5th edn (London: Barnes & Noble, 1967), p. 634. 37. Freeman, The Growth of the English Constitution: From the Earliest Times, pp. 55–6. 38. Ibid., p. 18. 39. E. A. Freeman, The History of the Norman Conquest: Vol. I, 2nd edn (Oxford: Clarendon, 1870), p. 6. 40. Green, A Short History of the English People, I, p. 240. 41. R. Samuel, ‘Continuous National History’, in Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity Vol. 1: History and Politics, ed. Raphael Samuel (London: Routledge, 1989), p. 10. 42. Freeman, The Growth of the English Constitution: From the Earliest Times, p. viii. 43. Ibid., p. 86. 44. T. B. Macaulay, The History of England from the Accession of James II, 5 Vols., 3rd edn (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1849–61), I, p. 280. 45. Ibid., p. 3. 46. Ibid. 47. Lord Acton, Preface to The History of Freedom and Other Essays, edited with an introduction by J. N. Figgis and R. V. Laurence (London: Macmillan, 1907), p. 4. 48. Ibid., p. 5. 49. L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837 (London: Vintage, 1996), p. 31. 50. Ibid., p. 32. 51. Green, A Short History of the English People, II, p. 937. 52. Ibid., III, p. 1285. 53. Macaulay, The History of England from the Accession of James II, I, p. 424. 54. Ibid., II, p. 304. 55. GE to David Kaufmann, 31 May 1877, The George Eliot Letters, VI, p. 379. 56. GHL to John Blackwood, 1 December 1875, The George Eliot Letters, VI, p. 196. 57. John Blackwood to GE, 7 September 1876, The George Eliot Letters, VI, p. 281. 58. Said, Orientalism, p. 1. It would be a mistake not to acknowledge the ideological awkwardness of utilizing Said’s work in relation to Judaism; the thrust of his critique of Orientalist discourse speaks most overtly of the representation of Middle Eastern, and particularly Palestinian, national groups. However, there is nothing inherent in Said’s critique that should exclude a discussion of the Orientalism inherent in Western appropria- Notes 165

tions of Judaism and Jewish experience. 59. Ibid., p. 6. 60. E. Said, ‘Zionism from the Standpoint of its Victims’, Social Text, 1 (1978), p. 12. 61. E. Said, The Question of Palestine (London: Vintage, 1992), p. 150. 62. This aspect of the novel is discussed at length in Said’s ‘Zionism from the Standpoint of Its Victims’ (cited in note 60 above). 63. In ‘George Eliot and Feminism: The Case of Daniel Deronda’ (in Nineteenth-Century Women Writers of the English-Speaking World) Bonnie Zimmerman offers a contradictory viewpoint. Deronda is, for her, a conflation of male and female tendencies (p. 236). This is not an argu- ment I am in agreement with, especially as it risks re-animating the age-old criticism of Eliot that she was unable to successfully create male characters. 64. Introduction to T. B. Macaulay, Essay and Speech on Jewish Disabilities, ed. with an introduction by Israel Abrahams and the Rev. S. Levy (Edinburgh: Ballantyne, Hanson & Co., 1909), p. 10. 65. Macaulay, ‘A Speech: Delivered in a Committee of the Whole House of Commons, 17 April 1833’, in Essay and Speech on Jewish Disabilities, p. 59. 66. A similar point is made by Julian Wolfreys, ‘The Ideology of Englishness: The Paradoxes of Tory-Liberal Culture and National Identity in Daniel Deronda’, George Eliot–George Henry Lewes Studies, 26–7 (September 1994): ‘Daniel proposes a cosmopolitan variation of English Identity, but it is still a version of the Englishman’ (p. 16). 67. C. Crosby, The Ends of History: Victorians and ‘the Woman Question’ (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 15. 68. Ibid., p. 27.

Chapter 4 A Carlylean Counter-Paradigm

1. Anon., ‘Latter-Day Pamphlets. Edited by Thomas Carlyle’, The North British Review, 14 (November 1850), p. 1. 2. J. D. Rosenberg, Carlyle and the Burden of History (Cambridge, Ma.: Harvard University Press, 1985), p. 19. 3. Ibid., p. 10. 4. T. Carlyle, Sartor Resartus, ed. by Kerry McSweeney and Peter Sabor (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 124. 5. Ibid., p. 149. 6. R. Jann, The Art and Science of Victorian History (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1985), p. 135. This critical disdain is evident in Goldwin Smith’s reviews in the Edinburgh Review, for example ‘Froude’s King Henry VIII’, 108 (July 1858), pp. 206–52, ‘Froude’s Reply to the Edinburgh Review’, 108 (October 1858), pp. 586–94 and ‘Froude’s History of England, Vols. V-VIII’, 119 (January 1864), pp. 243–79. E. A. Freeman’s reviews of Froude were both more numerous and more scathing: see ‘Froude’s Reign of Elizabeth [First Notice]’, Saturday Review, 16 January 1864, pp. 80–2, and ‘Last Words on Mr Froude’, Contemporary Review, 35 (May 1879), pp. 214–36, for a flavour of this criticism. 166 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

7. Introduction to Froude’s Life of Carlyle, ed. with an introduction by John Clubbe (London: John Murray, 1971), p. 1. 8. J. W. Burrow, A Liberal Descent: Victorian Historians and the English Past (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 235. 9. W. H. Dunn, James Anthony Froude: A Biography Vol. I–1818–1856 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961), pp. 201–2. 10. Anon., ‘Latter-Day Pamphlets’, p. 4. 11. Although A. Dwight Culler notes the significant impact he had on thinkers such as Ruskin and Morris (The Victorian Mirror of History (London: Yale University Press, 1985), p. 66), others have painted a less complimentary picture of his influence. J. P. Kenyon, for instance, sees him as responsible for the revival of Cromwellian studies, but other than that ‘growing madder and madder, shriller and shriller’ (The History Men: The Historical Profession in England Since the Renaissance (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1983), p. 108. 12. J. Arac, Commissioned Spirits: The Shaping of Social Motion in Dickens, Carlyle, Melville, and Hawthorne (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1979), p. 6. 13. Rosenberg, Carlyle and the Burden of History, p. 38. 14. W. Oddie, Carlyle and Dickens: the Question of Influence (London: Centenary Press, 1972), p. 2. 15. Anon., ‘Latter-Day Pamphlets’, p. 3. 16. P. Collins, ‘Dickens’ Reading’, Dickensian, LX (1964), 164. 17. See A. McCobb, George Eliot’s Knowledge of German Life and Letters (Salzburg: University of Salzburg Press, 1982). Perhaps unsurprisingly, bearing in mind G. H. Lewes’s biography (Life and Works of Goethe, published October 1855), Goethe appears to be the most read of the German influences (p. 165–88). The biography was dedicated ‘To Thomas Carlyle, who first taught England to appreciate Goethe’. However, Schiller was also prominent reading matter (pp. 238–44), Scheller (pp. 88–90), Fichte (pp. 23–5), Schlegel (pp. 89–93), Novalis (pp. 321–2), and Richter (pp. 349–56). McCobb discusses the influence of these philosophers on Eliot’s work at length. Furthermore, W. Baker, in The George Eliot–George Henry Lewes Library: An Annotated Catalogue of their Books at Dr. Williams’s Library, London (London: Garland, 1977), p. xxviii [Table II], notes that though 40.5 per cent of the collection is in English, as much as 24.5 per cent is in German. 18. P. A. Dale, The Victorian Critic and the Idea of History: Carlyle, Arnold, Pater (London: Harvard University Press, 1977), p. 19. 19. See J. P. Kenyon, The History Men: The Historical Profession in England Since the Renaissance (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1983), p. 101. He notes how Freeman, Buckle, Green and Carlyle did not use archives, whereas Stubbs and Froude did. C. F. Harold, Carlyle and German Thought: 1819–1834 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1934) notes how Carlyle was ‘ambiguous and negligent’ (p. v) with his sources. 20. See Hill Shine, Carlyle and the Saint-Simonians: The Concept of Historical Periodicity (New York: Octagon, 1971) for a more detailed consideration of this element of Carlyle’s thinking. Crucial, according to Shine, is the notion of oscillation between advance and recession, what the Saint- Notes 167

Simonians called the Organic and the Critical periods. 21. Harold, Carlyle and German Thought: 1819–34, p. 14. 22. For an extended discussion of this see Dale, The Victorian Critic and the Idea of History, p. 39–48, Ashton, The German Idea: Four English Writers and the Reception of German Thought 1800–1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), and Harold, Carlyle and German Thought. 23. McCobb, George Eliot’s Knowledge of German Life and Letters, p. 70. 24. Anon., ‘A Study of Carlyle’, Contemporary Review, 39 (1881), p. 584. 25. GE to Sara Sophia Hennell, 9 February 1849, in The George Eliot Letters Vols 1–9, ed. Gordon S. Haight (London: Yale University Press, 1954–78), I, pp. 277–8. 26. W. Oddie, Dickens and Carlyle: the Question of Influence (London: Centenary Press, 1972), p. 150. 27. GE to Maria Lewis, 22 October 1840, The George Eliot Letters, I, p. 71. 28. GE to Sara Sophia Hennell, 2 November 1851, The George Eliot Letters, I, p. 372. 29. GE to Sara Sophia Hennell, 22 May 1857, The George Eliot Letters, II, p. 330. 30. T. Carlyle (ed.), Oliver Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches in Four Volumes: Volume I (London: Chapman & Hall, 1902), p. 1. 31. Carlyle (ed.), Cromwell’s Letters: Volume I, p. 7. 32. Entry 49 of George Eliot: A Writer’s Notebook (1854–1879) and Uncollected Writings, ed. J. Wiesenfarth (Charlottesville: Virginia University Press, 1981) illustrates this. 33. GE to Charles Bray, Richmond, 23 December 1857, The George Eliot Letters, II, p. 414/5. 34. GE to Sara Sophia Hennell, 27 March 1858, The George Eliot Letters, II, p. 441. 35. GE to Martha Jackson, 16 December 1841, The George Eliot Letters, I, pp. 122–3. 36. See GE to Sara Hennell, 9 October 1843, The George Eliot Letters, I, p. 161–2 (fn 1). 37. Cited in Haight, p. 65; for the original see The George Eliot Letters, I, pp. 270–1. 38. GE to John Sibree, Jr, 8 March 1848, The George Eliot Letters, II, pp. 252–3. 39. G. Eliot, ‘Thomas Carlyle’, in Selected Essays, Poems and Other Writings, ed. by A. S. Byatt and Nicholas Warren (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990), p. 344. 40. Ibid. 41. Ibid., p. 345. 42. GE to John Blackwood, 24 February 1859, The George Eliot Letters, III, p. 23. 43. GE to Frederic Harrison, 20 June 1873, The George Eliot Letters, V, p. 422. 44. Anon., ‘A Study of Carlyle’, Contemporary Review, 39 (1881), 585. 45. GE to Mme Eugène Bodichon, 5 December 1859, The George Eliot Letters, III, pp. 227–8. 46. Oddie, Dickens and Carlyle, p. 152. 47. T. Carlyle, Past and Present, ed. A. M. D. Hughes (Oxford: Clarendon, 1921), p. 1. 168 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

48. G. Eliot, Scenes of Clerical Life (1858), with an introduction by David Lodge (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 113. 49. G. Eliot, Adam Bede (1859), with an introduction by Stephen Gill (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980), p. 557. 50. G. Eliot, Felix Holt, the Radical (1866), with an introduction by Peter Coveney (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980), p. 75. 51. Ibid. 52. Ibid. 53. Ibid. 54. Ibid., p. 604. 55. P. Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1913 (London: Cornell University Press, 1988), p. 30. 56. G. Eliot, Middlemarch, with an introduction by W. J. Harvey (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 39. 57. Ibid., p. 244. 58. Ibid., p. 245. 59. J. Hillis Miller, ‘Narrative and History’, ELH, 41 (1974), p. 467. 60. Eliot, Middlemarch, p. 604. 61. Hillis Miller, ‘Narrative and History’, p. 467. 62. G. Eliot, The Mill on the Floss (1860), with an introduction by A. S. Byatt (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 363. 63. N. Rotenstreich, ‘The Idea of Historical Progress and Its Assumptions’, History and Theory, 10: 1 (1971), p. 197. 64. Eliot, Middlemarch, p. 109. 65. S. Dentith, George Eliot (Brighton: Harvester, 1986), p. 47. 66. G. Eliot, ‘Shadows of the Coming Race’, in Impressions of Theophrastus Such, with an introduction by Nancy Henry (London: William Pickering, 1994). p. 137. 67. Eliot, ‘Shadows of the Coming Race’, p. 142. 68. T. Carlyle, ‘Signs of the Times’, in A Carlyle Reader: Selections from the Writings of Thomas Carlyle, edited by G. B. Tennyson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 42. 69. Thomas Arnold was another philosopher-historian who mourned the ‘evils of our social condition’. However, there were aspects of mid-century England about which he was far more hopeful: for instance, he identified the Great Reform Act as ‘a measure of great necessity and great justice’. See ‘The Evils of our National State’ (1839), p. 485, and ‘Extracts from the Englishman’s Register: Reform’ (1831), p. 127, in The Miscellaneous Works of Thomas Arnold: Collected and Republished (London: B. Fellowes, 1845). 70. The close textual similarities between passages from Hard Times and passages from Carlyle’s ‘Chartism’, for instance, are discussed at length in Oddie, Dickens and Carlyle: the Question of Influence (1972). 71. T. Carlyle, ‘No. VI – Parliaments’, in Latter-Day Pamphlets (1850) (London: Chapman & Hall, 1858), p. 191. 72. See J. A. Froude, ‘Reciprocal duties of state and subject’ (II, 315), and ‘On progress’ (II, 382), in Short Studies on Great Subjects, 4 vols (London: Longmans, 1898). 73. Eliot, Adam Bede, p. 301. 74. T. B. Macaulay, ‘Hallam’, in Essays and Belles Lettres: Macaulay’s Critical Notes 169

and Historical Essays Newly Arranged by A. J. Grieve in Two Volumes: Vol. 1 (London: J. M. Dent, 1930), p. 31. 75. Carlyle, ‘No. IV – The New Downing Street’, in Latter-Day Pamphlets, p. 129. 76. Eliot, ‘Address to Working Men, by Felix Holt’, Appendix A to Felix Holt, p. 617. 77. Eliot, ‘Address to Working Men’, p. 617. 78. Carlyle, ‘No. VI – Parliaments’, in Latter-Day Pamphlets, p. 191. 79. Carlyle, ‘No. I – The Present Time’, in Latter-Day Pamphlets, p. 12. 80. Eliot, ‘Address to Working Men’, p. 617. 81. Carlyle, Sartor Resartus, p. 43. 82. Carlyle, ‘Characteristics’, in A Carlyle Reader, p. 98. 83. T. Carlyle, The History of the French Revolution, in Thomas Carlyle: Selected Writings, ed. Alan Shelston (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), p. 133. 84. Carlyle, ‘On History’, in A Carlyle Reader, p. 60. 85. Ibid. 86. Ibid., p. 58. 87. M. Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London: Routledge, 1989), p. 239. 88. S. Gilbert and S. Gubar (eds), The Madwoman in the Attic (London: Yale University Press, 1984), p. 502. 89. Carlyle, ‘On History’, p. 62. 90. This view of the realist novel as one in which the primary authorial intention is to represent real life is contradicted by Daniel Cottom in Social Figures: George Eliot, Social History, and Literary Representation (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1987). Cottom’s counter-argu- ment is that George Eliot’s realism ‘was not intended to mirror life but to make life appear to possess the nature of her text’ (p. 81). This leads Cottom into drawing what is an unsustainable (and rather bizarre) conclusion, namely that George Eliot consciously manipulated the appearance of her mental reality so that it would mirror that which was privileged in her texts. 91. J. Gerhard, ‘Hegel, Derrida, George Eliot, and the Novel’, Literature–Interpretation–Theory, 1 (1989), p. 66. 92. Ibid. 93. G. Lukács, ‘Art and Objective Truth’, in Writer and Critic and Other Essays, ed. and trans. Arthur Kahn (London: Merlin, 1970), p. 43. 94. F. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994), p. 19. 95. Ibid., p. 31. 96. F. Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 20. 97. Burrow, A Liberal Descent, p. 252. 98. C. Brooks, Signs for the Times: Symbolic Realism in the Mid-Victorian World (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1984), p. 11. 99. Eliot, Adam Bede, p. 184. 100. Ibid., p. 80. 101. Ibid., p. 139. 102. Carlyle, ‘On History’, p. 61. 170 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

103. H. Sussman, Fact into Figure: Typology in Carlyle, Ruskin, and the Pre- Raphaelite Brotherhood (Colombus: Ohio State University Press, 1979), p. 21. 104. Ibid., p. 7. Sussman identifies Carlyle and Ruskin as the two most significant individual contributors to the typological tradition of representation in Victorian Britain. 105. L. Feuerbach, The Essence of Christianity (1854) trans. George Eliot (New York: Harper & Row, 1957), p. 270 106. Carlyle, Past and Present, p. 225.

Chapter 5 Theodicy and History

1. See C. Brooks, Signs for the Times: Symbolic Realism in the Mid-Victorian World (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1984). Symbolic realism is identified as the mode of artistic representation wherein all signs are laden with (deeply religious) meaning. They take their place within an overar- ching, broadly Christian metanarrative. 2. F. Jameson, ‘Cognitive Mapping’, in Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, eds C. Nelson and L. Grossberg (London: Macmillan, 1988), p. 350. Though this term is derived, as Jameson acknowledges, from the writing of Louis Althusser (in fact the phrase originally appears in Spinoza), it is its Jamesonian manifestation that is of sole concern here. Whereas in Althusser, Jameson notes, the ‘absent cause’ is viewed as Capital, here it is being reinterpreted so as to apply to History. 3. P. New, ‘Chance, Providence and Destiny in George Eliot’s Fiction’, Journal of the English Association, 34 (1985), 193. 4. Ibid., pp. 191–2. 5. G. Eliot, The Mill on the Floss (1860), with an introduction by A. S. Byatt (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 340. 6. Ibid., p. 430. 7. D. Forbes, The Liberal Anglican Idea of History (London: Cambridge University Press, 1952), p. 149. 8. G. Eliot, Romola (1863), with an introduction by Andrew Sanders (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980), p. 48. 9. Ibid., p. 168. 10. New, ‘Chance, Providence and Destiny in George Eliot’s Fiction’, p. 193. 11. L. Monk, Standard Deviations: Chance and the Modern British Novel (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993), p. 6. 12. T. R. Wright, ‘Middlemarch as a Religious Novel, or Life Without God’, in Images of Belief in Literature, ed. David Jasper (London: Macmillan, 1984), p. 139. 13. J. Hillis Miller, ‘Narrative and History’, ELH, 41 (1974), p. 470. 14. G. Eliot, Middlemarch (1872), with an introduction by W. J. Harvey (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 620. 15. Ibid., p. 122. 16. Eliot, The Mill on the Floss, p. 198. 17. Ibid., p. 514. 18. Ibid., pp. 514–15. Notes 171

19. Ibid., pp. 588–9. 20. Unsigned review, The Atlas, 14 April 1860, in George Eliot and Her Readers, eds L. Lerner and J. Holmstrom (London: Bodley Head, 1966), p. 30. 21. M. J. Lupton, ‘Women Writers and Death by Drowning’, in Amid Visions and Revisions: Poetry and Criticism on Literature and the Arts, ed. Burney J. Hollis (Baltimore, MD: Morgan State University Press, 1985), p. 100. 22. P. Boumelha, ‘Realism and the Ends of Feminism’, in Realism, ed. Lilian R. Furst (London: Longman, 1992), p. 328. 23. Ibid., p. 329. 24. J. King, Tragedy in the Victorian Novel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 16. 25. G. Eliot, ‘R. W. Mackay’s The Progress of the Intellect’, in Selected Essays, Poems and Other Writings, eds A. S. Byatt and Nicholas Warren (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990), p. 271. 26. J. Russell-Perkin, A Reception-History of George Eliot’s Fiction (London: UMI, 1990), p. 47. 27. F. Nietzsche, ‘The Birth of Tragedy’, in The Philosophy of Nietzsche (New York: Random House, 1927), p. 982. 28. G. Levine, The Realistic Imagination (London: Chicago University Press, 1981), p. 15. 29. G. Eliot, Silas Marner (1860), with an introduction by Q. D. Leavis (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 80. 30. Ibid., p. 178. 31. Donald Hawes, in ‘Chance in Silas Marner’, Journal of the English Association, 31 (1982), 213–18, disputes this. His view is that the text is underwritten by a strong notion of chance happening, ‘virtually reversing George Eliot’s dictum’ (p. 215) of cause and effect. 32. G. Eliot, Felix Holt (1866), with an introduction by Peter Coveney (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972) p. 124. 33. Ibid., p. 124. 34. T. Carlyle, ‘Chartism’, in Sartor Resartus, Lectures on Heroes, Chartism, Past and Present (London: Chapman & Hall, 1888), p. 33. 35. G. Eliot, ‘Middlemarch’ Notebooks: A Transcription, eds J. C. Pratt and V. A. Neufeldt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), p. 10. 36. Eliot, Middlemarch, p. 570. 37. Unsigned review, The Examiner, 7 December 1872, in Lerner and Holmstrom (eds), p. 87. 38. B. Hardy, The Novels of George Eliot (London: Athlone, 1959), p. 135. 39. E. A. Baker, The History of the English Novel Vol. IX: The Day Before Yesterday (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1950), p. 45. 40. B. Paris, Experiments in Life: George Eliot’s Quest for Values (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1965), p. 122. 41. G. Haight, George Eliot: A Biography (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 413. 42. M. Larkin, Man and Society in Nineteenth-Century Realism: Determinism and Literature (London: Macmillan, 1977), p. 94. 43. Paris, Experiments in Life, p. 122. 44. C. Crosby, The Ends of History: Victorians and ‘the Woman Question’ (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 12. 172 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

45. G. Eliot, Scenes of Clerical Life (1859), with an introduction by David Lodge (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 374. 46. Eliot, Romola, p. 89. 47. F. Jameson, ‘Foreword’ to Lyotard’s The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994), p. xxiv. 48. T. Vargish, The Providential Aesthetic in Victorian Fiction (Charlottesville: Virginia University Press, 1985), p. 162. 49. The divided nature of Eliot’s fiction has been the subject of much criticism. However, the most conspicuous debate has centred on Daniel Deronda. Victorian reviewers commented on the problematics of the structure of the novel, but the notion that the novel was fatally fractured was crystallized by F. R. Leavis in The Great Tradition (1948). The history of Eliot criticism has since been littered with reworkings of what is in truth the same assumption. In the wake of Leavis came Maurice Beebe’s ‘Visions and Creators: The Unity of Daniel Deronda’, Boston University Studies (Autumn 1955), pp. 166–77, David Carroll’s ‘The Unity of Daniel Deronda’, Essays in Criticism, 9 (1959), pp. 369–80, and Jerome Beaty’s ‘Daniel Deronda and the Question of Unity in Fiction’, Victorian Newsletter, 15 (1959), pp. 16–20. More recently there have been Deirdre David, Fictions of Resolution (1981), Derek Cohen and Deborah Heller (eds), Jewish Presences in English Literature (1990) and David Morse, High Victorian Culture (1993). 50. G. Levine, ‘Determinism and Responsibility in the Works of George Eliot’, PMLA, 72 (1962), p. 274. 51. S. Dentith, A Rhetoric of the Real: Studies in Post-Enlightenment Writing from 1790 to the Present (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester, 1990), p. 112. 52. Ibid., p. 9. 53. T. Eagleton, Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Literary Theory (London: NLB, 1976), p. 119. 54. F. Bonaparte, The Triptych and the Cross: The Central Myths of George Eliot’s Poetic Imagination (New York: New York University Press, 1979), p. 149. 55. Ibid., p. 149. 56. F. Jameson, The Political Unconscious (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 20. 57. R. Jann, The Art and Science of Victorian History (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1985), p. 62. 58. T. Carlyle, On Heroes and Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History, in Sartor Resartus, Lectures on Heroes, Chartism, Past and Present, p. 185. 59. Ibid., p. 194. 60. Ibid., p. 219. 61. Eliot, Middlemarch, p. 896. 62. E. Dowden, ‘Middlemarch and Daniel Deronda’, Contemporary Review, 29 (1877), p. 356. 63. Carlyle, On Heroes and Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History, p. 332. 64. Jameson, The Political Unconscious, p. 30. Jameson objects to this strategy, citing the re-reading of the Old Testament in light of the subsequent life of Christ as an undesirable example of this. 65. In White Hero, Black Beast: Racism, Sexism and the Mask of Masculinity (London: Pluto, 1979), Paul Hoch argues that the dominant binary oppo- Notes 173

sition within nineteenth-century representations of masculinity was that between the ‘Playboy’ and the ‘Puritan’. This has some resemblance to the tension being delineated in this chapter. However, it fails to address the implications of what I believe to be the key issues, namely religion and nationalism. 66. H. Sussman, Victorian Masculinities: Manhood and Masculine Poetics in Early Victorian Literature and Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 2–3. 67. Carlyle, On Heroes and Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History, p. 185. 68. Ibid., p. 35. 69. J. Buckley, The Triumph of Time: A Study of the Victorian Concepts of Time, History, Progress, and Decadence (London: Harvard University Press, 1967), p. 29. This debate was central within nineteenth-century German historiography, especially in relation to Leopold von Ranke and the influence of the professionalization of the discipline of history in the 1870s in England. Ranke’s contention was that history would tell its own story, a story would emerge from the facts, and all the historian had to do was to depict history wie es eigentlich gewesen (‘as it really happened’). The apparent naivety of this remark has precipitated a great deal of hostile criticism for Ranke, with his words being interpreted as reflecting a grandiose arro- gance which it is doubtful he intended. 70. E. Said, Orientalism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978), p. 93. 71. Levine, The Realistic Imagination, p. 269. 72. Eliot, ‘Thomas Carlyle’, in Byatt and Warren (eds), p. 344.

Chapter 6 Imagining the National Present

1. G. Eliot, Romola (1863), with an introduction by Andrew Sanders (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980), p. 247. 2. R. Barthes, Writing Degree Zero and Elements of Semiology (London: Cape, 1967), p. 73. 3. See A. J. P. Taylor, Essays in English History (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1976). 4. P. B. M. Blaas, Continuity and Anachronism: Parliamentary and Constitu- tional Development in Whig Historiography and in the Anti-Whig Reaction between 1890 and 1930 (London: Martinus Nijhoff, 1978), p. xii. 5. H. Sidgwick, ‘The Historical Method’, Mind, 2 (1886), p. 219. 6. C. Parker, The English Historical Tradition Since 1850 (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1990), p. 17. 7. Tout does show some inconsistency. He recognized himself as part of an emerging trend, ‘a reaction . . . against the tradition which would make the parliament the central point of English mediaeval political institutions’ (p. 6). Therein he rejected all-encompassing metanarratives of English historical evolution: ‘we no longer draw the deep dividing line between French and English history’ (p. 7). However, his guard slips somewhat on occasion: ‘We are still rightly proud of the English constitution, of the continuity between our modern democratic institutions and our parliamentary institutions of the middle ages, and of the way in 174 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

which in modern times the English parliamentary system has suggested the form of free institutions to nearly every civilised nation’ (p. 1). Perhaps more than anything else this illustrates the durability of the Whig myth of Englishness. See T. F. Tout, Chapters in the Administrative History of Mediaeval England: The Wardrobe, the Chamber and the Small Seals Vols. I-–IV (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1928). 8. J. H. Round, ‘Historical Research’, The Nineteenth Century, 44 (1898), p. 1005. 9. Tout, Chapters in the Administrative History of Mediaeval England, p. 7. 10. F. W. Maitland, ‘Body Politic’, in Selected Essays, eds H. D. Hazeltine, G. Lapsley and P. H. Winfield (Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1968), p. 241. 11. Ibid., p. 248. 12. Ibid. 13. F. Nietzsche, Twilight of the Idols, in The Portable Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), p. 515. 14. Ibid., p. 516. 15. Ibid. 16. M. E. Wohlfarth, ‘Daniel Deronda and the Politics of Nationalism’, Nineteenth-Century Literature, 53 (September 1998), 189. 17. GE to Maria Lewis, 6–8 November 1838, The George Eliot Letters: Vols. 1–9, ed. Gordon S. Haight (London: Yale University Press, 1954–78), I, p. 13. 18. GE to John Sibree, Jr, 11 February 1848, The George Eliot Letters, I, p. 247. 19. G. Haight, George Eliot: A Biography (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 22. 20. In both the Folger Shakespeare Library Notebook and the Yale University Library Notebook (copies of which are held as M892 and M890 of the British Library Microfilm Collection), the following quotation is present: ‘Out of the whole population of the world 31.2% are Buddhists, 13.4% are Brahamists, 15.7% are Mohammedans, 30.7% are Christians, 0.3% are Jews’ (the quotation is dated August 1868). These statistics indicate a sustained interest in the minority status of the Jews. 21. GE to Charles Bray, 12 November 1854, The George Eliot Letters, II, p. 185. 22. B. Cheyette, Constructions of ‘the Jew’ in English Literature and Society: Racial Representations 1875–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 43. 23. This advertisement is discussed at greater length in Carol A. Martin, George Eliot’s Serial Fiction (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1994), p. 236. 24. G. Eliot, Daniel Deronda (1876), with an introduction by Barbara Hardy (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 443. All subsequent page numbers from the novel are given in parentheses within the main body of the text. 25. GE to Harriet Beecher Stowe, 29 October 1876, The George Eliot Letters, VI, p. 302. 26. E. S. Shaffer, ‘Kubla Khan’ and ‘The Fall of Jerusalem’: the Mythological School in Biblical Criticism and Secular Literature 1770–1880 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), p. 233. 27. J. A. Mangan, ‘Social Darwinism and Upper-Class Education in Late Victorian and Edwardian England’, in Manliness and Morality: Middle-Class Notes 175

Masculinity in Britain and America, 1800–1940, eds J. A. Mangan and J. Walvin (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987), p. 142. 28. E. Bulwer-Lytton, Pelham, Or Adventures of a Gentleman (London: Routledge, 1885), p. 255. 29. B. Raina, ‘Daniel Deronda: A View of Grandcourt’, Studies in the Novel, 17 (1985), p. 377. 30. I. Howe, ‘George Eliot and the Jews’, Partisan Review, 46 (1979), p. 365. 31. Ibid., p. 370. 32. This point is made at greater length by Herbert J. Levine, ‘The Marriage of Allegory and Realism in Daniel Deronda’, Genre, 15 (1982), pp. 421–45. 33. K. M. Newton, George Eliot: Romantic Humanist (London: Macmillan, 1981), p. 13. 34. Introduction to The Myths We Live By, eds Raphael Samuel and Paul Thompson (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 25. 35. E. Said, Beginnings: Intention and Method (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), p. 41. 36. G. Eliot, Middlemarch (1872), with an introduction by W. J. Harvey (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), the Finale, p. 896. 37. G. Levine, The Realistic Imagination (London: Chicago University Press, 1981), p. 4. 38. S. Shuttleworth, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Science: The Make- Believe of a Beginning (London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 176. 39. F. W. J. Hemmings, The Age of Realism (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), p. 360. 40. Said, Beginnings: Intention and Method, p. 286. 41. G. Lukács, The Meaning of Contemporary Realism, trans. John and Necke Mander (London: Merlin, 1962), p. 40. 42. Cheyette, Constructions of ‘the Jew’ in English Literature and Society, p. 45. 43. U. C. Knoepflmacher, Religious Humanism and the Victorian Novel (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965), p. 116. 44. W. Baker, George Eliot and Judaism (Salzburg: Salzburg University Press, 1975), p. 21. 45. J. Neusner, ‘The Historical Event as a Cultural Indicator: The Case of Judaism’, History and Theory, 30: 2 (1991), 152. 46. See W. Baker (ed.), Some George Eliot Notebooks: An Edition of the Carl H. Pforzheimer Library’s George Eliot Holograph Notebooks, MSS 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, ed. William Baker (Salzburg: University of Salzburg, 1976–85), Vol. III, MS 711, p. 15. 47. The influence of Deutsch on Eliot’s creation of Daniel Deronda is dealt with in more depth in Mary Kay Temple, ‘Emanuel Deutsch’s Literary Remains: A New Source for George Eliot’s Daniel Deronda’, South-Atlantic Review (May 1989), pp. 59–73. Temple is concerned, for example, with the similarities between the character of Mordecai and Deutsch. 48. W. Baker, ‘George Eliot’s Reading in Nineteenth-Century Jewish Historians: A Note on the Background of Daniel Deronda’, Victorian Studies, 15 (1972), 463. 49. The essential difference between the two is that one is a religious conception of the Jewish nation and the other is a purely secular one. It is the difference between what Hugh Seton-Watson has identified as ‘a legal and political 176 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

organisation, with the power to require obedience and loyalty from its citi- zens’ (the state), and ‘a community of people, whose members are bound together by a sense of solidarity, a common culture, a national conscious- ness’ (the nation). See Nations and State: An Enquiry into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism (London: Methuen, 1977), p. 1. Many thanks to Irith Shaloor for crystallizing these differences for me. 50. R. Lewis, Gendering Orientalism: Race, Femininity and Representation (London: Routledge, 1996), p. 213. 51. P. New, ‘Chance, Providence and Destiny in George Eliot’s Fiction’, Journal of the English Association, 34 (1985), p. 197. 52. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), p. 19. 53. W. G. Pollard, Chance and Providence: God’s Action in a World Governed by Scientific Law (London: Faber & Faber, 1958), p. 43. 54. Eliot familiarized herself with the writings and thoughts of the Greek Atomists by reading Fleeming Jenkins’s article, ‘The Atomic Theory of Lucretius’, North British Review (June 1868), pp. 211–42, while she was working on Middlemarch (Haight, George Eliot: A Biography, p. 439). Jenkins’s statement that ‘Lucretius seizes the opportunity of stating that men think things are done by divine power because they do not understand how they happen’ (p. 212) appears to have been particularly influential. 55. C. Bailey, The Greek Atomists and Epicurus: A Study (Oxford: Clarendon, 1928), p. 51. 56. Ibid., p. 325. 57. Aristotle, ‘Physics’, in The Basic Works of Aristotle, ed. with an introduction by Richard Mckeon (New York: Random House, 1941), p. 245. 58. Bailey, The Greek Atomists and Epicurus, p. 143. 59. H. T. Buckle, History of Civilization in England in Two Volumes, 2nd edn (London: J. W. Parker, 1858), p. 7. Buckle also notes that ‘the only remedy for superstition is knowledge’, II, p. 142. 60. B. Russell, Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits, 2nd edn (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1951), p. 517. Russell states this in the form of an equation: ‘uncertain knowledge’ = I – p (where p is credibility (in terms of the laws of probability)). 61. L. Monk, Standard Deviations: Chance and the Modern British Novel (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993), p. 4. 62. Ibid., p. 8. 63. Ibid., p. 9. 64. G. Levine, ‘George Eliot’s Hypothesis of Reality’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 35 (1980), p. 5. 65. J. Liu, ‘Pregnant Movements in the Past: History and Narrative in George Eliot’s Daniel Deronda’, Fu-Jen Studies: Literature and Linguistics (Taiwan), 23 (1990), pp. 116–35, offers a differing interpretation of this staggered narrative. She sees it as reinforcing the ‘followability and the cause–effect sequence of the plot’ (p. 124). It is an interpretation that I find wholly unconvincing. 66. J. Culler, On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism, 5th edn (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 88. The discussion is of Nietzsche’s The Will to Power. Notes 177

67. D. Cottom, Social Figures: George Eliot, Social History, and Literary Representation, with a foreword by T. Eagleton (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1987), p. 176. 68. E. Rosenman, ‘The House and the Home: Money, Women and the Family in the Banker’s Magazine and Daniel Deronda’, Women’s Studies, 17 (1990), pp. 179–92. 69. G. Eliot, Adam Bede (1859), with an introduction by Stephen Gill (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 411. 70. B. Swann, ‘George Eliot’s Ecumenical Jew, or, The Novel as Outdoor Temple’, Novel, 8 (1974), p. 39. 71. It is interesting to note Aristotle’s use of the term ‘automaton’, or more accurately aytomaton, which he takes to mean Chance as it happens in nature. The croupier presides, metaphorically at least, over the workings of Chance (the roulette wheel), a sphere in which things happen by acci- dent. This includes Gwendolen’s loss of fortune. The counterpart of this term is the notion of tyche, which refers to the same random quality as it pertains to the workings of the mind. For a wider-ranging discussion of these Aristotelian terms see Monk, Standard Deviations: Chance and the Modern British Novel. 72. B. Semmel, George Eliot and the Politics of National Inheritance (London: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 15. 73. G. Eliot, Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1878), ed. Nancy Henry (London: William Pickering, 1994), p. 155. 74. G. Eliot, ‘A College Breakfast Party’, in Collected Poems, ed. with an introduction by Lucien Jenkins (London: Skoob, 1989), p. 172. 75. Ibid., p. 173. 76. J. Russell Perkin, A Reception-History of George Eliot’s Fiction (London: UMI, 1990), p. 64. 77. D. David, Fictions of Resolution in Three Victorian Novels: ‘North and South’, ‘Our Mutual Friend’, ‘Daniel Deronda’ (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), p. 202. 78. Baker, George Eliot and Judaism, p. 180. 79. This is discussed at greater length in Eagleton, Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Literary Theory (London: NLB, 1976), p. 119. 80. W. H. Mallock on George Eliot, Unsigned Review, Edinburgh Review October 1879, in George Eliot: the Critical Heritage, ed. David Carroll (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971), p. 457. 81. S. Nalbantian, Seeds of Decadence in the Late Nineteenth-Century Novel: A Crisis in Values (London: Macmillan, 1983), p. 1. 82. Ibid., p. 15. 83. Parker, The English Historical Tradition Since 1850, p. 17. 84. D. D. Stone, Novelists in a Changing World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972), p. 11. 178 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

Chapter 7 Unwritten Landscapes: Imagining the National Future

1. GE to William Blackwood, 6 May 1859, The George Eliot Letters Vols. 1–9, ed. Gordon S. Haight (London: Yale University Press, 1954–78), III, p. 66. 2. R. B. Du Plessis, Writing Beyond the Ending: Narrative Strategies of Twentieth- Century Women Writers (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), p. 197. 3. Ibid., p. 5. 4. G. Beer, ‘Beyond Determinism: George Eliot and Virginia Woolf’, in Women Writing and Writing About Women, ed. Mary Jacobus (London: Croom Helm, 1979), p. 80. 5. N. Paxton, ‘Feminism and Positivism in George Eliot’s Romola’, in Nineteenth-Century Women Writers of the English-Speaking World, ed. Rhoda B. Nathan (London: Greenwood, 1986), p. 149. 6. This alternative historiographical tradition has been the subject of a series of critical studies in recent times. Notable in this area are Bonnie G. Smith’s ‘The Contribution of Women to Modern Historiography in Great Britain, France, and the United States, 1750–1940’, American Historical Review, 89 (1984), pp. 709–32. See also Rohan Maitzen’s ‘“This Feminine Preserve”: Historical Biographies by Victorian Women’, Victorian Studies, 38 (1995), pp. 371–93, and Natalie Zemon Davis’s ‘Gender and Genre: Women As Historical Writers, 1400–1820’, in Beyond Their Sex: Learned Women of the European Past, ed. Patricia H. Labalme (London: New York University Press, 1980). 7. F. Palliser, History of Lace (1864), eds M. Jourdain and Alice Dryden (London: Sampson Low, Marsden, 1910), p. 465. 8. C. A. Senf, ‘The Vampire in Middlemarch and George Eliot’s Quest for Historical Reality’, New Orleans Review, 14 (Spring 1987), p. 94. 9. Smith, ‘The Contribution of Women to Modern Historiography in Great Britain, France, and the United States, 1750–1940’, 89, p. 716. 10. A. Strickland, Lives of the Queens of Scotland and English Princesses Connected with the Regal Succession of Great Britain Vol. I (London: William Blackwood, 1850), p. viii. 11. Ibid., p. vii. 12. A. Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England from the Norman Conquest Vol. I (London: Henry Colburn, 1854), p. xiv. 13. Strickland, Lives of the Queens of Scotland and English Princesses Connected with the Regal Succession of Great Britain Vol. I, p. xiii. 14. See Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England from the Norman Conquest Vol. I. However, it should be noted that this evidential ‘anxiety’ was not confined to female historians; an assertion of the authority of historical sources was common in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century historiography, an attempt to assert the seriousness and rigour of the work. 15. There has been a great deal written, especially in recent years, concerning the development and status of women’s history. Much is made of the relationship between women’s history and oral evidence, and also of the need to create fresh methods of representation. For example, Berteke Waaldijk notes in ‘Of Stories and Sources: Feminist History’ (in Women’s Notes 179

Studies and Culture: A Feminist Introduction, edited by Rosemarie Buikema and Anneke Smelik (London: Zed, 1993)), that women’s historiography ‘increasingly questions – both implicitly and explicitly – the ways in which historical knowledge is produced’ (p. 23). Further to this, Selma Leydesdorff, in her ‘Politics, Identification and the Writing of Women’s History’ (in Current Issues in Women’s History, eds Arina Angerman, Geerte Binnema, Annemieke Keunen, Vefie Poels and Jacqueline Zirkzee (London: Routledge, 1989)) sees women’s historiography as part of the ongoing quest to identify a past with which women can identify. It is effectively an attempt to delineate a narrative of the oppressed, she claims. 16. A. Jameson, Characteristics of Women, Moral, Poetical and Historical, 2 vols (London: Saunders & Otley, 1836), I, p. 18. For a more wide-ranging discussion of Jameson see Judith Johnston’s Anna Jameson: Victorian, Feminist, Woman of Letters (Aldershot: Scolar, 1997). 17. GE Journal, 2–3 February 1858, in The George Eliot Letters, II, p. 430. Both volumes appear in A Writer’s Notebook (1854–1879) and Uncollected Writings, ed. J. Wiesenfarth (Charlottesville: Virginia University Press, 1981), entry 41. 18. G. Eliot, Middlemarch (1872), with an introduction by W. J. Harvey (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 112. 19. G. Eliot, Scenes of Clerical Life (1858), with an introduction by David Lodge (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 316. 20. Ibid., p. 336. 21. Smith, ‘The Contribution of Women to Modern Historiography in Great Britain, France, and the United States, 1750–1940’, p. 720. 22. Ibid., p. 730. 23. Some critics argue that historical narratives are ubiquitous in nineteenth- century historiography, effectively that however ‘objective’ a historian may have believed themselves, it was impossible to avoid (even if only by implication) a narrative configuration of historical events. An example is Gianna Pomata, in ‘Versions of Narrative: Overt and Covert Narrators in Nineteenth-Century Historiography’, History Workshop, Issue 27 (Spring 1989), pp. 1–17. 24. L. Mulvey, ‘Changes: Thoughts on Myth, Narrative and Historical Experience’, History Workshop, Issue 23 (Spring 1987), pp. 3–19. 25. J. King, Tragedy in the Victorian Novel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 77. 26. L. M. Robbins, ‘Mill and Middlemarch: The Progress of Public Opinion’, Victorian Newsletter, 31 (1967), p. 38. 27. Eliot, Middlemarch, p. 896. 28. E. J. Sabiston, The Prison of Womanhood (London: Macmillan, 1987), p. 111. 29. J. Uglow, George Eliot (London: Virago, 1987), p. 216. 30. M. S. Greene, ‘Another Look at Dorothea’s Marriages’, Literature and Psychology, 33: 1 (1987), p. 31. 31. B. Hill, ‘The First Feminism’, in Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity Vol. 2: Minorities and Outsiders, ed. Raphael Samuel (London: Routledge, 1989), p. 130. 180 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

32. This is indicted in Woolf’s Orlando (1928). As Gillian Beer points out in ‘Representing Women: Re-presenting the Past’, in The Feminist Reader: Essays in Gender and the Politics of Literary Criticism, eds Catherine Belsey and Jane Moore (London: Macmillan, 1989), ‘Woolf is particularly concerned and angrily amused by their [women] absence from the historical record’. Thus ‘she is responding to the assumption of then new social historians, most notably G. M. Trevelyan’s History of England (1926), that women can be subsumed under men’s concerns’ (p. 79). 33. Hill, ‘The First Feminism’, p. 123. 34. J. Mackay and P. Thane, ‘The Englishwoman’, in Englishness: Politics and Culture 1880–1920, eds Robert Colls and Philip Dodd (London: Croom Helm, 1986), p. 191. 35. Hill, ‘The First Feminism’, p. 123. 36. Ibid. 37. Ibid. 38. P. Hoch, White Hero, Black Beast: Racism, Sexism and the Mask of Masculinity (London: Pluto, 1979), p. 116. 39. P. J. Walker, ‘”I live but not yet I for Christ liveth in me”: Men and Masculinity in the Salvation Army 1865–90’, in Manful Assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800, eds M. Roper and J. Tosh (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 92. 40. G. Beer, Darwin’s Plots: Evolutionary Narrative in Darwin, George Eliot, and Nineteenth-Century Fiction (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984), p. 181. 41. N. Yuval-Davis, ‘National Reproduction and “the Demographic Race” in Israel’, in Woman–Nation–State, eds N. Yuval-Davis and F. Anthias (London: Macmillan, 1989), p. 106. 42. R. Lewis, Gendering Orientalism (London: Routledge, 1996), p. 208. 43. T. Brennan, ‘The national longing for form’, in Nation and Narration, ed. Homi K. Bhabha (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 47. 44. Yuval-Davis and Anthias, in Woman–Nation–State, p. 7, discuss these five major influences on ethnic and national culture at greater length. 45. G. Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism: A Cultural History 1740–1830 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987) p. 125. 46. C. Crosby, The Ends of History: Victorians and ‘the Woman Question’ (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 1. 47. K. B. Linehan, ‘Mixed Politics: The Critique of Imperialism in Daniel Deronda’, Texas Studies in Language and Literature, 34 (1992), p. 325. 48. S. L. Meyer, Gender and Empire: Figurative Structures in the Fiction of Charlotte Brontë and George Eliot, DPhil Dissertation, Yale University, 1989, p. 181. 49. See D. Cottom, Social Figures: George Eliot, Social History, and Literary Representation, with a foreword by Terry Eagleton (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1987), p. xxi. 50. G. Eliot, ‘Armgart’, in Collected Poems, with an introduction by Lucien Jenkins (London: Skoob, 1989), p. 132. 51. D. Heller, ‘George Eliot’s Jewish Feminist’, Atlantis (Canada), 8: 2 (1983), p. 38. 52. Crosby, The Ends of History, p. 1. 53. Ibid., p. 42. Notes 181

54. Cottom, Social Figures, p. xxi. 55. K. Millett, Sexual Politics (London: Virago, 1987), p. 139. 56. W. H. Epstein, ‘Biographical Criticism and the “Great” Woman of Letters: The Example of George Eliot and Virginia Woolf’, in Contesting the Subject: Essays in the Postmodern Theory and Practice of Biography and Biographical Criticism (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1991), p. 87. 57. E. A. Daniels, ‘A Meredithian Glance at Gwendolen Harleth’, in George Eliot: A Centenary Tribute, eds G. S. Haight and R. T. Van Arsdel (London: Macmillan, 1982), p. 31. 58. Ibid., p. 36. 59. B. Hochman, The Test of Character (London: Associated University Press, 1983), p. 131. 60. Zimmerman, ‘George Eliot and Feminism’, in Nineteenth-Century Women Writers of the English-Speaking World, ed. Rhoda B. Nathan (London: Greenwood, 1986), p. 235. 61. G. Eliot, Daniel Deronda (1876), with an introduction by Barbara Hardy (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), p. 78. 62. The fact that no one went to the North Pole until 1909 defines the quest as a dim future prospect in 1865. 63. B. Melman, Women’s Orients: English Women and the Middle East, 1718–1918: Sexuality, Religion and Work (London: Macmillan, 1992), p. 1. 64. Ibid., p. 333. 65. Eliot, Daniel Deronda, p. 278. 66. Ibid., p. 337. 67. Ibid., p. 159. 68. Ibid., p. 875. 69. Ibid., p. 876. 70. E. Said, Culture and Imperialism (London: Vintage, 1994), p. 226. 71. G. Beer, ‘Beyond Determinism: George Eliot and Virginia Woolf’, in Women Writing and Writing About Women, ed. Mary Jacobus. 72. G. Lukács, The Meaning of Contemporary Realism, trans. John and Necke Mander (London: Merlin, 1962), p. 36. 73. R. Stevenson, Modernist Fiction – An Introduction (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1992), p. 152. 74. G. Levine, ‘Romola as Fable’, in Critical Essays on George Eliot (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970), p. 93. 75. This point is also made by Levine in ‘Romola as Fable’, p. 93. 76. This is especially the case in the ‘Drifting Away’ section, in which Romola sails away to a plague-ridden, vaguely identified island and tends the people back to health before ultimately being proclaimed as their new Madonna. 77. Even this, as Deirdre David points out, is qualified. ‘Patriarchal authority’ is maintained, she claims, in the way that Romola teaches her young son about Petrarch while not doing so for her 13–year-old daughter. See Intellectual Women and Victorian Patriarchy: Harriet N. Martineau, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, George Eliot (London: Macmillan, 1987), p. 195. 78. Ibid., p. 142. 79. Uglow, George Eliot, p. 238. 80. Eliot, The Spanish Gypsy, in Collected Poems, p. 309. 182 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

81. Ibid., p. 443. 82. T. Lovell, ‘Gender and Englishness in Villette’, in Political Gender: Texts and Contexts, eds Sally Ledger, Josephine McDonagh and Jane Spencer (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994), p. 41. It is noted that this is a partial representation of feminist debates on the relationship between feminism, nationalism and imperialism; the intention is not to suggest otherwise, but more to illustrate the way in which George Eliot’s fictions tend to reinforce this view. The other main sphere of criticism vis-à-vis women and national/racial identity includes the work of critics such as Gayatri Spivak. For example, in ‘Imperialism and Sexual Difference’, Oxford Literary Review, 8 (1986), pp. 225–40, she rejects the ‘truth of global sisterhood’ (p. 226) and laments the fact that much feminist criticism reinforces the racial hegemony implicit in masculinist ideology. In ‘Three Women’s Texts and a Critique of Imperialism’, Critical Inquiry, 12 (1985), pp. 243–61, she remarks how ‘it seems particularly unfortunate when the emergent perspective of feminist criticism reproduces the axioms of imperialism’ (p. 243). 83. G. Eliot, The Mill on the Floss (1860), with an introduction by A. S. Byatt (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 494. 84. Eliot, Daniel Deronda, p. 71. 85. Ibid., p. 95. 86. W. B. Warner, Chance and the Text of Experience: Freud, Nietzsche, and Shakespeare’s ‘Hamlet’ (London: Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 19. 87. Ibid., p. 20. 88. Epstein, ‘Biographical Criticism and the “Great Woman” of Letters: The Example of George Eliot and Virginia Woolf’, p. 87. 89. A. Light, Forever England: Femininity, Literature and Conservatism between the Wars (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 5.

Conclusion: Beyond Victorian Historiography

1. Though falling outside the parameters of this study, Hegel is obviously fundamental to a wider appreciation of the notion of History as a totality. In The Philosophy of History, for example, he defines the term History as that which marks decisive actions and world-stirring events. This places a stress on the political and often military dimension of existence, unsurprising bearing in mind Hegel’s fascination with Napoleon. See Hegel, The Philosophy of History in Three Volumes, trans. E. S. Haldane (London: Lincoln, 1995). 2. F. Jameson, Marxism and Form: Twentieth-Century Dialectical Theories of Literature, 2nd edn (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974), p. 49. 3. Ibid., p. 169. 4. G. Lukács, ‘Art and Objective Truth’, in Writer and Critic and Other Essays, ed. and trans. Arthur Kahn (London: Merlin, 1970), p. 38. 5. M. Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London: Tavistock, 1970), p. 239. 6. J. Reilly, Shadowtime: History and Representation in Hardy, Conrad and Notes 183

George Eliot (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 10. 7. M. Y. Mason, ‘Middlemarch and History’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 25 (1971), pp. 417–31. 8. In The Order of Things Foucault identifies the nineteenth century as the ‘age of history’, when ‘a profound historicity penetrates into the heart of things, isolates and defines them in their own coherence, imposes upon them the forms of order implied by the continuity of time’ (p. xxiii). 9. T. Lovell, Picture of Reality: Aesthetics, Politics and Pleasure (London: BFI, 1980), p. 85. 10. Ibid., p. 84. 11. Bakhtin defines this plurality of narrative/authorial voices in Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984) and also The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin (London: University of Texas, 1981). 12. H. James, ‘Preface to The American’ (1877), in Novelists on the Novel, ed. M. Allott (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1959), p. 56. 13. L. Stephen, George Eliot (London: Macmillan, 1904), p. 51. 14. The origin of the modern controversy regarding ‘the end of history’ was Francis Fukayama’s essay of the same name, which appeared in The National Interest (Summer 1989), pp. 3–18. In it Fukayama claims that ‘mankind’s ideological evolution’ has ended, resulting in the ‘universal- ization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government’ (p. 4). 15. In the conclusion to his Literary Theory: An Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993) Terry Eagleton envisages the study not of individual academic subject areas, but of ‘signifying practices’ (p. 205) more gener- ally, a discipline in which the literary text and the historiographical text would be awarded the same significance/status. Simon During, in the introduction to The Cultural Studies Reader (London: Routledge, 1993), suggests something similar, which he identifies as the emergent discipline of ‘Cultural Studies’. 16. Notable in this area has been the work of Hayden White, for example Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973) and Tropics of Discourse: Essays in Cultural Criticism (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982). Also relevant are Andrew P. Norman’s ‘Telling It Like It Was: Historical Narratives on Their Own Terms’, History and Theory, 30: 2 (1991), pp. 119–35, and B. C. Hurst’s ‘The Myth of Historical Evidence’, History and Theory, 20: 3 (1981), pp. 278–90. Norman argues for the inevitability of narrative discourse in historiography, and Hurst goes further with this and argues that there is no such thing as objective historical evidence: all evidence comes ‘narrative-laden’ (p. 278) and as such discourse-specific. 17. D. Cecil, Early Victorian Novelists (London: Constable, 1934), p. 3. Cecil identifies Dickens, Thackeray and Trollope as the other literary ‘monarchs’. 18. G. Bullett, George Eliot: Her Life and Books (London: Collins, 1947), p. 13. 19. Perhaps the most obvious exception to this was Virginia Woolf in her essay ‘George Eliot’ (1921), in Collected Essays Vol. I (London: Hogarth, 184 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

1966). Though she recognized the way in which Eliot had ‘become one of the butts for youth to laugh at’ (p. 196), she praised her as a fellow feminist. ‘For her, too, the burden and the complexity of womanhood were not enough; she must reach beyond the sanctuary and pluck for herself the strange bright fruits of art and knowledge’ (p. 204). Bibliography

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Book-length studies Adam, Ian (ed.), Essays on ‘Middlemarch’: This Particular Web (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1975). Alley, Henry, The Quest for Anonymity: The Novels of George Eliot (Newark: Delaware University Press, 1997). Allott, Miriam (ed.), Novelists on the Novel (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1959). Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983). Angerman, Arina, Binnema, Geerte, Keunen, Annemieke, Poels, Vefie & Zirkzee, Jacqueline (eds), Current Issues in Women’s History (London: Routledge, 1989). Appleman, Philip, Madden, William A. and Wolff, Michael (eds), 1859: Entering an Age of Crisis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1959). Arac, Jonathan, Commissioned Spirits: The Shaping of Social Motion in Dickens, Carlyle, Melville, and Hawthorne (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1979). 194 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

Aron, Raymond, Main Currents in Sociological Thought Vol. 1 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977). Ashton, Rosemary, The German Idea: Four English Writers and the Reception of German Thought 1800–1860 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1980). Ashton, Rosemary, George Eliot: A Life (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1996). Bailey, Cyril, The Greek Atomists and Epicurus: A Study (Oxford: Clarendon, 1928). Baker, E. A., The History of the English Novel Vol. IX: The Day Before Yesterday (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1950). Baker, William, George Eliot and Judaism (Salzburg: Salzburg University Press, 1975). Baker, William, The George Eliot–George Henry Lewes Library: An Annotated Catalogue of Their Books at Dr. Williams’s Library, London (London: Garland, 1977). Baker-Smith, Dominic and Barfoott, C. C. (eds), Between Dream and Nature: Essays on Utopia and Dystopia (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1978). Bakhtin, Mikhail, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin, ed. Michael Holquist (London: University of Texas, 1981). Bakhtin, Mikhail, Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics, ed. and trans. Caryl Emerson (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984). Bald, Marjory A., Women-Writers of the Nineteenth Century (New York: Russell & Russell, 1963). Bann, Stephen, The Clothing of Clio: A Study of the Representation of History in Nineteenth-Century Britain and France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). Barker, Francis, Hulme, Peter, Iversen, Margaret and Loxley, Diana (eds), Europe and Its Others: Vol. 1 (Colchester: Essex University Press, 1985). Barthes, Roland, Writing Degree Zero and Elements of Semiology (London: Cape, 1967). Beaty, Jerome, ‘Middlemarch’ from Notebook to Novel: A Study of George Eliot’s Creative Method (Urbana: Illinois University Press, 1960). Beer, Gillian, Darwin’s Plots: Evolutionary Narrative in Darwin, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Fiction (London: Ark, 1985). Beer, Gillian, George Eliot (Brighton: Harvester, 1986). Belsey, Catherine and Moore, Jane (eds), The Feminist Reader: Essays in Gender and the Politics of Literary Criticism (London: Macmillan, 1989). Bhabha, Homi K. (ed.), Nation and Narration (London: Routledge, 1990). Blaas, P. B. M., Continuity and Anachronism: Parliamentary and Constitutional Development in Whig Historiography and in the Anti-Whig Reaction between 1890 and 1930 (London: Martinus Nijhoff, 1978). Bonaparte, Felicia, The Triptych and the Cross: The Central Myths of George Eliot’s Poetic Imagination (New York: New York University Press, 1979). Born, Daniel, The Birth of Liberal Guilt in the English Novel: Charles Dickens to H. G. Wells (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995). Brantlinger, Patrick, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914 (London: Cornell University Press, 1988). Brooks Chris, Signs for the Times: Symbolic Realism in the Mid-Victorian World (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1984). Brundage, Anthony, The People’s Historian: John Richard Green and the Writing of Bibliography 195

History in Victorian England (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994). Buckley, Jerome H., The Triumph of Time: A Study of the Victorian Concepts of Time, History, Progress, and Decadence (London: Harvard University Press, 1967). Buckley, Jerome H. (ed.), The Worlds of Victorian Fiction, 3rd edn (London: Harvard University Press, 1977). Buikema, Rosemarie and Smelik, Anneke (eds), Women’s Studies and Culture: A Feminist Introduction (London: Zed, 1993). Bullett, Gerald, George Eliot: Her Life and Books (London: Collins, 1947). Burrow, J. W., A Liberal Descent: Victorian Historians and the English Past (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Butterfield, Herbert, The Englishman and his History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944). Butterfield, Herbert, The Whig Interpretation of History (New York: Norton, 1965). Carr, E. H., What is History? (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1987). Cecil, David, Early Victorian Novelists (London: Constable, 1934). Cheyette, Bryan, Constructions of ‘the Jew’ in English Literature and Society: Racial Representations 1875–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Cohen, Derek and Heller, Deborah (eds), Jewish Presences in English Literature (London: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990). Colley, Linda, Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837 (London: Vintage, 1996). Colls, Robert and Dodd, Philip (eds), Englishness: Politics and Culture 1880–1920 (London: Croom Helm, 1986). Cottom, Daniel, Social Figures: George Eliot, Social History, and Literary Representation, with a foreword by T. Eagleton (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1987). Crosby, Christina, The Ends of History: Victorians and ‘the Woman Question’ (London: Routledge, 1991). Culler, A. Dwight, The Victorian Mirror of History (London: Yale University Press, 1985). Culler, Jonathan, On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism, 5th edn (London: Routledge, 1993). Dale, Peter Allan, The Victorian Critic and the Idea of History: Carlyle, Arnold, Pater (London: Harvard University Press, 1977). David, Deirdre, Fictions of Resolution in Three Victorian Novels: ‘North and South’, ‘Our Mutual Friend’, ‘Daniel Deronda’ (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981). David, Deirdre, Intellectual Women and Victorian Patriarchy: Harriet Martineau, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, George Eliot (London: Macmillan, 1987). Dentith, Simon, George Eliot (Brighton: Harvester, 1986). Dentith, Simon, A Rhetoric of the Real: Studies in Post-Enlightenment Writing from 1790 to the Present (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester, 1990). Dollimore, Jonathan and Sinfield, Alan (eds), Political Shakespeare: Essays in Cultural Materialism (London: Manchester University Press, 1994). Dunn, W. H., James Anthony Froude: A Biography Vol. I – 1818–1856 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961). Du Plessis, Rachel Blau, Writing Beyond the Ending: Narrative Strategies of Twentieth-Century Women Writers (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985). 196 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

During, Simon (ed.), The Cultural Studies Reader (London: Routledge, 1993). Eagleton, Terry, Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Literary Theory (London: NLB, 1976). Eagleton, Terry, Literary Theory: An Introduction, 7th edn (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993). Eisenman, Stephen F. and Crow, Thomas et al. (eds), Nineteenth-Century Art: A Critical History (London: Thames & Hudson, 1994). Epstein, William H. (ed.), Contesting the Subject: Essays in the Postmodern Theory and Practice of Biography and Biographical Criticism (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1991). Firth, Sir Charles, A Commentary on Macaulay’s ‘History of England’ (London: Frank Cass, 1964). Fleishman, Avrom, The English Historical Novel: Walter Scott to Virginia Woolf (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971). Forbes, Duncan, The Liberal Anglican Idea of History (London: Cambridge University Press, 1952). Foucault, Michel, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London: Routledge, 1989). Fraser, Hilary, The Victorians and Renaissance Italy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992). Furst, Lilian (ed.), Realism (London: Longman, 1992). Gellner, Ernest, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986). Gilbert, Sandra M., and Gubar, Susan (eds), The Madwoman in the Attic (London: Yale University Press, 1984). Grant, Alexander and Stringer, Keith J. (eds), Uniting the Kingdom? The Making of British History (London: Routledge, 1995). Guillen, Claudio, Literature as System (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971). Haight, G. S., George Eliot: A Biography (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985). Haight, G. S., George Eliot’s Originals and Contemporaries (London: Macmillan, 1992). Haight, G. S. and Van Arsdel, Rosemary T. (eds), George Eliot: A Centenary Tribute (London: Macmillan, 1982). Hamburger, Joseph, Macaulay and the Whig Tradition (London: Chicago University Press, 1976). Harasym, Sarah (ed.), The Post-Colonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues (London: Routledge, 1990). Hardy, Barbara, The Novels of George Eliot (London: Athlone, 1959). Hardy, Barbara, The Appropriate Form: An Essay on the Novel (London: Athlone, 1964). Hardy, Barbara (ed.), Critical Essays on George Eliot (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970). Harold, C. F., Carlyle and German Thought: 1819–1834 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1934). Hawthorn, Jeremy (ed.), Narrative: From Malory to Motion Pictures (London: Edward Arnold, 1985). Hemmings, F. W. J., The Age of Realism (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974). Hoch, Paul, White Hero, Black Beast: Racism, Sexism and the Mask of Masculinity (London: Pluto, 1979). Hochman, Baruch, The Test of Character (London: Associated University Press, 1983). Bibliography 197

Hollis, Burney J. (ed.), Amid Visions and Revisions: Poetry and Criticism on Literature and the Arts (Baltimore, MD: Morgan State University Press, 1985). Hughes, Kathryn, George Eliot: The Last Victorian (London: Fourth Estate, 1998). Jacobus, Mary (ed.), Women Writing and Writing About Women (London: Croom Helm, 1979). Jameson, Frederic, Marxism and Form: Twentieth-Century Dialectical Theories of Literature, 2nd edn (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974). Jameson, Frederic, Postmodernism: Or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991). Jameson, Frederic, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (London: Routledge, 1993). Jann, Rosemary, The Art and Science of Victorian History (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1985). Jasper, David (ed.), Images of Belief in Literature (London: Macmillan, 1984). Johnston, Judith, Anna Jameson: Victorian, Feminist, Woman of Letters (Aldershot: Scolar, 1997). Kamenka, Eugene (ed.), Nationalism: the Nature and Evolution of an Idea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973). Karl, Frederick, George Eliot: A Biography (London: HarperCollins, 1995). Kaufmann, David, George Eliot and Judaism: An Attempt to Appreciate ‘Daniel Deronda’, trans. J. W. Ferrier (London: Blackwood, 1877). Kenyon, J. P., The History Men: The Historical Profession in England Since the Renaissance (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1983). Kermode, Frank, The Sense of an Ending (London: Oxford University Press, 1967). King, Jeanette, Tragedy in the Victorian Novel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978). Knoepflmacher, U. C., Religious Humanism and the Victorian Novel (Princeton: Princeton, NJ: University Press, 1965). Knoepflmacher, U. C., George Eliot’s Early Novels – the Limits of Realism (Berkeley: California University Press, 1968). Kobler, Franz, The Vision Was There: A History of the British Movement for the Restoration of the Jews to Palestine (London: Lincolns-Prager, 1956). Kosicki, Henry (ed.), Developments in Modern Historiography, with an introduction by Sidney Monas (London: Macmillan, 1993). Kosicki, Henry (ed.), Western and Russian Historiography: Recent Views, with an introduction by Sidney Monas (London: Macmillan, 1993). Labalme, Patricia H (ed.), Beyond Their Sex: Learned Women of the European Past (London: New York University Press, 1980). Leavis, F. R., The Great Tradition (London: Chatto & Windus, 1962). Ledger, Sally, McDonagh, Josephine and Spencer, Jane (eds), Political Gender: Texts and Contexts (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994). Levine, George, The Realistic Imagination (London: Chicago University Press, 1981). Levine, George, Darwin and the Novelists (London: Chicago University Press, 1991). Lewis, Reina, Gendering Orientalism: Race, Femininity and Representation (London: Routledge, 1996). Light, Alison, Forever England: Femininity, Literature and Conservatism between the Wars (London: Routledge, 1991). 198 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

Lodge, David, Working with Structuralism: Essays and Reviews on Nineteenth and Twentieth-Century Literature (London: Routledge, 1991). Lovell, Terry, Pictures of Reality: Aesthetics, Politics and Pleasure (London: BFI, 1980). Löwith, Karl, Nature, History, and Existentialism and Other Essays in the Philosophy of History, ed. with an introduction by Arnold Levison (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1966). Lukács, Georg, The Meaning of Contemporary Realism, trans. John and Necke Mander (London: Merlin, 1962). Lukács, Georg, Writer and Critic and Other Essays, ed. and trans. Arthur Kahn (London: Merlin, 1970). Lukács, Georg, The Historical Novel, trans. from the German by Hannah and Stanley Mitchell (London: Pelican, 1981). Lyotard, Jean-François, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, with a Preface by Fredric Jameson (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994). MacCabe, Colin, James Joyce and the Revolution of the Word (London: Macmillan, 1979). McCobb, Anthony, George Eliot’s Knowledge of German Life and Letters (Salzburg: Salzburg Studies in English Literature, 1982). Mangan, J. A., and Walvin, J. (eds), Manliness and Morality: Middle-Class Masculinity in Britain and America, 1800–1940 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987). Martin, Carol A., George Eliot’s Serial Fiction (Colombus: Ohio State University Press, 1994). Melman, Billie, Women’s Orients: English Women and the Middle East, 1718–1918: Sexuality, Religion and Work (London: Macmillan, 1992). Millett, Kate, Sexual Politics (London: Virago, 1987). Monk, Leland, Standard Deviations: Chance and the Modern British Novel (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993). Morse, David, High Victorian Culture (London: Macmillan, 1993). Nalbantian, Suzanne, Seeds of Decadence in the Late Nineteenth-Century Novel: A Crisis in Values (London: Macmillan, 1983). Nash, Christopher (ed.), Narrative in Culture: The Uses of Storytellers in the Sciences, Philosophy and Literature (London: Routledge, 1994). Nathan, Rhoda B. (ed.), Nineteenth-Century Women Writers of the English- Speaking World (London: Greenwood, 1986). Nelson, Cary and Grossberg, Laurence (eds), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (London: Macmillan, 1988). Newman, Gerald, The Rise of English Nationalism: A Cultural History 1740–1830 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987). Newton, K. M., George Eliot: Romantic Humanist (London: Macmillan, 1981). Oddie, William, Dickens and Carlyle: the Question of Influence (London: Centenary Press, 1972). Paris, Bernard J., Experiments in Life: George Eliot’s Quest for Values (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1965). Parker, Andrew, Russo, Mary, Sommer, Doris and Yaeger, Patricia (eds), Nationalisms and Sexualities (London: Routledge, 1992). Parker, Christopher, The English Historical Tradition Since 1850 (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1990). Bibliography 199

Patrides, C. A. and Wittreich, Joseph (eds), The Apocalypse in English Renaissance Thought and Literature: Patterns, Antecedents and Repercussions (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984). Perkin, J. Russell, A Reception-History of George Eliot’s Fiction (London: UMI, 1990). Pollard, William G., Chance and Providence: God’s Action in a World Governed by Scientific Law (London: Faber & Faber, 1958). Reilly, Jim, Shadowtime: History and Representation in Hardy, Conrad and George Eliot (London: Routledge, 1993). Ricoeur, Paul, Time and Narrative, Vol. III, eds Kathleen Blamey and David Pellauer (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1988). Roberts, Neil, George Eliot: Her Beliefs and Her Art (London: Elek, 1975). Roper, M., and Tosh, J. (eds), Manful Assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800 (London: Routledge, 1991). Rosenberg, John D., Carlyle and the Burden of History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985). Sabiston, E. J., The Prison of Womanhood (London: Macmillan, 1987). Said, Edward, Orientalism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978). Said, Edward, The World, the Text, and the Critic (London: Faber & Faber, 1984). Said, Edward, Beginnings: Intention and Method (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985). Said, Edward, The Question of Palestine, 4th edn (London: Vintage, 1992). Said, Edward, Culture and Imperialism (London: Vintage, 1994). Samuel, Raphael (ed.), Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity Vol. 1: History and Politics (London: Routledge, 1989). Samuel, Raphael (ed.), Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity Vol. 2: Minorities and Outsiders (London: Routledge, 1989). Samuel, Raphael (ed.), Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity Vol. 3: National Fictions (London: Routledge, 1989). Samuel, Raphael and Thompson, Paul (eds), The Myths We Live By (London: Routledge, 1990). Sanders, Andrew, The Victorian Historical Novel 1840–1880 (London: Macmillan, 1978). Semmel, Bernard, The Liberal Ideal and the Demons of Empire: Theories of Imperialism from Adam Smith to Lenin (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993). Semmel, Bernard, George Eliot and the Politics of National Inheritance (London: Oxford University Press, 1994). Seton-Watson, Hugh, Nations and State: An Enquiry into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism (London: Methuen, 1977). Shaffer, E. S., ‘Kubla Khan’ and ‘The Fall of Jerusalem’: Mythological School in Biblical Criticism and Secular Literature 1770–1880 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1975). Shaw, Harry E., The Forms of Historical Fiction (London: Cornell University Press, 1983). Shine, Hill, Carlyle and the Saint-Simonians: The Concept of Historical Periodicity (New York: Octagon, 1971). Shuttleworth, Sally, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Science: The Make-Believe of a Beginning (London: Cambridge University Press, 1984). 200 George Eliot and Victorian Historiography

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Acton, Lord, 33, 34, 60 Eliot, George, see under individual Adam Bede, 1, 4, 16, 18, 21, 22, 24, works 25, 26, 27, 38, 39, 42, 43, 45, Englishness, see National Identity 48–50, 72, 75, 78, 83, 89, 114, Empiricism, 3, 8, 18, 20, 25 121, 131, 134–5, 139 Ethnicity, 6, 36, 37, 39, 49, 53, 129, Aikin, Lucy, 122 144 Anderson, Benedict, 1, 12 ‘Evangelical Teaching: Dr Cumming’, Anglo-Saxonism 35, 38, 40, 41, 46, 47 66, 127 Annual Register, 22 Felix Holt, 10, 22, 27, 31, 75–6, 78, Arnold, Matthew, 53, 105 79, 90, 93, 135 Arnold, Thomas 41, 101 Femininity see also Masculinity,12, Authenticity, 17–22, 65, 93, 124, 143 15, 39, 88, 89, 116–18, 121–38, 140, 143 Blackwood, John, 62 Feuerbach, Ludwig, 83, 84 Bodichon, Mme Eugène, 4, 51, 174 Fichte, J. G., 69 Bray, Charles, 6 Foucault, Michel, 81, 141, 142 Browning, Robert, 53 Freeman, E. A., 33, 34, 35, 41, 54–5, Buckle, H. T., 6, 7, 45, 101, 113 57, 58, 59, 102 Bulwer Lytton, Edward, 107 Froude, J. A., 33, 52, 67, 78 Butterfield, Herbert, 33 Byron, Lord, 53 Gentlemen’s Magazine, 21, 22 Goethe, J. W., 17, 69 Carlyle, Thomas, 2, 3, 13, 31, 33, 52, Green, J. R., 33, 34, 51, 56–7, 59, 61, 66–84, 85, 88, 90, 95–9, 100, 101 109, 110, 123, 128, 139, 144 Catholicism (Roman), 35, 46, 47, 48 Harrison, Frederic, 5, 101, 102 Chance, 87–90, 100, 105–6, 112–15, Hegel, G. W. F., 140 135 Hennell, Sara Sophia, 5, 7, 34, 72 ‘Charles Kingsley’s Westward Ho!’, 21 Historical fiction, 8–10, 24, 44, 138, ‘College Breakfast-Party, A’, 118 139 Comte, Auguste, 3, 5, 6, 43, 101, Historiography 122 British, 14, 67–8, 101, 122, 139, Congreve, Dr Richard, 5, 49 140, 141, 146 Cornhill Magazine, 22 as discourse, 1, 2, 8, 11, 13, 23, 25, Cowper, William, 53 28, 29, 37, 142, 143 as fiction, 10, 11, 26, 30, 138, 139, Daniel Dernoda, 10, 12, 18, 22, 24, 143, 145 37, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 92–3, 95, German, see also under individual 96, 97, 100, 103–19, 121, historians, 14, 41, 69, 98 126–38, 139, 141, 144 Liberal Anglican, 7, 8 Darwin, Charles, 5, 6 research, 22, 28 Dickens, Charles, 68, 69, 77, 78 scientific, 3–7, 95, 101, 113

201 202 Index

Whig, see also under individual 2, 3, 6, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, historians, 12, 32–7, 40, 41, 42, 22–8, 30, 31, 33, 36, 44, 50, 46, 50–6, 57–64, 66, 71, 75, 55–7, 59, 60, 62, 65, 66, 68, 73, 78–9, 85, 95, 113, 120, 121, 76, 80–4, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91–5, 123, 139, 143, 144 98, 100–4, 106, 108–9, 111, 112, History, see also Historiography and 115, 117, 120, 121, 125, 128–9, Metahistory 137, 139, 145 and idealogy, 1, 10, 11, 12, 18, 28, Middlemarch, 4, 13, 22, 27, 31, 36, 29, 31, 32, 53, 89, 90, 94, 96, 37, 46–7, 76–81, 87, 90–2, 94, 97, 119, 114 96, 110, 119, 123–6, 131, 132, and capitalism, 2, 134 134, 135, 139 as process 71, 85, 92, 101, 146 Mill, John Stuart, 3, 41 and religion, 12, 35, 42, 85–6 Mill on the Floss, The, 22, 26, 39, 40, Huxley, T. H., 41 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 52, 77–8, 86, 88, 89, 92–3, 131, 134–6 Impressions of Theophrastus Such, 37, Milton, John, 53 51, 54–63, 66, 77, 80, 105, 117, ‘Modern Hep! Hep! Hep!, The’, see 143, 144 Impressions of Theophrastus Such Industrialization, 75–6, 78, 86, 90 Mommsen, Theodor, see also Ireland/the Irish, 46, 48, 49, 50 Historiography, German, 69–70 Morality of Wilhelm Meister, The, 17 James, Henry, 9, 12, 144 Morley, John, 41 Jameson, Anna, 122, 123 Judaism/Jewry, see also Zionism, National identity, see also 52–5, 57–8, 60–5, 97, 100, Nationalism, 1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 103–6, 111, 112, 113, 128, 129, 35–41, 44, 46, 49, 50, 52, 55–62, 130, 131, 143 64, 65–7, 74, 84, 100, 101, 103, 105, 106, 108, 115, 116, 117, Kavanagh, Julia, 122 119–20, 121, 127, 129, 131–2, Kingsley, Charles, 41 139, 143, 163 Nationalism, 1, 6, 8, 33, 39, 40, 41, Lawrance, Hannah, 122 46, 49, 50, 52, 55–7, 97, 116, ‘Leaves from a Notebook’, 16, 18 127, 128, 143, 144 Lessing, G. E., 105 ‘Natural History of German Life, Lewes, G. H., 5, 10, 14, 34, 62, 71 The’, 18, 19, 20, 48 ‘Looking Backward’, see Impressions of Niebuhr, B. G., see also Theophrastus Such Historiography, German, 69 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 87, 90, 102, Macaulay, T. B., 33–8, 41, 42, 46, 103, 114, 140 59–64, 78, 79, 101 Novalis, 69 Maitland, F. W., 101, 102 O’Connell, Daniel, 49 Marsh, Anna, 122 Orientalism, 63, 101, 143, 144 Martineau, Harriet, 122, 124 Otherness, 1, 46, 127 Masculinity see also Femininity, 39, 63, 96, 97, 107–9, 116, 122, 124, Palliser, Fanny, 122, 123 126–8 Pope, Alexander, 53 Metahistory, 2 Positivism, see also Buckle, Comte, Metanarrativity, see also History, and Historiography, scientific, 5, Historiography and Totality, 1, 6, 7 Index 203

Progress, see also History, Sidgwick, H., 101 metanarrative, 3, 4, 7, 19, 20, 27, Silas Marner, 7, 38, 86, 90 35, 36, 37, 41–6, 53, 58–9, 63, ‘Silly Novels by Lady Novelists’, 9, 66, 68, 75–7, 90, 97, 101, 105, 19, 21 111, 117–18, 120, 125, 126, 128, Spanish Gypsy, The, 5, 135 140, 143 Spencer, Herbert, 5 ‘Prospectus of the Westminster and Stanhope, Lady Hester, 133 Foreign Quarterly Review’, 19 Stanley, A. P., 101 Protestantism, see also Stone, Elizabeth, 122 Historiography, Whig, 35, 38, Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 107 46, 47, 38, 50, 64, 143, 144 Strickland, Agnes and Elizabeth, 122–3 Ranke, Leopold von, 12, 69, 102 Stubbs, William, 12, 33, 34, 35, 58, Realism, 8, 16, 17, 20–3, 27, 28, 31, 102 32, 90, 94, 139, 140, 142, 144–5 Richter, J. P., 69 ‘Timoleon’, 91 Romola, 8–10, 13, 20, 21, 24, 32, 36, Totality/Totalization, 4, 6, 7, 13, 16, 47, 54, 87, 92, 100, 122, 131, 17, 28, 29, 31, 32, 37, 44, 54–6, 134, 135, 139 59, 60, 61, 63, 77, 82, 85–6, 90, Round, J. H., 101, 102 92–4, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 70, 72 110, 111, 112, 118–19, 121, 130, ‘Ruskin’s Lectures’, 19 131, 132, 139, 142, 143, 145 Russell, Bertrand, 113 Tout, T. F., 101, 102 ‘R. W. Mackay’s The Progress of the Typology, 82–4 Intellect’, 19 Westminster Review, 19 Saint-Simonians, 69 ‘Westward Ho! And Constance Savonarola, 36 Herbert’, 18 Scenes of Clerical Life, 16, 24, 42, 43, ‘Worldiness and Other-Worldliness: 44, 45, 75, 83, 92, 124, 127 The Poet Young’, 18, 19 Schelling, F. W. J., 69 Woolf, Virginia, 126, 136, 146 Schiller, J. C. F., 69 Wordsworth, William, 7, 17, 53 Schlegel, F., 69 ‘Shadows of the Coming Race’ see Zionism, see also Judaism/Jewry, 96, Impressions of Theophrastus Such 103, 105–6, 127, 128, 132, 134 Sibree, John, 73, 104