THEHABSBURGSANDTHEIRCOURTSINEUROPE,1400–1700.BETWEENCOSMOPOLITISMANDREGIONALISM
Europe’sTurkishNemesis
LarrySilverȋȌ
AmericanswholivedthroughtheColdWarwiththeSovietUnionfromWorldWarIIuntilthelate twentieth century probably can well imagine from the Iron Curtain what life was like across the ChristianͲMuslimfrontierduringthesixteenthcentury.EversincethefallofConstantinopletothe OttomanTurksin1453,threatsfrombothmilitaryattackaswellasideologicalwaragainstthealien religionofIslampreoccupiedtheconsciousnessandcreatedaclimateoffearinEuropeanChristian states. Nowhere was this anxiety concerning the rival superpower greater than within the loose GermanͲspeaking confederation known as the Holy Roman Empire, led by Habsburg emperor Maximilian I (r. 1493–1519).1 Indeed the eventual frontier between Catholics and Muslims, established after the battle of Mohács in Hungary (1526), still coincides almost exactly with the modern, hostile frontier between Catholic Croatia and Orthodox Serbia (Catholics who remained behind the Ottoman lines were forced to convert to Islam and became the Muslims of BosniaͲ Herzegovina).
Fig.1MapoftheDanube,byWillemandJohannBlaeu, NovusAtlas(Amsterdam,1636).
InanatlasmapoftheDanubewatershed,producedbyJohannBlaeuinAmsterdamduring the 1630s we see this confrontation institutionalized around the image caption (fig. 1). Here this heightened awareness of both a political and religious frontier, manned against a mysterious and foreignenemyattheborder,ispersonifiedbytheconfrontationoftwopairsoffigures.Ononeside, theeast,asultan withanelaborate turbanbrandisheshisscimitarabovea roundshield with the crescent moon of Islam. His female companion, surely an allegory of the Muslim faith, stands contemptuouslyuponacrucifixanddispensestheexoticscentofincense;butsheisscantilycladina revealinglylowͲcutdress,certainlyisnotafiguretoadmire.Incasetheviewermissedtheseobvious visualcues,anoxioustoadrestsonthegroundbetweentheseOttomanpersonifications.Bycontrast,
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onthewesternsideofthestandoff,ahandsomebeardedrulerfigureinarmorsteadfastlyconfronts this enemy with a broadsword. His shield displays the doubleͲheaded eagle of the Holy Roman Empire,andhiscrownresemblestheofficialBügelkrone;complementinghisorbofoffice,hewears theexclusivependantofthenobleOrderoftheGoldenFleece,headedbytheHabsburgs.Hisfemale companion,whopersonifiestheChristianreligion,holdshercrucifixuprightandwearsadistinctly modestgown.
Throughout the sixteenth century Turks were regarded in apocalyptic terms by leading ChristianthinkersasascourgeofGod.Thisattitudebeganearly:wecanalreadyfinditprominently advancedinSebastianBrant’sShipofFools(1494).2InChapter99,‘OftheDeclineoftheFaith,’Brant intonesaboutChristendom,
Atfirstthecruelheretic didtearandwoundittothequick andthenMohammedshamefully abuseditsnoblesanctity withheresyandbaseintent.[…] SostrongtheTurkshavegrowntobe theyholdtheoceannotalone, theDanubetooisnowtheirown, theymaketheirinroadswhentheywill, bishoprics,churches,sufferill[…]
ButthepoetplaceshistrustintheyoungEmperorͲelectedtobetheantidote,
ThenobleMaximilian, hemeritswelltheRomancrown. They’llsurelycomeintohishand, theHolyEarth,thePromisedLand.
Many of the woodcut illustrations in Brant’s popular volume were designed by the young Albrecht Dürer, the same artist who produced some of the earliest German images of Ottoman Turks. Beginning with his first visit to Venice in 1494, Dürer turned his omnivorous gaze to the substantialcommunityofTurkishvisitors,documentingtheirexoticdress.3Heseriouslyengagedwith this unfamiliar nationality, which had such a strong trade presence in Venice, and his curiosity resulted in a series of drawings that emphasize distinctive costumes.4 Some of these colored drawings of ‘orientals’ by Dürer survive in copies, indicating their importance as models, used for later reference by his many followers and credited with an onͲsite accuracy. However, several of these drawings actually derive, not from studies of costumed models, but rather from earlier artworksbylocalVenetianpainters,particularlyGentileBellini,whohadevenvisitedIstanbulearlier onadiplomaticmission(figs.2Ͳ3).5
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Fig.2AlbrechtDürer,ThreeTurkish Fig.3GentileBellini,ProcessioninPiazzaSanMarco, Men,ca.1495. 1496,detailofthreeTurkishmeninbackground, Venice,Galleriedell’Accademia. Other Dürer drawings expressly focus on the military trappings and skills of Turkish soldiers, specificallytheirarchery(fig.4).ThisotherpreoccupationafocusonTurksasformidablemilitary enemieswouldstronglyinflectnotonlyDürer’sownpresentationsbutalsothoseofmanyofhis laterGermanfollowers.
Fig.4AlbrechtDürer,Oriental Fig.5AlbrechtDürer,Oriental Fig.6AlbrechtDürer,Apocalypse familyofanottomanarcher,1496, RulerseatedonhisThrone,ca. Series,1497,pl.2:TortureofSt. Milan,BibliotecaAmbrosiana. 1496/97),Washington,National JohntheEvangelist. Gallery.
Inthewakeofhis1494visittoVenice,Düreralsoproducedadrawingstudy(fig.5)foran uncompletedengraving:anOrientalRulerSeatedonhisThrone(ca.1496/97).6Inthisfantasyimage anyfirstͲhandexperienceofTurksinVeniceisoverwhelmedbyanintimidatingsuggestionofboth powerandmajestyaswellassternmenace.Detailsofthisexoticforeigncostumestillpreoccupythe artist. A distinctive crowned turban (probably imaginary) marks the royal rank and status of this
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frontal,enthronedfigure;itsencrustedroundjewelsareechoedonhisprincelyrobes,highlightedby anenormousnecklacewithpendant.7Exoticdetailsofthecostumespeaktoits‘Asiatic’character: fringesaddedtotherobeaswellasthefootwearofsandalsbeneathit.Bothpowerandauthorityof thisrulerareconveyed,respectively,byahuge,twoͲhandedbattleswordinhisrighthandandbyan orbinhisleft.WhileakintotheceremonialorboftheHolyRomanEmpire,whichDürer’shometown ofNurembergproudlyguarded,theorbinthedrawingsignificantlylacksthesurmountingcrossof imperialChristianregalia.Thethreateningauthorityofthisbeardedpotentateisfurtherenhancedby hissternandmenacingfacialexpression;despitehisformalfrontality,hisgloweringeyesturnaway toscowlobliquelyoutoftheframe,asakindofnegativeinversionofholyiconsofthefaceofJesus.8 This image clearly does not record a portrait of any particular Ottoman sultan; instead, it uses a figureofauthoritytopersonifytheperceivedthreatofTurkishIslamtoChristendom.Indeed,Dürer would soon adapt this enthroned orientalist ruler as the persecuting emperor Domitian in the woodcut scene of the Martyrdom of St. John, the first illustration of his 1498 publication of the Apocalypse(fig.6).
Fig.7AlbrechtDürer,SultanSüleyman, Fig.8Anonymous,SultanSüleyman,ca.1530/40, 1526,Bayonne,MuséeBonnat. Vienna,KunsthistorischesMuseum. AttheendofhiscareerDürerproducedaverydifferentimageofaTurkishruler,theprofile ‘portrait’ofrulingSultanSüleyman(monogrammedanddated1526,seefig.7),intheartist’sfavored mediumforportraitdrawings,silverpoint.9ItsprofilepresentationsuggeststhattheGermanartist hadaccesstoanexistingportraitprototype,almostsurelyderivedfromaVenetianpainter,inthe formofamedal.10Infact,aspecificsourcesurvives:asilvermedalinwhichtheprofilefacesthe oppositewaybutwiththebusttruncatedatthesamepointofthechestandshoulders.Therethe sultanwearsthesameturbanasinDürer’ssilverpoint,andheisidentifiedbyaninscriptioninthe blockLatinletters,‘SULEYMAN.CAESAR‘TURCARUM/MELECK.ET.ARAB.TURC.’11Boththemedalof SüleymanandtheDürerprofiledrawingpresentthesamedistinctivelongneckandprominentnose
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andlips.AroundadecadelateraVenetianpainterclosetoTitianpaintedabustͲlengthportraitofa young, mustachioed Sultan Süleyman in the same orientation as Dürer (ca. 1530/40; see fig. 8), presumablyusingthesamevisualsource.12
Fig.9AlbrechtDürer,TheMartyrdomofTen Fig.10AlbrechtDürer,TheMartyrdom Thousand,1508,oilonpanel,Vienna, oftheTenThousand,ca.1497/98, KunsthistorischesMuseum. woodcut.
In1508,inresponsetoacommissionbyoneofhisprincipalcourtlypatrons,Frederickthe WiseofSaxony,Dürerpaintedanimagetocommemoratemartyrs’relicsintheprince’sextensive religiouscollectionatWittenberg.Forthisimage,DüreragaincasttheTurksassadisticpersecutors forthenarrative,TheMartyrdomoftheTenThousand(1508,fig.9).13InthisearlyChristiansubject fromtheMiddleEast,thePersiankingSapor,actingoncommandofEmperorDiocletianofRome, slaughtered the Christians of Bithynia (343 C.E.). Dürer had depicted this same subject already appearedadecadeearlierinawoodcut(ca.1497/98;fig.10).Inbothcompositions,Christiansare cruellytorturedtodeath,tossedfromcliffsbyturbanedconquerors.Inthepainting,however,the martyrs’imitationofChristisemphasizedbytwofiguresoncrossesandathirdstandingawaiting execution; two wear crowns of thorns like Christ in the Passion, a clear medieval allusion to martyrdomandsainthoodasanimitatioChristi,butnowwiththeoppressorsrepresentedasTurks. Opposite, in the lower right corner, both standing and mounted figures with distinctive beards, complexturbansandcolorfulrobesclearlyconflatetheancientking,throughdress,tothemodern Turks.Hissinistercommandsthusbecomefusedwiththoseoftheimplacablereligiousenemiesof Dürer’sownday.
Inaddition,thepaintingalsotookonmorepersonalsignificancefortheartist,whoincluded hisownselfͲportraitasadarklycladwitnessinthecenter,inscribinghimselfexpresslyas‘Albrecht Dürer,German’(AlbertoDüreraleman),tolinkhisidentitystillclosertohispatron,anElectorofthe Empire and the leading lieutenant to Emperor Maximilian. He also included a friend, plausibly
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identifiedwiththerecentlydeceasedpoetlaureateoftheEmpire,ConradCeltis.Thus,Dürerfuses pastwithpresentandassimilatesmodernOttomansontohistoricpersecutionsofChristiansinthe Levant.14
Theyear1529markedtheclimaxoftheongoingconflictbetweentheforcesofHolyRoman Empireandtheirenemies,theOttomanTurks,thenpoisedinsiegeatthegatesofViennaafteran unbrokenstringofvictoriesintheBalkansandalongtheDanube(aserieshighlightedbyBelgrade 1521,MohácsandBuda,1526).NotonlydidtheadvanceofthearmiesofSultanSüleymanposean immediate threat to the Habsburg rulers in their traditional capital, but ultimately the siege undermined their own Christian claims to universal monarchy, claims implicit to the title of ‘Holy Roman Emperor.’ This peril was actually redoubled by the contemporary ‘odd couple’ alliance, especially after 1530, between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs’ mortal enemy in Europe, King FrancisIofFrance,analliancethatencompassedcommercialprivileges,nonͲaggressionpacts,and culminated in coordinated military campaigns (1536Ͳ37).15 Taken together, this period of political tensionheightenednationalselfͲconsciousnessinGermanyof theEmpireastheultimatebulwark againstfurtherTurkishincursion.
Fig.11NicolausMeldemann,CircularViewofthe CityofViennaattheTimeoftheFirstTurkishSiegein 1529,eightsheetwoodcut,1530.
TheSiegeofViennain1529,amomentouseventattheHabsburgcapitalthatturnedback thetideofTurkishadvancesintocontinentalEurope,receivedcarefuldocumentationintheformof alarge(81.2x85.6cm.)multiͲsheetcommemorativewoodcut,designedbyDürer’sfollowerSebald BehamandprintedinNurembergbyNicolausMeldemannfromsixblocks(1530)(fig.11).16Thework hadanofficialimprimatur,aprivilegegrantedbytheNurembergcitycouncil.Theprintmakerprized reportorialaccuracyofbattledetails; topographicalaccuracywasemphasizedaswell,withallthe viewsbasedoncarefulstudiestakenfromthegreattowerofSt.Stephen’scathedralintheheartof thecity.TodocumentfullythedefenseagainstthetroopsoftheTurks,theprintshowsthecityat the pictorial center; the siege itself outside the city walls is seen in the round from an elevated, bird’sͲeye viewpoint above the central cathedral tower.17 This composite image visualizes actual troopmovements,tents,andartilleryexplosionscharacteristicofcontemporarypracticesofwarfare.
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Intheprocess,Beham’swoodcutcelebratesvictoryoverTurkishinvadersevenasitparticipatesin thevogueforprintedimagesofmilitarydocumentaries.
Meldemann’s local rival as publisher of woodcut broadsheets in Nuremberg, Hans Guldenmundt,madehisowncommemorationofthegreateventasapamphletwithtextbylocal poetHansSachsandprintsbySebaldBeham,asTheThreeBesiegersofVienna.Hisprocessionseries ofTurkishofficersandsoldiersincludedarchers,armedspahis(roughlyakintoEuropeanknights), and earnest profile equestrian portraits of Turks on horses. These Turkish besiegers were led by Sultan Süleyman himself, plus his principal counselor Ibrahim Pasha and General Sansaco.18 The source for these images stemmed from an earlier suite of five woodcuts, produced in the NetherlandsbyJanSwartofGroningenanddated1526,thehighwatermarkofOttomanconquests along the Danube.19 These images thus held contemporary pertinence as newsworthy while also catering to the ongoing fascination with Turkish costume, particularly headwear, as well as their exoticweaponsandbattlefieldinstruments(trumpet,bagpipe,andhighͲpitchedshawm).Thesultan himself(fig.12)appearsinprofileatthecenter,ridingonhorseback,accompaniedbyalonefootͲ soldierandlabeled‘SolimanusimperatorTurcharum’withthedate.Othermountedtriads,variously dressed,arealsolabeledas‘Mamelukes,’‘Arabs,’and‘heathens,’respectively.
Fig.12SebaldBeham,TheTurkishSultanSüleyman, woodcutpublishedwiththepamphletTheThree BesiegersofVienna.
AdarkersideofTurksatwarwasproducedin1530byHansGuldenmundtatNurembergasa woodcutseriesforopinionformationandrallyingofimperialtroopsinrevengeforallegedatrocities inandaroundVienna.Images,attributedtoErhardSchoenbutfreelyadaptedfromSwart,nowshow mountedTurkishwarriorsleadingpairsofcaptiveChristiansonfootwitharopearoundtheirnecks; versesbyHansSachsdescribetheircruelconditions.20Evenworseisthebabycarriedbyoneofthem onhisspear.Thetextlamentshow‘theevil,gruesomeTurk’haskilledchildren,stolensheepand cattle,burneddownhomes,andcondemnedChristiancaptivestoslavery,pullingplowslikeanimals. Worse still is the 1530 Guldenmundt/Schoen broadsheet woodcut collaboration recounting the
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threat to civilians by Turks on the outskirts of the Vienna Woods, showing them killing babies by impalingthemonstakesorslicingthemwithscimitars(fig.13).21HeretheSachspoemreads:
OhLordGodonthehighestthrone, lookatthisgreatmisery, theTurkishragingtyrant hascarriedoutintheViennaWoods, murderingvirginsandwives, cuttingchildreninhalf, andimpalingthemonpikes[…] Oh,ourshepherdJesusChrist[…] saveusfromthehandoftheTurk. Fig.13ErhardSchoen,TurkishAtrocities, woodcut,publishedbyHans GuldenmundtinNuremberg,1530.
NofriendtoeitherpapacyorEmpire,MartinLutherdeclaredinhisprefacetotheBookofRevelation (1530;publishedin1546)thattheTurkswereascourgesentbyGodtochastenChristiansontheeve oftheapocalypse:
Here, now the devil’s final wrath gets to work: there in the East is the second woe. MohammedandtheSaracens,hereintheWestarepapacyandempirewiththethirdwoe. To these is added for good measure the Turk, Gog and Magog […] Thus Christendom is plaguedmostterriblyandmiserably,everywhereandonallsides,withfalsedoctrinesand withwars,withscrollandwithsword.22
Butforthecurrentemperor,defenderofChristendom,theongoingcontestagainsttheTurk wasconceivedasacrusade,soafterViennain1529,EmperorCharlesVlookedforanopportunityto goontheoffensiveandreverseTurkishconquestsinmainlandEurope.Indoingso,hecouldreassert his imperial status as well as his leadership of the Christian faith. He got his opportunity in 1535, whenheledacampaignfromhisbaseinSpainagainstthefortifiedcityofGoletanearTunis.The 1535campaignintheMaghrebcombatedBerbercorsairKheirͲedͲDin(knownintheChristianwest as‘Barbarossa’),admiraloftheTurksintheMediterranean.Equippedwithfourhundredshipsand somethirtythousandsoldiers,CharlesVhadsetouttostopMuslimraidsonChristianshippingand tosecuremaritimedominanceovertheSultan’sfleets.FrancisIofFrance,CharlesV’snemesis,was supplying Barbarossa with arms while treating with Sultan Süleyman (thus forging an alliance between the two principal enemies ofthe Empire). The proximate cause of war was Barbarossa’s deposing of King Mulay Hasan of Tunis, a nominal vassal of the emperor. Andrea Doria of Genoa commandedtheimperialfleet;landforcesservedunderAlfonsod’Avalos,marquisofVasto.
Commemoratingandcelebratingthat(shortͲlived)victory,theemperorwaslaterpresented with a suite of tapestries, the most costly and luxurious of all media. Using the same panoramic
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designasanearliertapestrycycle,celebratingthemilitaryspectacleofthe1525BattleofPavia(a glorious1525victoryovertheFrenchinItaly),designedforCharlesVatthebehestofMargaretof Austria by her court artist, Bernart van Orley. This twelveͲpart set on the Conquest of Tunis was woveninBrusselsbyWillemdePannemaker(1549–54)afterdesignsbyDutchartistJanVermeyen (who had been embedded with the invading troops, like recent American journalists in Iraq), probablywiththehelpofexperiencedtapestrydesignerPieterCoeckevanAelst(1546–50).23
In terms of documentary validity, this tapestry suite offered a mixture of careful observations,especiallyofcostumesandsettings,evenasitconveyedafullyrealizedpropaganda message.TheclimaxoftheconflictwasthemonthͲlongsiegeofthefortofGoleta(whichprotected Tunis)andthesubsequentsackofthecapital.Particularlycarefultopographicalrenderingsofthecity ofTunisincludemosquesandcitywalls.FurtherdetailsincludeancientruinsofCarthage,especially the prominent aqueducts, seen from different angles in successive tapestries, as well as the distinctive Mediterranean oared galleys, marked by their triangular, lateenͲrigged sails. Moreover, theentireseriesbeginswithanaerialmapoftheentireMediterraneanbasin,seenfromthevantage pointofBarcelona,withAfricaatthetop.Thedocumentarycharacterofthesetapestriesisfurther emphasizedbytheinclusionoftexthistoriesintwolanguages;longerpassagesinCastilianatthetop, shorterLatinversesatthebottom.24Asiftoassuretheimages’documentaryclaims,Vermeyeneven included a selfͲportrait while drawing in the field into the design of The Sack of Tunis. He also appearsintheinitialmappanel,whereafullͲlengthselfͲportraitfigurestandsbesideatabletwith theprouddeclaration:‘Thecourseofeventsisrepresentedinthisworkasexactlyaspossiblethe actionistreatedinthistapestryaccordingtonature,allthatconcernscosmographyleavingnothing tobedesired.‘25
Fig.14WillemdePannemakerafterJanC.Vermeyen,TheQuestforFodder,Sixth tapestryoftheConquestofTunisseries(includingancientruinsofCarthage),Madrid, PatrimonioNacional.
According to Hendrick Horn, Vermeyen distinguishes between the Maghrebi ‘Moors’, and their Turkish allies, and he even subdivides the former group into the more urban Arabs and the nomadicBerbers.BothgroupsofturbanedMoorsareshownmoresympatheticallythantheTurkish
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warriors, Janissaries, in their pointed caps, who fought for Barbarossa and are shown in several tapestries as headͲhunters. These varied groups are especially evident across the foreground of severalworks,notablythesixthtapestry,TheQuestforFodder(fig.14).MulayHassanandhisretinue ofMoorishalliesofCharlesValsoappear,acrosstheforegroundoftheFallofTunis.
LikeVermeyen,carefullyproducingcostumestudiesandlandscapetopographiesinTunisia, the artistically trained nobleman Melchior Lorichs of Flensberg was another Northerner who exploitedhisprivilegedroleinanimperialentouragetogainaccesstotheIslamicworld.Lorichswent totheOttomancapitalofIstanbulasamemberoftheHolyRomanEmpire’sentouragetothecourt ofSüleymanunderambassadorOgierGhiselindeBusbecq(1554–62),thesameindividualcredited with importing the tulip into Europe from Turkey.26 He served as the ambassador’s eyes for the military capacities and resources of the Ottomans, and published several treatises (1568, 1574) concerningthedangersthattheTurkisharmyposedtoChristianEurope.YetLorichsalsoproduced themostmeticulousonͲsitestudiesofthepeopleandbuildingsofConstantinoplebyanyEuropean visitorduringthesixteenthcentury.
Fig.15MelchiorLorichs,ByzantiumsiveConstantineopolis(ViewofIstanbul),1559,two sections,Leiden,UniversityLibrary.
FromthehighgroundofGalata(thepartofthecityoppositetheGoldenHornfromwhatis nowcalledtheOldCity),LorichsmadeavastyetcarefulsepiaandblackinkpanoramaofIstanbul (Leiden,UniversityLibrary,45x1.127,5cm;nowdividedintotwentyͲonesections;seefig.15).27This panorama, obviously composed out of separate studies from various positions, records the city skyline,includingnotonlythedominatingdomesandminaretsofmosquesbutalsoancientRoman memorial columns, palaces, caravanserais, gates, and city walls. Ships of all sizes and shapes, including European carracks as well as Levantine vessels with lateenͲrigged sails, fill the crowded waterways. Inscriptions label the points of interest in two different colors of sepia ink, though writteninasinglehand.NearthecenteroftheensembleappearsanidealizedselfͲportrait;awellͲ dressed,youthfulEuropeanindarkcostumeseenfromtheback,preparestowriteordrawonan extended scroll similar to the one today at Leiden. He dips his quill into an elaborate gobletͲlike inkwellthatisheldforhimbyaturbanedTurk(fig.16).
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Fig.16MelchiorLorichs,Sectionwithan Fig.17MelchiorLorichs,SultanSüleyman’sMosque, idealselfͲportraitoftheauthoratthe 1570,woodcut. centerofByzantiumsiveConstantineopolis, 1559,Leiden,UniversityLibrary.
Lorichs also produced a woodcut, monogrammed and dated 1570 (fig. 17), of the great mosquecomplex,theSüleymaniye,thatthearchitectSinanhadrecentlybuilt(1550വ57)forSultan Süleyman.28 Scholars have suggested that this print lacks both the clarity and the accuracy of the skylinedrawingsmadeonsite,butsuchdistortionsmayhavebeenintentionaleffortsonthepartof the artist to convey the grandeur of the complex to an audience that had never actually seen it. Lorichs’ print furthermore suggests a momentous historical event by placing in the sky above the mosquebothgatheringstormcloudsaswellasaglowingstarwithatail,likethe‘comets’andother ominous celestial apparitions associated with earthly catastrophes or conflicts in contemporary German cosmology.29 To many Europeans, the architectural splendor of this complex would have beencompromisedbythesourceofitsfunding,tributeamassedthroughconquestandcolonization ofChristianͲruledterritories,sothismaybeLorichs’wayofaccommodatinghiswesternaudiences.
Lorichs’carefuldrawingsofbothmaleandfemalecostumesservedasstudiesforhislater woodcutillustrationsandwerecomposedwithcleargraphicsyntaxofparallelandcrosshatchings that indicates that he was thinking from the outset about reproduction in printed form. In fact, LorichsplannedalargeeditionofwoodcutillustrationsbaseduponhisonͲsitedrawingsinTurkey. Blockswerecutfromthesedesignsin1565,1570,1575and1576,buteventhoughatitlepagewas produced (1575) the planned publication was never completed.30 A small, reduced version of this volumeappearedinAntwerpin1574(publishedbyGillisCoppensvanDiest,whoalsopublishedthe first atlas, Abraham Ortelius’s, Theatrum orbis terrarum, 1570) under the title, Soldan Soleyman TurckischenKhaysers…Whareundeigendtlichecontrafectungundbildtnuss(SultanSüleyman,ATrue and Real Facsimile and Portrait of the Turkish Emperor). One drawing (monogrammed and dated 1557,Paris,Louvre)showsarichlycaparisoneddromedarycamel,stridingthroughalandscapewith aroyaldrummeronhisbackpoundinghisinstrument,presumablytoannouncetheadventofthe sultan behind him.31 This image was produced as a reversed woodcut in 1576. The artist also producedotherdrawingsofdistinctive,sometimeshistorical,Germancostumes,thatwereprobably intendedforacompanionvolumeofEuropeancostumes,akintocontemporarycostumebookslike CesareVecellio’s(Venice,1590)orAbrahamdeBruyn’s(Antwerp1577).32
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Fig.18MelchiorLorichs,PortraitofSüleymanthe Fig.19MelchiorLorichs,SüleymantheMagnificentwith Magnificent,1562(?),engraving. theSuleymaniyeCamiinBackground,1574.
Lorichs also produced portrait engravings of the Sultan Süleyman when the latter was advancedinyears(1574). Oneofthese,basedonadrawingof1559andmonogrammedwiththe artist’sinitials(fig.18),presentsthesultanatbustͲlength,wearinghisown,distinctivelyhighturban. FollowingtheformulaestablishedinthelateportraitengravingsbyDürer,suchasFredericktheWise (1524),thesitterappearsbeforeaneutral,tonedbackgroundwithaledgebearinganinscription. TheprintiselaboratelycaptionedinbothArabicandLatin.TheArabicinscriptiondeclaresthesitter tobe‘Sultanofsultans,Süleymanshah,sonofSultanSelimKhan,’andconcludeswiththeformula, ‘may God protect his helper.’ The Latin inscription is even more elaborate: ‘Imago Suleymanni TurcorumImp.inOriente,UniciSelimiyFilii,QuiAn.DoMDXX.PatriinImperioSuccessit:QuoEtiam AnnoCarolus.V.MaxaemylianiCaesarisNeposAquisgraniinOccidenteCoronatusestChristian:Imp: A Melchiore Loricis, Flensburgensi, Holsatio, Antiquitatis Studiosiss°, Constantinopoli, An. MDLIX, Men. Feb., Die XV, Verissime Expressa.’33 The fullͲbearded ruler’s face is somewhat haggard and drawn,showinghisageandthecumulativestrainofhisreign.
Lorichs´ second engraved portrait of Süleyman shows the sultan standing at fullͲlength beforeagateofthecity,throughwhichpassesacaparisonedelephantbearingtwobannerͲcarriers, oneofthemdisplayingthecrescentmoonofIslam(fig.19).Visiblethroughthegatebehindhimis Süleymaniye mosque complex, which Lorichs had studied on site in preparation for the abovementioned woodcut. The features of the sultan derive from the bustͲlength study made by Lorichsin1559,buttheengravingwasonlyproducedin1574.Inthatyear,inscribedasthe‘trueand reallikeness[counterfeit]’ofthesultan,itaccompaniedGillisCoppensvanDiest’spublication.34
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Lorichs’ woodcut images return us to the tradition of observant, onͲsite documentary treatment of the Ottoman Turks and their empire, first conveyed by the woodcut illustrations by ErhardReuwichforthepilgrimageguideofBernhardvonBreydenbachin1486andmaintainedin Dürer’s early accurate drawings of Turkish costume and custom in Venice. However, after the decisive military advances in the Balkans, especially during the 1520s, the heightened threat of TurkisharmiestoboththeGermanHolyRomanEmpireaswellastowiderEuropeanChristendom made it difficult for Dürer and his followers to remain neutral observers of contemporary Islam. Aroundthetimeofthe1529siegeofVienna,Europeanfascinationintensifiedaboutmilitaryaspects of the Turks. Both in Germany and in The Netherlands, sixteenthͲcentury artists’ designsfor printmakers and for tapestry producers alike—kept images of Turkish armies richly available to Northernaudiences,whetherprincesorgeneralpublic.
After the Emperor Charles V’s siege of Tunis in 1535, the next signal victory over Turkish forcesintheMediterraneanoccurredatsea,theBattleofLepanto(1571).Maincreditforthevictory wassharedbetweenthenavalforcesofVeniceandthearmiesofCharles’sson,SpanishKingPhilipII. SoappropriatelytwoprincipalcommemorationsofLepantowereproducedfortheSpanishmonarch andsenttotheEscorialpalacebytheagedVenetianpainterTitian.
Fig.20Titian,PhilipIIOfferingthe InfanteDonFerdinandtoHeaven,(1573– 75),Madrid,PradoMuseum.
The first of these is an allegorical portrait, Philip II Offering the Infante Don Ferdinand to Heaven (1573–75) (fig. 20), which shows a fierce naval battle behind the principals, where dark smoke silhouettes the flaming vessels.35 Documents describe the picture as ‘The Naval Battle’ (BatallaNaval).Ironically,DonFernando,presumptiveheirandfirstsonoftheking’sfinalmarriage, whowasbornintheverysameyearastheBattleofLepanto,1571,woulddieascantthreeyears aftertheimagewaspainted.Inthepictureadescendingangel—and/orawingedVictory—extends both a laurel crown and palm of military conquest, together with a banderole with a message intended for the youth: Maiora tibi (greater things for you). This same combination of classical referencewithreligioussymbolismsuffusesthemainaction.Philip,bareheaded,wearsparadearmor
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asheoffershissonatwhatlookslikeanaltartableinaChristoͲmimeticact,likethePresentationof JesusintheTemple(Panofskyhascomparedthisgesturetoimageryinlatemedievalmanuscripts, whereapriestisshownliftingupanudechild,asymbolofthesoul;thissceneadornstheopeningof Psalm24:‘UntotheeOLord,doIliftupmysoul’).Arowofcolumnslikeatempleentryrecedes alongtherightside;thesturdycolumn,symbolofthevirtueofFortitude,frequentlyaccompanies thefullͲlengthstandingsubjectsofcourtportraits,suchasTitian’sformative1551imageofPhilipII, thenaprince.Thisrowconvergesperspectivallylikeaseriesofancestorsonthebrightcentralfigure oftheinfante.Meanwhile,inthelowerleftcornercrouchesashackledTurkishprisoner,identified notonlybyhisfeaturesbutalsobyhiscrescentbannerandhisdiscardedturban;thespoilsofhis weaponsbehindhimwereaddedonastripbypainterVicenteCarduchoin1625,whenthepainting was enlarged to match the grand dimensions of Titian’s earlier great military celebration for a Spanishkinginarmor:hisequestrianportrait,EmperorCharlesVattheBattleofMühlberg(1548),a conquestnotofTurksbutoveraProtestantalliance.
Fig.21Titian,ReligionSuccoredbySpain, 1573,Madrid,PradoMuseum.
TheotherpaintingsentbyTitiantoSpainincelebrationofKingPhilip’scontributiontothe BattleofLepantowasanallegory,ReligionSuccoredbySpain(1573,fig.21).36Itshowstheencounter oftwofemalepersonificationsbeforeaseabattleinthebackground.Crouchingontherightside,a nude who attempts modestly to cover herself can be identified as Catholicism from the chalice behindherandacrossleaningagainstasolidrock(offaithandthepapacy).Abovethatcross,snakes onthetrunkofadeadtreesignifydevilishthreatstoChristendom,presumablybytheIslamicTurks as well as by heretic Protestants in Europe. Striding boldly in from the left and facing Religion, a femalewarriorenterscarryingaspearandashieldlikethegoddessMinervainearliermythologies by the artist. Panofsky rightly associates her with the pictorial tradition of the goddess of war, Bellona,andcallsherEcclesiamilitans.Behindherasecondwomanadvanceswithupraisedsword, likeafigureofFortitude;sheinturnheadsatroopofAmazons.Theirarmedforceisidentifiedwith SpainthroughtheheraldicarmsofPhilipIIonthecornershield.Oncemorethespoilsofwarappear asweaponsinthecenterforeground,betweenSpainandReligion.Attheheadofthebackground navalbattle,inplaceofaNeptuneonhismarinechariot,drawnbyseahorses,weseeinsteadthe personificationofaturbanedTurk,headingforshoretothreatenthevulnerablefigureoftheChurch, whoturnstoacceptwelcomereinforcementfromherdeliverer.Thustheallegory,deftlyunpacked
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by Panofsky, can be described in his words as ‘The Christian Religion, Threatened by Internal Subversion (the snakes of Heresy) and External Enemies (the Turk), Seeking the Protection of the ChurchMilitantandFortitude.’
Fig.22DomenikosTheotokopoulos,ElGreco, AdorationoftheHolyNameofJesus,ca. 1577–79,RoyalMonasteryofS.Lawrenceof theEscorial,PatrimonioNacional.
One final image commemorates the Catholic unity that provided victory at Lepanto. It survivesonlyasanambitiousvisionbyanartistwhohopedinvaintoservethecourtofPhilipII:El Greco,arrivinginSpainin1576,freshfromhisownperiodoffinishingschoolatVeniceandRome. HisAdorationoftheHolyNameofJesus(ca.1577–79)survivesintwoversions,oneintheEscorial (fig. 22), the other now in London (National Gallery).37 Its subject was correctly identified in the seventeenthcenturybyFrayFranciscodelosSantos(1657),whoidentifieditasarepresentationof the mouth of Hell and the bridge of Purgatory, called it the Gloria by El Greco for Philip II, thus comparingitdirectlywithTitian’sGloria,madeearlierforthemeditationofCharlesV.Kneelingin adoration ofthe holy name, itself a Jesuit object of devotion,the three great leaders of the Holy LeaguewhomarshaledtheforcesforLepanto:PhilipII,dressedasalwaysinblack,DogeMocenigoof Veniceinarobetrimmedwithermine,andthecurrentpope,PiusV,inclericalrobes.On9March 1566,PiusVhadissuedabull,Cumgravissima,exhortingallChristianpowerstouniteagainstthe Turk.38Afourthkneelingfigureatthepope’srightisdressedinclassicalarmorandholdsasword;he hasbeenidentifiedbyAnthonyBluntasanidealizedportraitofthegeneraloftheLepantofleet,Don Juan of Austria, halfͲbrother of Philip II, who died in 1578 and was buried in the Escorial Royal Pantheon.Indeed,accordingtoFranciscodelosSantos,thisimagehungnearthattombinthemid seventeenth century. This picture reaffirms Christian doctrine and Catholic unity while also presentingtheseimportantcontemporaryfiguresalongsideresurrectedsoulswhoawaitredemption andadmissiontoheaven andthe companyofthe angelsabove.Evenmore thananallegory,this visionsituatescontemporaryreligionwithinacosmosoftheLastJudgmentandthetriumphofgood overevil.
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Ontheeasternfront,theHolyRomanEmpireresumeditsownactiveTurkishWars(1593– 1606),foughtduringthereignofEmperorRudolfII(r.1576–1612).Therenewedconflictbeganin August1593,whenSultanMuradIIIbrokeatrucethathadbeenineffectsince1584.39Althoughthe twosidesfoughttoadeadlockbeforethepeaceofZsitvaͲTorok(11November1606)wasratified, this protracted activity along a Central European front held worldwide significance as another boundarycontestbetweenChristendomandIslam.Italsoprovidedtheopportunity(or,indeed,the necessity) for considerable propagandaincluding visual arton the part of the Habsburg ruler. AlthoughRudolfIIneveractuallyledhistroopsinbattle,hehadhimselfportrayedbyhisnumerous courtartistsasagreatmilitaryvictorandpreserverofthefaith.
Fig.23HansvonAachen,Allegoryofthe TurkishWar(BattleofKronstadt/Brasov), 1603,Vienna.KunsthistorischesMuseum. PrincipalpropagandisticcommissionswenttoRudolf’scourtpainterinPrague,Hansvon Aachen,theauthorofabelatedcycleofoilsketchesonparchment,boundtogetherinavolume underthetitleAllegoryoftheTurkishWar(completedbefore1607).40Thelatestofthemilitary eventsdepictedinthecycle,theBattleofKronstadt/Brasov,datesfrommidͲ1603(fig.23).This motivationtocelebrate‘victories’throughvisualimageryechoestheheritageofthegrandiose cartoonsandtapestriesofCharlesV’searlierTuniscampaign.LikeVermeyenpreparingtopainthis cartoons,vonAachenmademeticuloustopographicstudies.Yethealteredtherhetoricofthe presentationbyutilizingallegoricalfigures,chieflyfemalepersonifications,suchaswingedvictories orplaces(e.g.Hungary),alongwithmorehistoricallycrediblegroupingsofinfantryandcavalry.In thefinaltwoimageshealsoincludedbannersastrophiestosignifyvictory.
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Frequentlythecompositionsdisplaytheheavensopentoshowdivinefiguresoverseeingthebattle: classicalgodsappearinpersonorthroughthesurrogatesoftheirsymbolicanimals,andtheartist doesnotmisstheopportunitytosuggestparallelsbetweentheeagleofJupiterandtheheraldic eagleoftheHolyRomanEmpire.Theeagleclawingthecrescentmoon,symbolofIslam,wasalsoa favoriteimpresaofRudolfII.
Fig.24AdriaendeVries,Reliefwiththeregainingofthe Fig.25HansvonAachen,TheBattleofSissek(1593), fortressofRaab/Gÿor(1598),Vienna,Kunsthistorisches Vienna,HeeresgeschichtlichesMuseum. Museum.
SomeofvonAachen’sdesignsweretranslatedintosculptedreliefbyRudolf’scourtsculptor, Adriaen de Vries, notably the image (ca. 1604–05) of the regaining (1598) of the fortress of Raab/Györ(fig.24).41Boththeoilsketchesandthebronzereliefweremorepersonal,privateitems thantapestriesorprints,andwerereservedforthenotoriouslywithdrawnemperorhimselfrather thanconceivedforlargeͲscalepublicdisplayorbroadcirculation.Yettheirgenesisandpresentation receivedmoredirectinputfromtherulerhimselfthanhadthetapestries,commissionedthroughthe agencyoftheemperor’ssisterandregent,MaryofHungary.
A characteristic von Aachen image, The Battle of Sissek (1593; one of the sources for de Vries’s relief) (fig. 25), inaugurates the scenes of war. It shows the emperor’s eagle attacking the sultan’screscentintheskyabove,andplacesclassicalrivergodsinthecornerstosuggestthesite. Additionally, a winged Victory extends palm and laurel garlands to the seated female allegory of Croatia,whobearsacrownandscepterandheraldicblueandwhitesquaresonherskirt.Alongside thesefantasticallegoricalelements,thebackgroundoftheimageclearlydepictstheactualriverside settingofthecityanditsfortifiedwalls.Thebattleisinprogress:imperialforcesmoveinexorably fromlefttoright,sportingtheirbanners,andvanquishedTurksarecastintotheriver.Cavalrywith lances are complemented by infantry with pikes; the modern firearm, a harquebus or musket, is visibleintheleftmiddleground.SomeTurkswearidentifiablecostume,especiallyturbans,butthese are less ethnographically accurate records of dress than they are symbolic attributes to help communicateandcelebratethepartisanvictoryoveradreadedenemy.Alongwiththeirallegorical
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mainfigures,theserepresentationsofbattlesbyvonAachenattendmoretothespecifictopography ofthesitesthantheydocumenttheactualmovementsofarmies.
VonAachen’sworkssurviveforthemostpartbothintheformofoilsketches(Vienna)and presentationdrawings(Dresden),thelatterofwhichwerefinishedin1604andpresentedin1607to Christian II, Elector of Saxony.42 Once more both patron and audience are courtly, imperial adversariesoftheTurks,andagainthechosensubjectsarebattlesadifferentcategoryfromthe traditionofdispassionateethnographicstudyofcostumesorcustoms,intendedtosatisfycuriosity anddisplaytheexotic.
By contrast, Rudolf II assembled in his castle at Prague the actual battlefield booty seized fromtheTurks,makingitafeaturewithinhisvastcollections.43Consistingchieflyofbowsandtheir leather cases, as well metalͲedged weapons (daggers, swords, battleͲaxes), these trophies were displayedtoimpressvisitingambassadors.SuchdelegationsincludedSafavidPersians,envoysfrom the empire that abutted the Ottomans on the opposite flank. This display of trophies must have helped kindle a proposed alliance between the Holy Roman Empire and the Persian Shah Abbas (1587–1629).44
TheartistofprintedportraitsofRudolfIIwashiscourtengraver,AegidiusSadeler.45Sadeler, like the imperial sculptor, Adriaen de Vries, devoted his main portrait energies to depicting the majestyofRudolfII.Andhisallegoricalvocabularyinframingtheimperialmajestypartakesofanew learned artistic vocabulary, which asserts conquest over the Turkish nemesis. After an extended century of visualizing Turks, this imperial program fits firmly into an ongoing Habsburg tradition, albeit with a more propagandistic purpose. Indeed the allegories, like Rubens’s cycle for Queen MotherMariede’MediciinFranceduringthe1620s,notonlyofferamorelearnedandelitepictorial vocabulary but also serve to airbrush embarrassing setbacks and harsh realities, in this case the ultimatemilitarystalematewiththeTurkishforcesbytheEmpire.Likethemodernexampleofthe Cold War adduced above, no European Christian could ever forget the clear and present danger posedtobothhisfaithandhispoliticalautonomybytheIslamicOttomanEmpireacrosstheborder. Thatthreateningsuperpower,however,alsoheldongoingfascinationandexoticallure,realizedin pictorialtermsallthemorebythoseartists,particularlyVermeyenandLorichs,whohadexperienced TunisandIstanbulinpersoninsteadofpicturingstereotypesofTurks.
Ultimately,almostallimagesofTurksfromtheHolyRomanEmpirenecessarilyblended(to varying degrees) these opposing qualities: fear and loathing towards a formidable enemy that defined Christian Europe through contrast; alongside fascinated, careful observation, produced, usuallyinmultipleprintimages,forthedelectationinEuropeofcommonersaswellasrulers.
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Illustrations
Fig.1MapoftheDanubeRiver,byWillemandJohannBlaeu,inNovusAtlas(Amsterdam,1636).
Fig.2AlbrechtDürer,ThreeTurkishMen,ca.1495.
Fig.3GentileBellini,ProcessioninPiazzaSanMarco,1496,detailofthreeTurkishmenin background,Venice,Galleriedell’Accademia.
Fig.4AlbrechtDürer,Orientalfamilyofanottomanarcher,1496,Milan,BibliotecaAmbrosiana.
Fig.5AlbrechtDürer,OrientalRulerseatedonhisThrone,ca.1496/97),Washington,National Gallery.
Fig.6AlbrechtDürer,ApocalypseSeries,1497,pl.2:TortureofSt.JohntheEvangelist.
Fig.7AlbrechtDürer,SultanSüleyman,1526,Bayonne,MuséeBonnat.
Fig.8Anonymous,SultanSüleyman,ca.1530/40,Vienna,KunsthistorischesMuseum.
Fig.9AlbrechtDürer,TheMartyrdomofTenThousand,1508,oilonpanel,Vienna,Kunsthistorisches Museum.
Fig.10AlbrechtDürer,TheMartyrdomoftheTenThousand,ca.1497/98,woodcut.
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Fig.11NicolausMeldemann,CircularViewoftheCityofViennaattheTimeoftheFirstTurkish Siegein1529,eightsheetwoodcut,1530.
Fig.12SebaldBeham,TheTurkishSultanSüleyman,woodcutpublishedwiththepamphletThe ThreeBesiegersofVienna.
Fig.13ErhardSchoen,TurkishAtrocities,woodcut,publishedbyHansGuldenmundtinNuremberg, 1530.
Fig.14WillemdePannemakerafterJanC.Vermeyen,TheQuestforFodder,Sixthtapestryofthe ConquestofTunisseries(includingancientruinsofCarthage),Madrid,PatrimonioNacional.
Fig.15MelchiorLorichs,ByzantiumsiveConstantineopolis(ViewofIstanbul),1559,twosections, Leiden,UniversityLibrary.
Fig.16MelchiorLorichs,SectionwithanidealselfͲportraitoftheauthoratthecenterofByzantium siveConstantineopolis,1559,Leiden,UniversityLibrary.
Fig.17MelchiorLorichs,SultanSüleyman’sMosque,1570,woodcut.
Fig.18MelchiorLorichs,PortraitofSüleymantheMagnificent,1562?,engraving.
Fig.19MelchiorLorichs,SülemaniyetheMagnificentwiththeSuleymaniyeCamiinBackground, 1574.
Fig.20Titian,PhilipIIOfferingtheInfanteDonFerdinandtoHeaven,(1573–75),Madrid,Prado Museum.
Fig.21Titian,ReligionSuccoredbySpain,1573,Madrid,PradoMuseum.
Fig.22DomenikosTheotokopoulos,ElGreco,AdorationoftheHolyNameofJesus,ca.1577–79, RoyalMonasteryofS.LawrenceoftheEscorial,PatrimonioNacional.
Fig.23HansvonAachen,AllegoryoftheTurkishWar(BattleofKronstadt/Brasov),1603,Vienna, KunsthistorischesMuseum.
Fig.24AdriaendeVries,ReliefwiththeRegainingofthefortressofRaab/Gÿor(1598),Vienna, KunsthistorischesMuseum.
Fig.25HansvonAachen,TheBattleofSissek(1593),Vienna,HeeresgeschichtlichesMuseum.
1 For a discussion of Maximilian’s art patronage, including his various verbal and visual campaigns for a contemporarycrusadeagainsttheOttomanTurks,seeSilver2008. 2EditedandtranslatedbyZeydel1944,pp.315–22. 3Raby1982;Levenson1991,pp.212–13,nos.109–110. 4Carboni2007.SeealsotheessaybyElizabethRodiniinthesamevolume. 5Raby1982,p.25;Aikema&Brown1999,pp.266–67,no.38;Koschatzky&Strobl,1971,pp.64–65,no.15(W. 79,ca.1495);Levenson1991,p.213,no.110;Bartrum2003,pp.108Ͳ09,no.38(W.78,ca.1494–95).Seenow Campbell&Chong2005.InthespecificcaseoftheThreeOrientals(London,BritishMuseum,W.78,ca.1494–
©ÖAW,KULeuvenandauthors 264 ISBN978Ͳ94Ͳ6018Ͳ483Ͳ3 THEHABSBURGSANDTHEIRCOURTSINEUROPE,1400–1700.BETWEENCOSMOPOLITISMANDREGIONALISM
95),DürerexplicitlyreplicatedthreesmallfiguresinthebackgroundofalargepaintingbyGentileBellini,the Corpus Christi Procession in the Piazza San Marco, dated 1496; therefore, these figures must have been experiencedbyDürerpriortocompletionofthefinalpicture,perhapsthroughpreliminarydrawingstudies. 6Levenson1991,pp.212–13,no.109,White1973,365–74.Thefigureofthedrawingwastracedthroughto theothersideofthesheet,toserveasthemodelfortheengraving.Thatprintexistsinonlyoneunfinished proof (Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum) and was unrecorded by Bartsch. See also Strauss 1981, pp. 54–55; and Strauss1974,no.1495/18–18a. 7Additionofbothrubiesandturquoisedoesindeedmarkanumberofthesultan’spersonaldecorativeobjects, includingtheroyalmace;seeAtil1987;andSchätzeausdemTopkapiSerail,1988. 8DeWitt2011,pp.109–45,esp.112–13,121–23. 9 See Strauss 1974, pp. 2320 – 2321, no. 1526/8. The drawing is inscribed in German script, Suleyman imperator,dieleibfarbistgantzlederfarb(EmperorSüleyman,thebodyͲcoloriscompletelyleatherͲcolored). 10Fortherelationsbetweenportraitmedalsandportraitwoodcutsasmultiplelikenesses,Silver2003. 11Dresden,Münzkabinett;ImLichtedesHalbmonds...1995,p.75,no.24.Thisraremedaldoesnotappearin thecelebratedcollectionsofLondon,Vienna,Berlin,andMunich,anditsartistandoriginremainunknown.It alsoresemblesarelatedetchingbyHieronymusHopfer.ComparealsotheprofilemedalwithturbanofSultan Mehmet II (‘the Conqueror’), facing the same leftward direction as Dürer drawing, dating ca. 1480 and patternedafteradesignbyGentileBelliniofVenice,ibid.,p.53,no.5,withGentile’scelebratednearͲprofile paintedportraitofMehmetII(1480;London,NationalGallery),ibid.,p.52,no.1. 12ImLichtedesHalbmonds...1995,p.74,no.21;Heinz&Schütz1976,pp.182–84,no.156,fig.101.Basedon theageofthesultan,theprofilemodelforthepaintingprobablydatestothe1520's,likeDürer’sownsource. 13Anzelewsky1970,pp.212–18,no.105.Ahorizontalformatdrawing,preservedinafastidiouscopy(W.438, Vienna,Albertina;seeKoschatzky&Strobl,pp.168–71,no.62),servedasapreliminarycompositionofthis complextheme.MorewidelyonFredericktheWiseasacourtlypatronofDürer,seeSilver2004,pp.149–62. 14Panofsky1942,39–54;Spitz1958. 15Especiallyafter1530.Knecht1992,pp.224–25,233–34,294–95.ForthebestrecentsurveyoftheHabsburgs andtheOttomansinthesixteenthcentury,seePress1994andKafadar1994. 16ImLichtedesHalbmonds…1995,pp.78–79,no.36;Landau&Parshall1994,pp.227–28,figs.233–34;Moxey 1989,pp.78–79,n.28forreferences. 17ColdingSmith2010,pp.72–73;Hale,1990,pp.17–19;Clifton2009,pp.41–50;Landau&Parshall1994,pp. 227–28. 18ImLichtedesHalbmonds...1995,pp.79Ͳ80,no.37.Wien1529...1979Ͳ80,pp.63Ͳ69,no.151. 19ColdingSmith2010,pp.54–82,esp.65–67(IamgratefultoDr.Smithforsharingherresearchwithmeprior topublication);KunstvoordeBeeldenstorm…1986,pp.175–76,no.59. 20ColdingSmith2010,p.54,withtranslation;Moxey1989,pp.76–77,fig.4.7. 21ColdingSmith2010,p.1,withtranslation. 22Luther1960,vol.35,p.407. 23Campbell2002,pp.385–91,428–34;Jardine&Brotton2000,pp.82Ͳ87;alsoHorn1989,pp.13–17,35Ͳ37, 41–47, 111–223; Seipel 2000. Scholarly debate continues about whether Vermeyen designed the tapestries aloneorwhetherhecollaboratedwithexperienceddesignerPieterCoeckevanAelst. 24History,indeed,butnotwithoutbias.TheSackofTunisusesitsLatininscriptiontoeditorialize:‘Thetroops sentagainsttheoutskirtsofthetownlaysiegetoandtakethem,slaughtertheenemy[hostemque]inarmor and,takingthehouses,sparetheinhabitants.Theyusetherightofconquest[iurebelli].Morethantwenty thousandcaptivesrecovertheirlibertyandthricesaluteCharlestheAvenger[VictoremCarolum]withcriesof gratitude.TheconquerorreestablishestheunfortunateHasanonthethroneofhisancestors,thoughhehardly meritedthis,ashehadpromisedsomuchandperformednothing,’translatedbyCampbell2002,p.429,no. 50.OrtheLatinfromtheinitialtapestry:‘WishingtoovercometheinfidelarmiesoftheTurkandthewarrior [Barbarossa]who,obeyingtheordersofSuleiman,raisescruelwaragainsttherealmsofSpain,Caesar,Charles theFifthofthatname,gatherstogetherwiththeblessingsofheaven,thearmiesandfleetsofSpainandItalyto threatentheAfricantroops.Notbrookingdelaywhiletimeandthehourproceed,heenergeticallyhastensto hisshipsandhisloyalcompanions,’translatedbyHorn1989,p.181. 25Horn1989,p.181. 26Fischer1962;Fisher2009;St.Clair1973,nos.6–10.
©ÖAW,KULeuvenandauthors 265 ISBN978Ͳ94Ͳ6018Ͳ483Ͳ3 THEHABSBURGSANDTHEIRCOURTSINEUROPE,1400–1700.BETWEENCOSMOPOLITISMANDREGIONALISM
27Westbrook,RainsburyDark&vanMeeuwen2010,pp.62–87;Evans2004,pp.406Ͳ08,no.249;Sievernich& Budde1989,pp.241–44;Mangoetal.1989;Romanelli1999,pp.154–58,no.16;Yerasimos1990,pp.294–97; Fisher1962,p.24.Forthegeneralphenomenon,seeNuti,1996. 28SchätzeausdemTopkapiSerail1988,p.72,no.6.Forthebuildingcomplex,Goodwin1971,pp.215–39;now seeNecipoglu2005. 29Silver1999,pp.194–214,withreferences. 30Fischer1962,pp.38–58.Afterseveralfalsestarts,thepublicationfirstappearedin1626inHamburgwith MichaelHering.WardͲJackson1955,83–93. 31DessinsdeDürer…1991,pp.128–29,no.120,arguesthatthedrawingwasdoneatalatermomentbackin Germany,withthedaterecordingtheperiodofobservation. 32Kaufmann1988,pp.64–65,nos.14–15;andFisher1962,pp.58–64,nos.64–78. 33ThetranslationoftheLatininscriptionwillbeaddedhere. 34 Soldan Soleyman TurckischenKhaysers...Whare undeigenliche contrafectung undbiltnuss, dated 21 April 1574. 35Humfrey2007,p.368,no.293;Checa1994,pp.52–56;Panofsky1969,pp.72–73. 36Humfrey2007,p.367,no.292;Checa1994,pp.58–60;Panofsky1969,pp.186Ͳ90.AlsoWittkower1977,pp. 143–46,whichseestheChurchTriumphantintheMinervafigureandthenudefigureastheMagdalene,Sin redeemed.ButseeaseventeenthͲcenturyassessmentoftheimagebyFrayFranciscodelosSantos,Wittkower 1977,p.145,n.8.Humfrey2007rejectsthenotionthatthispictureisareworkedversionofamuchearlier painting,seentheartist’sstudioanddescribedin1566byVasari(VII,458)asaworkbegunforAlfonsod’Este, who had commissioned the Ferrara Camerino d’alabastro. However, recent technical examination does not showchangestotheattributesofthemainallegories,sotheVasariworkisprobablylost,thoughitispossibly identicaltoaworksenttoEmperorMaximilianIIandengravedin1568byGiulioFontana.Intheengravingthe suppliantnudeisdescribedinLatinas‘thepiousimageofthereligionoftheunvanquishedEmperorofthe Christians,’ in Panofsky 1969, p. 187. A workshop copy of the Escorial painting is in Rome, Palazzo Doria– Pamphilij. 37Brownetal.1982,pp.231–32,no.12;Blunt1939–40,pp.58Ͳ69. 38Panofsky1969,p.188. 39 Kappel 1995, pp. 125Ͳ33; Haupt 1988, vol. I, 97–98. For the complex diplomatic history via an imperial perspective, Evans 1997, pp. 75–78; the Ottoman outlook, between Europe and Persia, is conveyed by Goodwin1998,pp.164–67. 40Jacoby2000,esp.pp.174–75,178–80,182–203;nos.56,58,60;moregenerallyforvonAachenandthe other artists at Prague, Kaufmann 1988, esp. pp. 133–63, nos. 1.44, 1.48–60. Ink drawing copies of the oil sketchesbyvonAachen’sworkshopshowalargeroriginalcycle. 41Scholten1998Ͳ99,pp.159–61,no.18.Thismorecompositework,derivedfromseveralofthevonAachen designs,speaksmoregenerallytotheTurkishWaronthebattlegroundofHungary,anditfeaturestheMuslim dragonandserpentbeingattackedbyimperialeagleandlionalongwithriverpersonifications(Danubeand Sava). 42 Unusually for von Aachen a pair of preliminary compositional drawings survive: one in Dusseldorf, Kunstmuseum(inv.no.941),theotherinMoscow,PushkinMuseum(inv.no.7456;discussedinPragum1600, vol.I,pp.333–34,no.183). 43Pfaffenbichler1998,pp.161–65. 44ThisproposedalliancewasbrokeredbytheEnglishmanRobertShirley;seeEvans1997,pp.77Ͳ78;seealso theremarkabledoubleportraitsinPersianambassadorialdress(1622),paintedinRomebyAnthonyvanDyck ofSirRobertandTeresia,LadyShirley(PetworthHouse),inBrown&Vlieghe1999,pp.160–63,nos.29–30. 45ImLichtedesHalbmonds,nos.132Ͳ34;Pragum1600,vol.I,nos.19,36–37,esp.HuseinAliBeg,depictedin 1601,whoalsovisitedtheElectorofSaxony.
©ÖAW,KULeuvenandauthors 266 ISBN978Ͳ94Ͳ6018Ͳ483Ͳ3