When Will Japan Choose Light Rail Transit?

Feature New Promise of LRT Systems

When will Japan Choose Light Rail Transit?

Kiyohito Utsunomiya

Short History of not begin to grow in Japan at the time, Introduction Tramways in Japan allowing trams to continue holding their own in the urban public transportation Interest in Light Rail Transit (LRT) as a The world’s first commercial electric networks. In 1954, the Tokyo Metropolitan viable urban transportation system has tramway opened in 1881, and ran 2.8 km Government (TMG) introduced Presidents’ been growing worldwide since the late from Lichterfelde (near Berlin) to the Conference Committee (PCC) streetcars, 20th century. Although there is no definite Anhalt Cadet School. Japan’s first which had been developed in the USA difference between trams and LRT tramway was the Kyoto Electric Railway since the 1930s. systems, the latter is an evolved tramway opened on 1 February 1895. In the early Japan’s rapidly expanding economy in the system—tracks are often segregated from days, there were few alternative forms of 1960s led to more private car ownership other traffic, cars run faster, and everyone urban transport and tramways were soon and the increasing road congestion with has easy access due to level boarding. In spreading to many other cities. Although resultant delays to tram timetables led Germany, where old tramway systems the growth of bus services after WWI put many cities to start closing tram systems. have been vigorously upgraded as LRT some local tramways out of business, As shown in Figure 1, between 1960 and (Stadtbahn) systems since the 1960s, LRT there were still 83 tramways with a total 1990, the number of tramway operators systems have become the core of urban route length of 1480 km operating in 67 dropped by nearly half, while the total transport in many cities. Also new LRT Japanese cities in 1932. length of track was slashed by about 80%. systems have been constructed in France Aerial bombing during WWII caused Lines serving local traffic in smaller and the UK some 40 or so years after both tremendous damage to tramways and centres were generally the first to be countries closed many old tramway tram facilities but trams were the first form closed. Later, subways replaced trams in systems dating from the Victorian era. LRT of public transport to reappear in the war- the three most important cities of Tokyo systems are also starting to appear in the torn cities. For example, three tramcars— (except the Arakawa Line), Osaka, and USA and Canada, two countries known the last serviceable vehicles—were Nagoya. Other smaller regional cities, for their love of the automobile. running again in Hiroshima just 3 days such as Sendai, Fukuoka and Sapporo, Under these circumstances, although no after the atomic bombing. Trams were also began planning subways in the 1970s new LRT systems have been built in Japan soon carrying huge numbers of people in and one tramway track after another was recently, some tramway systems have the early postwar years and contributed ripped up. begun to introduce low-floor cars with greatly to the reconstruction. Some exceptional tramway operations improved ease-of-access and efficiency. North America turned to the automobile managed to remain profitable. Hiroshima This article reviews Japanese tramway for urban transport immediately after and Nagasaki are cities that see trams as systems and discusses the possibility of WWII and Europe was quick to follow a viable urban transit solution. So-called reviving them as LRT systems. suite, leading to the rapid decline of trams. Light Rail Vehicles (LRVs) joined the tram However, private vehicle ownership did rolling stock in both cities in the 1980s.

Figure 1 Tramways Trends in Japan

No. of Route-km operators 50 1400 45 1200 40 Route-km 35 1000 30 800 25 No. of operators 20 600 15 400 10 200 5 0 0 1958 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Source: Tetsudo tokei nempo (Annual railway statistics), Ministry of Transport. Series 5000 Green Mover of Hiroshima Electric Railway (Author)

10 Japan Railway & Transport Review 38 • March 2004 Copyright © 2004 EJRCF. All rights reserved. However, very little LRT track has been Figure 2 Japanese Cities with Tramways built since then and Japan seems to have fallen behind other countries where more Sapporo (Sapporo Transportation Bureau) LRT systems are being built. Hakodate (Hakodate City Transportation Bureau)

Toyama (Toyama Chiho Railway) Takaoka (Man’yo Line) Tramways in Japan Today Fukui (Fukui Railway) Otsu (Keihan Electric Railway) Overview Kyoto (Keifuku Electric Railroad)

There are 19 tramway systems in 18 Okayama (Okayama Electric Tramway) Japanese cities from Sapporo in the north Hiroshima (Hiroshima Electric Railway) to Kagoshima in the south (Fig. 2). Tokyo still has the 12.2-km Arakawa Line, a Tokyo Nagasaki (Nagasaki Electric Tramway) (TMG Transportation Bureau) tramway operated by the TMG running (Tokyu Corp. Setagaya Line) Kumamoto on mostly segregated track between (Kumamoto City Transportation Bureau) Toyohashi (Toyohashi Railway) Kagoshima Waseda and Minowabashi stations; all (Kagoshima City Transportation Bureau) Gifu (Nagoya Railroad (Meitetsu)) other tramways formerly operated by the Osaka metropolitan government were closed. (Hankai Tramway) Matsuyama Kochi The only tramways still operating in (Iyo Railway) (Tosa Electric Railway) Osaka are the Hankai (14.1 km) and the Uemachi (4.6 km) lines operated by Table 1 Tramways in Japan Hankai Tramway. City Operator City population Route-km No. of Ratio of operating Start of tram In general, Japanese tramway systems (1000) lines expenditure to revenue operations follow the traditional model and most (after depreciation) tramway operation are relatively small Sapporo Sapporo Transportation Bureau 1820 8.5 1 107.4 1918 scale. However, some Japanese operators Hakodate Hakodate City Transportation Bureau 290 10.9 2 110.0 1913 Tokyo TMG Transportation Bureau 8140 12.2 1 96.8 1911 have recently introduced modern rolling Tokyo Tokyu Corp. 8140 5.0 1 112.9 1907 stock, such as low-floor cars offering Toyama Toyama Chiho Railway 330 6.4 1 95.8 1913 barrier-free access. Kumamoto City Takaoka Man’yo Line 170 12.8 1 132.3 1948 Fukui Fukui Railway 250 21.4 2 109.1 1933 Transportation Bureau in Kyushu Toyohashi Toyohashi Railway 370 5.4 2 112.1 1925 introduced 100% low-floor vehicles in Gifu Meitetsu 400 23.9 3 248.9 1911 1997 using German-made bogies and Otsu Keihan Electric Railway 290 21.6 2 249.0 1912 Kyoto Keifuku Electric Railroad 1470 11.0 2 107.6 1910 equipment. At one time, the Bureau had Osaka Hankai Tramway 2600 18.7 3 116.4 1911 planned to tear up all its tram tracks, but Okayama Okayama Electric Tramway 630 4.7 2 84.2 1912 it changed course in midstream and now Hiroshima Hiroshima Electric Railway 1130 34.9 8 86.2 1912 Kochi Tosa Electric Railway 330 25.3 2 119.6 1904 operates two lines totalling 12 km. Matsuyama Iyo Railway 470 9.6 4 102.5 1911 German-built low-floor cars running past Nagasaki Nagasaki Electric Tramway 420 11.5 4 96.6 1915 Kumamoto Castle have come to Kumamoto Kumamoto City Transportation Bureau 660 12.1 2 123.1 1924 Kagoshima Kagoshima City Transport Bureau 550 13.1 2 93.1 1912 symbolize the city. Source: Tetsudo tokei nempo (Annual railway statistics), Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, 2000. In 1999, Hiroshima City imported German Notes: Numbers for Man’yo Line are for the predecessor Kaetsuno Railway. Numbers for Fukui Railway include data from conventional railway operations. low-floor tramways by air cargo, creating Numbers for Meitetsu include data from operations on the Gifu-shinai and Minomachi lines. quite a stir among the news media. Other Except for the ratio of operating expenditure to revenue, which refers only to tramway operations, numbers for Hiroshima Electric Railway include data from railway operations. cities like Gifu, Kagoshima, Matsuyama, Kochi, Okayama and Hakodate have also introduced low-floor trams. Tramway and Hiroshima Electric approach indicators, and constructing While many tramways face financial Railway are the leading tram operators roofed tram stops. Hiroshima Electric difficulties, trams in Okayama, and they began attempts in the 1980s Railway’s suburban Miyajima Line Hiroshima and four other cities are to attract more passengers by serving the famous Itsukushima Shrine profitable (Table 1). Okayama Electric introducing new cars, installing tramcar used to operate independently of the

Table 2 Number of LRT Systems and Tramways Worldwide

Country Country Country Japan 19 Germany 59 Argentina 1 urban tram network, but now offers Turkey 2 Norway 2 Brazil 2 inner-city through connections for all China 5 Hungary 4 Australia 3 trams. Nagasaki Electric Tramway is India 1 Finland 1 Azerbaijan 2 well known for running a profitable North Korea 2 France 11 Armenia 1 system. It was in the red but recovered UK 6 Bulgaria 1 Ukraine 25 by selling its bus business in 1970 and Italy 5 Belgium 5 Uzbekistan 1 concentrating on trams, and by offering Austria 5 Poland 14 Estonia 1 user-friendly services with fares as low The Netherlands 3 Bosnia-Herzegovina 1 Kazakhstan 5 as ¥100 (US$0.95). Croatia 2 Portugal 2 Georgia 1 Switzerland 5 Romania 15 Belarus 4 International comparisons Sweden 3 Egypt 4 Latvia 3 More than 300 cities around the world Spain 3 Tunisia 1 Russia 71 have tram or LRT systems. Countries of Slovakia 3 Canada 2 the former Soviet Union and eastern Serbia 1 Mexico 1 Europe, where postwar car ownership Czech Republic 7 USA 19 Total 334

remained low, still operate a lot of old Note: The table was compiled by the author using information from A World of Trams and Urban Transit by tramways. The number of trams in M. Taplin (http://www.lrta.org/world/worldind.html). Germany is exceptionally high in western countries, although this is partly due to populations between 200,000 and Analysis of tramway the tramways inherited from the former 800,000 are typical candidates for trams. characteristics East Germany (Table 2). In terms of route length, typical tram/LRT Statistical analysis also clarifies the According to statistical data on tramway systems have networks of about 20 km or characterstic of tram/LRT systems systems, excluding trams in countries of 50 to 70 km. worldwide into four groupings composed the former Soviet Union and eastern On the other hand, although Japanese of: Germany and the Benelux; France and Europe, the average population of cities cities with tramways have a similar North America; the former countries of the with a tram/LRT system is about 600,000 population size to the world norm, most Soviet Union and eastern Europe; and and the average route length is 32 km. tramway systems in Japan are shorter with Japan. In Figure 5, systems with few lines Figures 3 and 4 show that cities with fewer lines. and/or low passenger levels are plotted

Series 9000 100% low-floor tram of Kumamoto City Series 1500 tram in Nagasaki City with advertising livery (Author) Transportation Bureau (Author)

No. of No. of cities cities 25 10 25 10 World (left scale) 20 8 20 World (left scale) 8 Japan (right scale) 15 6 Japan (right scale) 15 6 10 4 10 4 5 2 5 2 0 0 0– 201– 401– 601– 801– 1001– 1201– 1401– 1601– 1801– 2001– 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 0–10 11–20 21–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 61–70 71–80 81– 91– 101– 90 100 City population (1000) Route-km

towards the right; those with long routes world cities subsequently constructed LRT not Japan—provide subsidies for building and/or those that began operations fairly systems after abandoning old trams and operating trams/LRTs because they recently are plotted towards the top. decades ago. Under these circumstances, offer the following advantages: For example, in the French and North the widespread opinion today is that • Reduced air pollution American group, trams/LRTs do not follow present tramways in Japan should be Cities that depend primarily on the conventional model of a dense layout upgraded to LRT systems. Until recently, automobiles tend to suffer from traffic in the old city. Rather, they tend to even medium-size cities in Japan have jams and high levels of air pollution. represent newly built systems carrying tended to build monorails or automated The degraded environment and far- relatively few passengers linking the guided transit (AGT) systems, which have reaching consequences of global centre and suburbs. On the other hand, little effect on road traffic, instead of warming are driving the urgent need systems in the countries of the former tramway systems. However, LRT systems for public transport systems that can Soviet Union and eastern Europe are have great potential for public ensure a sustainable environment. distinguished by large networks with many transportation in the 21st century. • Medium-capacity public transport long lines and high numbers of passengers. Many large cities have built subways The grouping of Japanese tram systems Advantages of tram/LRT as a partial solution to traffic alone near the bottom right of the chart The governments of some countries—but congestion, but medium-size cities do indicates that there is a Japanese type composed of comparatively old small Figure 5 Features of Tramways by Countries and Area systems, carrying relatively few passengers. This means that Japanese Variables No. 2 tramways do not serve as the main urban 4 transportation mode. Former Soviet Union/eastern Europe 3 Needless to say, these results do not imply North America/France that all tram systems in a country have 2 the same characteristics. For example, in Japan, the Nagasaki tram network falls 1 within the German grouping. Nagasaki has an extensive but small tram network -6 -4 -20 2 4 with high passenger levels run by an operator focused exclusively on tram -1 German and operations that offers convenient services. Benelux -2 Japan

Need for Policies -3 Promoting LRT Variables No. 1 North America Japan France Germany Countries of former Soviet Union While Japanese tram systems still seem to Eastern Europe Benelux follow the older model and have not Note: The figure plots each city according to two criterion variables obtained by discriminant function analysis. evolved into modern LRT systems, other

not need large-capacity subways. The transport in large cities everywhere, because it was assumed that people medium capacity of new LRT systems but branch lines can be used as used to driving to suburban shopping is an ideal solution for these needs. effective feeders to an LRT network. centres would not return even if LRTs • Better accessibility Since monorails and AGTs are closed were built. Now it is obvious that new Monorails and AGT systems are transit systems they do not permit trams promote businesses and bring similar to LRTs in being medium- through connections with other types back people into the city centres. capacity transport systems and some of rail. Trams have a very great Once people return to the city centre, Japanese cities have built monorails, advantage in this regard as shops take on new life and new such as Yui-rail in Naha, Okinawa, demonstrated by the successful businesses appear. LRTs make a and AGT systems, such as Verkehrsbetriebe Karlsruhe (VBK) tram virtuous circle in urban development. Yurikamome in Tokyo for this reason. network in the regional German city However, passengers and operators of Karlsruhe where trams are running Financial incentives for LRTs in soon discovered that monorails and through to the heavy-rail network to Germany and France AGT systems do not offer the street- link the city centre and suburbs. Germany has pursued LRT development level barrier-free accessibility of LRTs, • Frequent services more vigorously than any other country especially for people with limited Removing physical barriers to travel and it is worth looking at German mobility, such as the elderly and improves accessibility and increases subsidies for LRT systems. disabled. High accessibility also convenience. However, convenience A 1964 German report on transportation contributes to faster schedule speeds can also be achieved through more problems in various municipalities because it makes boarding and frequent operations. Passengers find recommended putting priority on public disembarking fairly smooth. that one six-car train set running every transport and indicated that public • Low construction cost 15 minutes is not as convenient as financing and long-term planning would Subways are incredibly expensive one two-car train set running every be necessary. The federal government (minimum of ¥20 billion per km) to 5 minutes. All regional centres in accepted the recommendations and build due to high engineering costs, Japan have public transport systems, accordingly raised the tax on gasoline and elevated AGT guideways, etc., require but more and more people are diesel fuel in 1966 to partly subsidize purchase of expensive land and high commuting by car. In a 2001 survey trams and other forms of public transport construction costs for infrastructure in the cities of Maebashi and based on a 1967 federal law defining (about ¥10 billion per km). LRT Takasaki in Gunma Prefecture, federal subsidies to local municipalities construction costs vary with the about 100 km north-west of central improving their transport systems. The specific urban conditions, but they Tokyo, nearly 50% of current car philosophy behind this approach of taxing generally fall within the range of commuters could commute by fuel was that car drivers would enjoy ¥1 billion to ¥2 billion per km. public transport if they wished, and better road conditions because of the Moreover, LRT trains can run on said they would consider doing so switch to public transport. In other words, existing suburban tracks. For if rail services were more frequent. car users benefit indirectly from public example, in the UK, where The survey found that if trains ran each transport and should shoulder some of the construction of LRT systems receives way once every 15 minutes, more than financial burden of providing public only minimal government subsidy, the 60% of car commuters said they transport infrastructure. Manchester Metrolink required only would use the train. The figure rose In the early days, the 40% tax on gasoline 2.7 km of new track with the other to more than 90% when trains ran and diesel fuel financed a limited range 28.2 km coming from former British every 10 minutes. of public projects, such as relocating Rail commuter lines. The success of • Better urban environment tramways underground. But in the 1970s, the Manchester Metrolink was the Urban sprawl has caused hollowing federal policies began emphasizing public catalyst for the boom in UK tramway out of city centres in many countries, urban transport. The 1971 Municipal construction (see pp. 22–25). including Japan. LRTs can help revive Transportation Finance Law (GVFG) • Greater flexibility for connections with urban centres and create conditions established federal guidelines for subsidies existing rail lines that permit people to return there to to municipal governments. One result Subways and conventional urban shop and stroll. There were doubts was an increase in the proportion that railway lines provide effective that LRTs could revitalize cities, public transport projects could receive

14 Japan Railway & Transport Review 38 • March 2004 Copyright © 2004 EJRCF. All rights reserved. revival in Europe and North America since the mid-1990s has prompted local governments in Japan to offer limited subsidies for capital costs involved in building or upgrading tram lines. In FY1995, the former Ministry of Construction (MOC, now the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport) strengthened its Urban Transportation Improvement Program by using funds from the General Account to subsidize construction and improvement of tram Series 8100 partial low-floor tram of Hakodate City Transportation Bureau (Author) stops, road beds and other facilities. The subsidies come under the category of from the fuel tax. For example, the federal districts. The intent is to have people who ‘relocation of traffic impediments.’ In government paid 85% of the initial cost benefit indirectly from improvements in FY1997, the MOC launched the Tramway of the pioneering project in 1992 to public transportation contribute to Reconstruction Program, offering modify the infrastructure to allow financing. The tax was first levied in subsidies from Road Improvement Special Karlsruhe city trams run on heavy track Greater Paris in 1971 and then spread to Account. These subsidies encourage used by German Federal Railways. The other regional centres from 1973. Some tramway modifications that will reduce local municipalities and their restrictions on how subsidies raised from road congestion on seriously congested transportation bureaus only paid 15% of the tax could be used were lifted in the roads. In Toyohashi City in central Japan, the cost. 1980s, expanding the variety and scope subsidies paid part of the cost of extending Financial assistance for roads and public of urban transport projects. the tram track 150 m from a location near transport was apportioned according to a Subsidies from the Versement Transport the central station to a concourse just set ratio, but this ratio was abolished in tax are not limited to just trams, but tram beside it. 1992. Thereafter, the regional governments projects are a significant proportion and In FY1998, the government expanded the themselves determined how they would the subsidies help with both construction scope of the Tramway Reconstruction finance public transport projects under the and some operating expenses. For Program to permit subsidies for GVFG scheme. In 1996, responsibility for example, about 25% of the capital construction, improvement and extension planning, administering and financing expenses of Line 1 of the Strasbourg tram of tram track beds if it can be shown that short-distance public transport systems was network was financed by the Versement such work will facilitate road traffic flows. handed to the regional governments. Since Transport tax. Since that year, the Ministry has expanded then, federal money that used to directly The success of the LRT in raising revenue the Subsidy Program for Railway and finance public transport systems has been can reduce its need for public subsidies. Track Modernization to include subsidies given to the regions (Ländes) as grants to Nantes, the first French city to bring back for low-floor vehicles that replace older be added to regional funds for improving trams, depended on tax subsidies for 60% rolling stock. These incentives promote tramways and other public transport of capital expenses for the first phase of safer transit for the elderly and have had systems. The fuel tax has also begun to construction, but an increase in the the indirect effect of promoting subsidize operating expenses. number of passengers boosted farebox development of low-floor cars in Japan. In France, tramway construction is moving revenues, making it possible to lower the forward more energetically than in any tax rate from 1.50% to 1.25%. New movement—Man’yo Line other country in recent years. Like While financial incentives have been Germany, France also funds Financial incentives in Japan gradually introduced by the national improvements to urban public transport Unlike Europe or North America, public government, local governments and by levying the Versement Transport tax transportation systems in Japan are ordinary citizens have begun to change (calculated according to salary) on supposed to be self-supporting, so old tramways. The establishment of corporations and government institutions tramways receive no subsidies for Man’yo Line Corporation in 2001 employing 9 or more people in specific operating expenses. However, the tram symbolized this new movement in Japan.

Tram on Man’yo Line at Takaoka during the Tanabata Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority (VTA) tram in San Jose built by Kinki Sharyo (Author) festival (7 August) (Author)

The 12.8-km Man’yo Line is a tram line entered service in January 2004 and Cities such as Kyoto, Yokohama, etc., linking the two cities of Takaoka and attracted a lot of attention. abandoned tramways in the past but are Shinminato in Toyama Prefecture on the now exploring the possibility of reviving Sea of Japan. When the line was on the tramways as LRT systems. Some of Japan’s verge of closure, a new public–private Conclusion rolling stock manufacturers, such as Kinki venture partly capitalized with funds from Sharyo Co. Ltd. and Kawasaki Heavy local citizens rescued the old tramway. LRT or tram systems could improve transit Industries, Ltd, have also built and sold The biggest surprise was that although in the 21st century. So far, unfortunately, light rail vehicles to a number of US cities, railways in Japan are expected to be self- no new LRT system has been constructed including San Jose in California. supporting, the decision to keep the tram recently in Japan. Financial problems of Hopefully, it will not be too long before open was made with the full knowledge regional urban centres are growing due they can play a major role in helping LRT that it would be loss-making and would to the increase in public spending for the systems to spread throughout Japan as require financial support from the local aging society and a 10-year recessionary well. I community. Projections showed that economy. Even so, there are nearly 20 ordinary expenditures would be more tram systems in Japan and recent trends Further Reading than 10% higher than ordinary revenues suggest a gradual revival of LRT systems. N. Aoshima, S. Mita, M. Kanai and N. Suzuki, 10 years after establishment of the public– Following Man’yo Line, JR West is moving Possibility of Converting Automobile Commuters in private venture. Despite this gloomy ahead with plans to introduce LRT cars Local Areas to Railways (in Japanese), Transportation outlook, the local community decided to on the 8-km Toyama-ko branch line in and Economy, Vol. 61, No. 10, 2001. go ahead. This determination was based Toyama Prefecture, where the Man’yo on the idea that the line offers an effective Line is located. The plan is to have LRT means of public transport for an aging cars running through Toyama City centre society, reduces local (and therefore from the suburbs by the end of FY2006. global) pollution, and revitalizes the Other than these projects, more than 20 region as a symbol of urban design. projects are on the drawing board in The required capital of ¥499 million was various Japanese cities. raised as two grants of ¥150 million each from the Toyama Prefectural Government Kiyohito Utsunomiya and the municipal governments of Takaoka and Shinminato, plus an Mr Utsunomiya is Director in charge of price statistics at The Bank of Japan. He graduated in economics investment of ¥49 million from local from Kyoto University in 1984 before joining the bank. He has published several books in Japanese on urban transit, including Romen Densha Renaissance (Renaissance of Tramways), published by businesses and citizens. A further ¥100 Shinchosha in 2003. million was collected as donations by citizens to buy new low-floor cars and