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The Vegetation of Egypt the Vegetation of Egypt The Vegetation of Egypt The Vegetation of Egypt M.A. Zahran In association with A.J. Willis SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, BV First edition 1992 © 1992 M.A. Zahran Originally published by Chapman & Hall in 1992 Typeset in 10/12 pt Century Schoolbook by Graphieraft Typesetters Ltd., Hong Kong ISBN 978-0-412'31510-7 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographie reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the London address printed on this page. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data Zahran, M.A The vegetation of EgyptlM.A. Zahran, AJ. Willis. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-412-31510-7 ISBN 978-94-015-8066-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-015-8066-3 1. Botany-Egypt-Ecology. 2. Phytogeography-Egypt. 3. Plant communities-Egypt. 1. Willis, AJ. (Arthur John), 1922- . II. Title. QK403.Z34 1992 92-2512 581. 962-dc20 CIP CONTENTS About the authors vii Preface ix Foreword xi Introduction xiii 1 Egypt: the gift of the Nile 1 2 Physiography, climate and soil-vegetation relationships 4 2.1 Geological characteristics 4 2.2 Geographical characteristics 6 2.3 The climate of Egypt 7 2.4 Soil-vegetation relationships 9 3. The Western Desert 15 3.1 General features 15 3.2 The western Mediterranean coastal belt 16 3.3 The oases and depressions 52 3.4 Gebel Uweinat 111 4 The Eastern Desert 117 4.1 Geology and geomorphology 117 4.2 Ecological characteristics 118 5 The Sinai Peninsula 261 5.1 Geomorphology 261 5.2 Climate 267 5.3 Water resources 269 5.4 The vegetation 270 6 The Nile region 303 6.1 Geomorphology 303 6.2 Climate 308 6.3 Vegetation types 308 VI Contents 7 The history of the vegetation: its salient features and future study 365 7.1 The history of the vegetation 365 7.2 Future study of phytosociology and plant ecology 375 7.3 The main types of vegetation and its features: synopsis 377 References 380 Species index 395 Subject index 413 ABOUT THE AUTHORS Professor Mahmoud Abdel Kawy Zahran was born in Samalut (Minya Province, Upper Egypt) on 15 January 1938. He graduated (BSc 1959) from the Faculty of Science, Cairo University where he got his MSc (1962) and PhD (1965) degrees in the field of plant ecology. Professor Zahran worked as research assistant and researcher in the National Research Centre (1959-1963) and Desert Research Institute (1963-1972) of Cairo. In October 1972 he was appointed Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Science, Mansoura University and promoted to the professorship of plant ecology in November 1976. He joined the Faculty of Meteorology and Environmental Studies of King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia from November 1977 to March 1983. For his scientific work in plant ecology, Professor Zahran received the State Prize of Egypt from the Academy of Scientific Researches and Technology (1983), the First Class Gold Medal of the Egyptian President (1983), the Diploma of the International Cultural Council of Mexico (1987) and the major Prize of Mansoura University in Basic Sciences (1991). Apart from this book, Professor Zahran is a co-author of four refer­ ence books (Wet Coastal Ecosystems, 1977, Ecology of Halophytes, 1982, Dry Coastal Ecosystems, 1992 and Crop Stress, 1992) and two student books. He has published more than 65 papers dealing with the ecology of the vegetation in Egypt and Saudi Arabia. Emeritus Professor Arthur J. Willis, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.I. Biol, F.L.S., graduated in Botany at the University of Bristol, England, and joined the staff there in 1947 as Demonstrator. He subsequently became Junior Fellow in Physiological Ecology, Lecturer and Reader in Botany, but left Bristol in 1969 to become the Head of the Department of Botany of the University of Sheffield. Here he remained Head and also Honorary Director of the Natural Environment Research Council Unit of Comparative Plant Ecology until retirement in 1987. Professor Willis is the author of An Introduction to Plant Ecology (1971) and a contributor to a number of books, most recently (1990) the last edition of the Weed Control Handbook: Principles. He has Vlll About the authors written about a hundred papers in scientific journals, spanning the fields of plant ecology, the British flora, bryophytes, coastal systems, particularly sand dunes, plant physiology, especially nitrogen me­ tabolism and water relations, and palaeobotany. He was a general editor of the extensive series of books titled Contemporary Biology, an editor of the Journal of Ecology and is the current editor of the Biological Flora of the British [sles. PREFACE This book is an attempt to compile and integrate the information documented by many botanists, both Egyptians and others, about the vegetation of Egypt. The first treatise on the flora of Egypt, by Petrus Forsskäl, was published in 1775. Records of the Egyptian flora made during the Napoleonic expedition to Egypt (1778-1801) were provided by AR. Delile from 1809 to 1812 (Kassas, 1981). The early beginning of ecological studies of the vegetation of Egypt extended to the mid-nineteenth century. Two traditions may be re­ cognized. The first was general exploration and survey, for which one name is symbolic: Georges-Auguste Schweinfurth (1836-1925), a German scientist and explorer who lived in Egypt from 1863 to 1914. The second tradition was ecophysiological to explain the plant life in the dry desert. The work of G. Volkens (1887) remains a classic on xerophytism. These two traditions were maintained and expanded in further phases of ecological development associated with the es­ tablishment of the Egyptian University in 1925 (now the University of Cairo). The first professor of botany was the Swedish Gunnar Täckholm (1925-1929). He died young, and his wife Vivi Täckholm devoted her life to studying the flora of Egypt and gave leadership and inspiration to plant taxonomists in Egypt for some 50 years. She died in 1978. The second professor of botany in Egypt was F.W. Oliver (1929- 1932) followed by the British ecologist F.J. Lewis (1935-1947). This episode marked the beginning of plant ecological studies by Egyptian scientists in two principal traditions: ecophysiological and synecological studes of the vegetation. The pioneers are AM. Migahid, AH. Montasir and M. Hassib who started their scientific work in 1931. About 1950, two schools of research emerged. These were mainly concemed with a survey of natural vegetation and the phytosociological analysis of plant communities. One was centred in the University of Alexandria led by T.M. Tadros (1910-1972) who followed the Zürich-Montpellier School. The second is centred in the University of Cairo and led by M. Kassas who followed the Anglo-American school of phytosociology. During the last 30 years, researches in plant ecology continue with x Preface refined methodologies and creation of new research units in the several provincial universities opened in Egypt. We warmly thank Professor Dr M. Kassas, Faculty of Science, University of Cairo, for his great encouragement and assistance in the production of this book, and for supplying many references. We are also much indebted to Dr Sekina M. Ayyad for her help with the section on the history of the vegetation, to Dr P.D. Moore for his use­ ful comments on this section, and to Professor L. Boulos, Dr T.A Cope and Professor M.N. EI-Hadidi for their kind assistance with nomen­ clature. The valued sponsorship of this book by UNEP and UNESCO is highly appreciated and has much facilitated its production. M.A Zahran AJ. Willis FOREWORD Egypt is a cross-road territory with its Mediterranean front connect­ ing it with Europe with which it has had biotic exchanges during the Glacials and the Interglacials, and today we know that routes of migratory birds converge through Egypt. Two highway corridors join Egypt with tropical Mrica and beyond: the Nile Valley and the basin of the Red Sea. The Sinai Peninsula is the bridge between Mrica and Asia. Its cultural and ethnic history bears testimony to complexities of this position, as does its natural history. Attempts to unravel the mysteries of its cultural history have involved scholars from all over the world, and collections of its legendary heritage abound in museums of the capitals of the world. The natural history of Egypt was not less fortunate, contributions of international scien­ tists to biological, geological and geographical surveys of Egypt in­ clude a wealth of research, and this book, compiled by two scholars from Mansoura and Sheffield, is a most welcome example of inter­ national collaboration. The history of vegetation antedates that of human culture, but plant life as we see it today has been influenced in every way by human action, exploitation, destruction, husbandry, introductions, etc. An attempt to compile a comprehensive inventory of various aspects of plant growth and ecological relationships in plant communities requires indefatigable enthusiasm and stamina.
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