Traditional Woven Textiles: Tradition and Identity Construction in the ‘New State’ of Brunei Darussalam. Siti Norkhalbi Haji Wahsalfelah BA Education (Hons) Universiti Brunei Darussalam MA University of Durham This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The University of Western Australia School of Social and Cultural Studies Discipline of Anthropology and Sociology 2005 ABSTRACT Since its independence in 1984, politicians and nationalists in Brunei Darussalam have appealed to traditions in their efforts to create a national identity based on Brunei Darussalam’s national philosophy, ‘Malay Islamic Monarchy’. Weaving is one of the traditions related to Brunei traditional culture, thus traditional textile is used to construct national identity. This study focuses on the role played by powerful institutions in the creation of new tradition in order to foster national awareness in the ‘new state’ of Brunei Darussalam and I examine how traditional textiles are incorporated into the project of nation building. In Bruneian society, traditional woven cloths have multiple roles whose meanings vary according to the situation in which the traditional cloth is utilized. This research explores the significance of traditional textiles in Brunei Darussalam, focusing on the consumption of locally woven textiles in its traditions and the relationships to the expression and construction of identity. Since Islam came to Brunei Darussalam, it has become one of the predominant markers of identity of the Malays. This study analyse the influence of Islam in the production and consumption of traditional textile in Brunei Darussalam. The continuity of the production and consumption of traditional woven textile in Brunei Darussalam is very much dependent on its significant in the traditions of Brunei society as a whole. In order to prove this, this study focuses its investigation upon the production and uses of traditional textiles in the social customs of Malay society in Brunei Darussalam. Traditional woven textiles are employed to construct social identity in the reproduction of distinction. Traditional textiles are also offered to signify privilege and power. I examine how traditional textile is being used to distinguish social status and political prominence, denote offices, and display wealth and prestige. i TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments v List of Map vii List of Tables vii List of Plates viii Glossary xiii Chapter 1 Creating Tradition in Contemporary Brunei Darussalam Introduction 1 The Contextualisation of Textiles 3 The Notion of Tradition 4 The Conceptual Entity of Tradition in Brunei Darussalam. 7 Textiles and Identity 9 The Process of Identification 10 Textiles and Nationalism 14 Transformation and Continuity 16 Methodology and Personal Position 17 Organisation of the Thesis 23 Chapter 2 Locating the Scene: Brunei Darussalam in Brief Introduction 26 Physical Features 26 Official Language 27 Economy 28 Historical Trajectories 28 Ethnic Composition in Brunei Darussalam 33 The Conceptualisation of ‘Malayness’ in the Context of the Brunei Darussalam Situation. 35 Social Organisation 38 System of Kinship and Marriage 39 Political Structure 40 Institutional Structure of Religion 54 Conclusion 55 Chapter 3 Globalisation and Islamisation: Interacting Influences in the Transformation of Modes of Attire. Introduction 58 Early Clothing in Brunei Darussalam 60 Indigenous Male Attire 61 Court Appearances 69 Female Attire 76 ii Factors Contributing to the Evolution and Transformation of Clothing 86 Conclusion 89 Chapter 4 The Traditional; Woven Textiles: Production, Structure and Islamic Influence. Introduction 92 Early Literature on the Production of Traditional Woven Textiles 92 Historical Background 94 The Notion of Aesthetic Representation 96 The Composition and Structure of Design 97 The Sources and Symbolism of the Motifs and Design 103 Types, Patterns and Designs of Traditional Woven Textiles 110 The Evolution and Innovation of the Motifs and Designs 122 Conclusion 124 Chapter 5 Rites of Passage: Social Custom and the Influence of Islam. Introduction 126 Wedding Ceremonies 128 Uses of Traditional Textiles in other Malay Ethnic Groups 157 The Celebration of the New Mother and First Child 160 Circumcision and Puberty 163 Funerals 167 Influences of Foreign Textiles 171 Conclusion 173 Chapter 6 The Courtly Dress Code: Representation of Power and Markers of Status. Introduction 175 Birthday Celebration of the Sultan of Brunei Darussalam 176 Istiadat Perbarisan Diraja 177 Istiadat Mengadap dan Pengurniaan Pingat dan Bintang-Bintang Kebesaran. 191 Investiture Ceremony 195 The Symbolism of the Ceremonial Dress 201 Robe of Honour 207 Conclusion 209 iii Chapter 7 Creating New Tradition. Introduction 212 Continuation of the Weaving Tradition 214 The Inventions of Traditions 217 The Representation of National Identity Based Upon Malay Culture 239 Conclusion 248 Chapter 8 Exhibition and Commercialisation: Redefinition of National Identity. Introduction 251 The Politics of Museums 254 The Process of Nationalisation of Heritage 265 Commercialisation 276 Conclusion 279 Chapter 9 Conclusion 282 Bibliography 293 iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS With the grace of Allah, I am able to complete this thesis. I would like to express my gratitude to the government of Brunei Darussalam for granting me the In-Service Training Scholarship to pursue PhD research. My fieldwork was made possible with the funding by the Discipline of Anthropology and Sociology at The University of Western Australia. The Postgraduate Travel Award at The University of Western Australia had also made it possible for me to participate and present my papers in conferences and seminars which provided me the opportunity to get valuable feedback pertinent to my research. There have been many people involved in making this research possible and I am greatly indebted to them. I would like to thank both my supervisors, Dr Gregory Lawrence Acciaioli and Dr John L Gordon. To Greg, I am grateful for his guidance and encouragement throughout the years I have come to know him. He has been very helpful especially with his close reading of all my drafts and his generous and constructive comments. He has also been prompt in responding to my queries. On that note, I must thank John for his administration, advice and comments significant to my research. My thanks also go to Dr Cheryl Lange for her editorial help and comments. I am grateful to all who were very generous with their warm hospitality. I would like to mention Yang Mulia Datin Hajah Azizah binti Haji Tengah and family for welcoming me to their home and allowed me to do participant observation at her son’s wedding; also my thanks to Yang Dimuliakan Pehin Orang Kaya Maharaja Kerna Dato Paduka Seri Awang Haji Yaakub and family, Pg Haji Abu Bakar Pg Dato Hj Mohammad and family, Haji Shaari Haji Lakim and family, Awang Haji Tahir Timbang and family, Noor Azam and family, and Rospita Haji Yahya and family for inviting and providing me the opportunities to conduct participant observation at ceremonies hosted by them. Al-Fatihah, May Allah bless them, to both my uncles who passed away while I was doing my fieldwork. I am indebted to all the following individuals: Yang Amat Mulia Pengiran Setia Negara Pengiran Haji Yusof Pengiran Haji Abdul Rahim, Yang Amat Mulia Pengiran Seri Wijaya Pengiran Dato Seri Paduka Haji Ahmad, Yang Dimuliakan Pehin Jawatan Dalam Dato Haji Awang Mohd Jamil Al-Sufri, Yang Berhormat Orang Kaya Maha Bijaya Awang Haji Othman, Yang Mulia Orang Kaya Pekerma Dewa Dato Seri Laila Jasa Awang Lukan bin Uking, Dayang Hajah Kadariah binti Begawan Pehin Udana Khatib Dato Seri Paduka Haji Awang Umar, Associate Professor Dr Haji Hashim bin Haji Abdul Hamid, Dato Paduka Haji Mohd Yassin bin Hj Metassim, Penghulu Haji Bakar bin Mansur, Awang Haji Mohd Yusuf bin Haji Delamin, Awang Haji Arbik Ahmad, Awang Haji Busu Ahmad, Awang Haji Hashim Bakir, Awang Haji Mohammad Sukaimi, Awang Haji Nayan Apong, Dayang Rana binti Mujun, Awang Labau bin Murang, Awang Agung bin Lasung, Orang Kaya Sura Awang Haji Tengah bin Damit, Awang Jenggak anak Rantap, Awang Hj Muhammad Sa’id bin Tundak, Awang Akim bin Mahal, Awang Tagal bin Lasung, Dayang Yumbi binti Ugok, Pengiran Hidop Pengiran Samsuddin, Dayang Hajah Tampoi, Siti Zaleha Haji Kiprawi, Siti v Zaleha Adis, and Dayang Hajah Noraini; as well as to those who I have not named individually – I express my deepest thanks. They were very generous in sharing their knowledge. I should also like to thank my colleagues at the Akademi Pengajian Brunei, Universiti Brunei Darussalam and Dr Hj Abdul Latif Hj Ibrahim, for their kind assistance and sharing of their knowledge and expertise. To my brothers, Mohd Hosenal and Mohd Yusri, I would like to thank them for their photographing skills. I also like to express my gratitude to David Bujang and the family of Yang Amat Mulia Pengiran Jaya Perkasa Pengiran Anak Hassan bin Pengiran Sabtu Kamaluddin for lending me the textiles and clothes that enabled me to set up a display entitled, ‘Tradition and Textiles in Brunei Darussalam’ at the hallway of the Discipline of Anthropology and Sociology Office. Al-Fatihah, May Allah bless him forwarded to Yang Amat Mulia Pengiran Jaya Perkasa Pengiran Anak Hassan, who passed away while I was in Perth in 2004. I also would like to thank Cheryl for her help mount the display. During the course of my research, better access was made possible by relevant government institutions in Brunei Darussalam, I am particularly grateful to the Departments of Brunei Museums and the Brunei Arts and Handicrafts Training Centre, especially to Bantong Antaran, Dr Pengiran Karim Pengiran Haji Osman, Pudarno Binchin, Hajah Fatimah Haji Aji, Rahmat Haji Tahir and Masnah Amit and other officers who helped to facilitate my research; Universiti Brunei Darussalam, The Department of Information, The Grand Chamberlain Office at the Istana Nurul Iman, the Brunei History Centre, Jabatan Adat Istiadat Negara, Ministry of Development, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Radio Television Brunei and Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. PhD life is sometimes emotionally draining and I am extremely grateful for the emotional support from friends and family.