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1967 Usage of the Third Person Object Pronoun in Representative Mexican Novelsof the Twentieth Century--A Linguistic Study. Raymond Nichlos Sabatini Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College

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SABATINI, Raymond Nichlos, 1929- USAGE OF THE THIRD PERSON OBJECT PRONOUN IN REPRESENTATIVE MEXICAN NOVELS OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY—A LINGUISTIC STUDY. Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Ph.D., 1967 Language and Literature, linguistics

University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan USAGE OF THE THIRD PERSON OBJECT PRONOUN IN REPRESENTATIVE MEXICAN NOVELS OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY - - A LINGUISTIC STUDY

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in

The Department of Foreign Languages

by Raymond Nichlos Sabatini •A., University of Southwestern Louisiana, 19^7 January, 1967 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The writer acknowledges the inspiration and scholarly guidance of Professor John A. Thompson, the director of this dissertation, and wishes also to thank Professors Alfredo Berumen, Alfredo Lozada, and Wyatt A. Pickens for their assistance and helpfulness. Only through the encouragement and guidance offered him during the preparation of this study was he able to complete the work successfully.

ii TABLE OP CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT...... iv

INTRODUCTION ...... v i

Chapter I . A REVIEW OP GRAMMARIANS' STATEMENTS CONCERNING OBJECT PRONOUN USAGE IN SPANISH...... 1 I I . A STUDY OP THE PRONOUN USAGE IN INDIVIDUAL NOVELS...... 13

I I I . COMPOSITE STATISTICS AND ANALYSES. . 287

IV. SUMMARY...... 338

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 3^9

VITA ...... 352

i ABSTRACT

Because there is a lack of uniformity in Spanish grammarians’ precepts and in writers' usage of pronoun objects of the third person, this study was made in an effort to determine the degree of uniformity or variance of usage by twenty-three Mexican novelists of the twentieth century of the pronoun forms that derive from the Latin accusative case (lo, la, los, las) and of those that derive from the Latin dative pronouns (]£, lea). Tabulations have been made to show the incidence of the two pronoun groups in the following types of construction: single pronoun with a single verb; pronoun with verbs of perception, causation or volition followed by an infinitive; combinations of se plus object pronouns in impersonal active constructions.

In the constructions involving a verb plus infinitive, a study was made to determine whether the nature of the dependent infinitive (intransitive, transitive or reflexive) has any appreciable influence on pronominal usage. In all cases involving a relatively high incidence of the le/les forms, a special study was made to determine whether there were Identifiable factors that might explain the usage of these forms.

iv Tabulations were made to indicate percentages

of occurrences of le/les in each of the twenty-six

novels as a group. The tabulations are separately

categorized according to the type of grammatical

construction, the nature of the referents of the pronouns (usted, ustedes; persons not in direct

address; animals; things), and the source of the usage (i.e., whether it occurred in the authors1 narrative or in dialogues of characters in the

novels). The utterances in which the pronouns occur

are given in the section in which the individual novels are analyzed. Although not specifically within the purview of this study, the occurrences of

lafsmo (use of historically accusative forms as dative pronouns) have been recorded.

v INTRODUCTION

There is considerable variance among speakers and writers of Spanish in usage of "with-verb", or conjunctive, object pronouns of the third person. Grammarians and preceptists have not treated the problem with completeness, clarity and precision.

There is general, but not unanimous, agreement among grammarians and reasonable conform ity among users concerning le/les as dative and lo/los/la/la3 as accusative pronouns with single verbs in cases where dative or accusative relationship is clear and unequivocal. However, there is noticeable lack of conformity among users and lack of complete and clear precepts on the part of grammarians in constructions where the case relationship of pronoun to verb is equivocal or less obvious, such as: (a) pronoun objects of verbs of perception followed by a dependent infinitivej (b) pronoun objects of verbs of causation followed by a dependent infinitive; (c) pronoun objects of verbs without an expressed dependent infinitive, but which conceivably could imply a dependent infinitive phrase or clause (los (les) ayudan -- los (les) ayudan a escaparse); (d) pronoun objects of verbs used with impersonal se_ or passive se.

Likewise, usage is affected by the category of the noun represented by the object pronoun (usted, ustedes; persons not in direct address, persons of higher or lower social status, animals, things) and, again, the grammarians provide no clear and authoritative gu id an ce•

The purpose of this study is to tabulate and analyze the usage of ’’with-verb” object pronouns in representative Mexican novels of the twentieth century in order to determine if there is a discernible regularity of pattern in the novels as a group or in individual novels, and if there are logical or plausible explanations for irregularities in pattern. It Is hoped that these tabulations and analyses may throw some lig h t on current trends o f usage and thereby contribute to an eventual comprehensive and authoritative treatise on the subject. The writer has chosen for the study twenty-six novels published over a fifty- year period (1912 - 1962 ), which represent a variety of types or trends in that genre that were current during that time. The novels that were selected inclu de some that did and some th at did not achieve popular success or critical acclaim.

For the sake of convenience and ready reference, in view of the lack of uniform and authoritative guidance, a resume is given in Chapter I of this study

v l i of the precepts and discussions pertinent to the

lefsmo problem that are contained in representative

grammars•

Notwithstanding Hanssens’s statement that clear

discrimination between accusative and dative forms was prevalent in early documents ,*■ lack of consistency

in usage is found throughout Spanish literature from

the Poema de m£o Cid and Berceo to the present time. Criado de Val recognizes the historical aspect of

the confusion and attempts a partial explanation in

the following: El espanol, como las otras lenguas romanicas, se encontro con la heren cia la t in a de una declinacion pronominal reducida a tres casos: nominativo, acu- sativo y dativo. Pero esta de­ clinacion era un residuo conde- nado a ser mal comprendido por el pueblo, y el espanol, mas avanzado en e ste punto que la s otras lenguas neolatinas fue perdiendo la distincion entre el dativo y el acusativo y sustituyendo la nocion de caso por otras dos nociones mas fa- cilmente comprensibles: la de la fu n cio n , que opone e l sujeto al complemento, y la del genero, que opone el masculino al femenino y ambos al neutro. Esta evo lu cio n de lo s pro- nombres es la causa del gran numero de confusion es y pro- blemas que la interpretacion de le, la y lo ha planteado y plantea a las gramatlcas espa-

•^•Pederico Hanssen, dramatic a h is to r lc a c a ste lla n a (Halle A. S.: Max Niemeyer, 1913), p. 19^*

viii Solas. Confusion agravada por tratarse de una evolucion en curso y que presenta distintos grados, segun la region espa- Kola que se e s tu d ie . La discusion en torno al ’’lefsmo11, ula£smo” y "lofsmo", que todav£a se mantlene, es una prueba de que aun no e s ta con- solidado el sistema pronominal espaSol. En una gramatica de mediados del siglo pasado, como la de Salva, se alude a una cu- riosa discusion sobre el signi- ficado obsceno que en aquella epoca ten£a el uso de l£, que hoy nos resulta casi incompren- sible. La diversidad de usos regionales aumenta la diflcul- tad del problems.^

The geographical factor makes even more complicated the lack of historical uniformity of canons and usage.

Martinez Amador summarizes the present-day geographical distribution with respect to regional variations of usage throughout the Spanish-speaking world: Hoy la reg io n espanola que sigue mas de cerca el uso la­ tino y por tanto es le£sta en el dativo de los generos, es Andalucfa, donde si en algunas partes se usa le como acusativo masculino de persona, la gente mas culta sigue prefiriendo el lo para persona y cosa, y ni por casualidad admite otro dativo que le. En esto acompanan a Andalu- cTa las Islas Canarias, el sur de Extremadura, la casi totalidad de los pafses de la America espanola y las regiones espanolas de habla no castellano (Cataluna, Galicia), cuando se expresan en nuestro idioma. En Aragon el lefsmo esta

^M. Criado de Val, Gramatica espanola (Madrid: Graficas Reunidas, S. A., 1,95$)» pp. 185-6. ix avanzado, pues son frecuentes, lo mismo que en algunas p rovin cias de Le6n, lo s casos de ljs con acusativo de cosa. Se cita como notable en Aragon la construccion: "ya se les he dicho", en lugar de "ya se lo he dicho” , (a e l l o s , a ellas). En Castilla la Nueva se usa tambien el le como acusativo masculino de persona, pero en cambio el le dativo queda como masculino y se subsituye por la en el dativo feraenino. Entre todas la s c la s e s de Madrid es corriente decir: "la escribo una carta", "lsi pego una p a liz a " , etc., y el uso va irradiando a otras provincias espanolas.3

Among the factors which may have brought about the inconsistencies, real or seeming, during the evolution of the language from the earliest written records to the present time are: (1) the impact of colloquialisms and regional and dialectal differences of.jusage; (2) the tratamlento influence, including the evolution of the third person into the accepted form for direct address in formal discourse or writing and the use of the dative forms as a means of implying a higher social status of the person addressed; (3) the fact that the use of the preposition a before direct object nouns of persons or proper names may by analogy lead to the substitution of the dative for the accusative forms of the pronouns; (ij.) the

3Emilio M. Martfnez Amador, Plcclonarlo gramatical (Barcelona: Editorial Ramon Sopena, S. A., 19^), P. 1225.

x consideration of euphony in the juxtaposition of vowel phonemes; (5) the equivocal functional relationship of object pronouns to certain verbs and verb phrases (e.g., lo pague and le pague dos pesos

-- ella me pregunto £ la contests and ella me pregunto

2 contests la pregunta); (6) uncertainty regarding case relationship of a pronoun when there is also an appositive noun object: lo llamamos a las ocho and lo (le) llamamo3 cacique; and (7) uncertainty regarding case relationship of a pronoun to a verb of perception or causation when that verb is followed by an infinitive. The uncertainty here is further complicated by the grammatical nature of the following infinitive, whether it is functionally intransitive, reflexive, transitive with an expressed object, or transitive with an implied object.

Whether or not as a result of these factors and other influences, it is nevertheless true that authoritative grammarians have not agreed upon any clear and comprehensive ’’rules" as a guide to correct or preferred usage. Therefore, it has been considered desirable to present in the first chapter of this study a brief synthesis of selected grammarians' observations concerning the pronoun in certain constructions. These observations will be used as a point of departure for the study of the pronoun object

xi as found in the novels under consideration.

In Chapter II are given a tabulation and discussion of object pronoun usage in each of the twenty-six n o v e ls .

Chapter III presents composite statistics and analyses of the usage in all the novels treated as a u n i t .

Brief and ”inconclusive conclusions” are presented in Chapter IV. Because there is no general agreement on precise definitions of some terms used in this study and because a clear understanding of their meaning is essential, the writer, with some arbitrariness, has assigned the indicated definitions to the following terms as used in this study:

dative forms: le/le3 (the object pronouns that derive from the dative case of the pronouns in Latin) without regard to their function in the sentence.

accusative forms: lo/los/la/las (the object pronouns that derive from the accusative case in Latin) without regard to their function in the sentence.

leism o: the employment of dative forms as direct object pronouns•

lo ism o : the employment of accusative forms as direct object pronouns.

la^smo: the employment of accusative forms as indirect object pronouns•

xii Chapter I

A Review of Grammarians 1 Statements Concerning Object Pronoun Usage in Spanish

Por the purpose of this summary presentation of certain precepts, the following six grammars have been selected as representative authorities of Spanish grammatical usage. Two other authoritative sources --

Those of Eoff and Lenz -- have been consulted and re­ ferred to, but no comprehensive analysis is given here

1.) Bello, Andres and Cuervo, Rufino J. Gramatica de la lengua castellana. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Anaconda, 1 9 I4.I • 2.) Benot, Eduardo. Arte de h a b la r, Buenos Aires: Ediciones Anaconda, 19^1-1 • 3.) M artinez Amador, Emilio M. D icclonario gramatical. Barcelona: Editorial Ramon Sopena, S. A. 1 9 ^ ------[(..) Real Academia Espanola, Gramatica de la lengua espano la, Nueva E dicion, Reformada, de 1^31. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, S. A., 19&2.

5.) Knapp, William I. A Grammar of the Modern Spanish Language, 2nd ed. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1892. 6.) Ramsey, Marathon Montrose. A Text-Book of Modern Spanish, 3rd ed. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1929« The pronoun object as i t occurs (2) in a simple verbal construction, (b) with verbs of perception followed by a dependent Infinitive, (c) with verbs of impulse, tendency, and teaching plus a followed by an in f in itiv e and verbs of v o litio n and perm ission

followed by the infinitive, and (d) in the impersonal

active construction, will be studied to ascertain whether or not there is unanimity among these authors

as to form and case. The Gramatica de la lengua espanola of the Real

Academia Espanola is used in this work as the point of reference and d eparture.

In the edition already indicated of the Academy

grammar the pronouns le_ and lo are both accepted forms of the accusative with single verbs, but the Academy

states that les used as an accusative form is a reprehensible incorrectness.^ Not only does the Academy

inveigh against the use of les as an accusative, but

it further states concerning the use of le as accusative the following: . . mejor serfa que los escritores prestaran m^s atencion a la etimologfa que al uso, y

emplearan la forma le_ solo para el dativo an2

Martinez Amador follows the same pattern: he

allows le_ referring to a human being as a direct object, but does not accept les as an accusative form.^

^-Real Academia Espanola, Gramatica de la lengua espanola, Nueva Edicion, Reformada, de 1931~TMadrid: Espasa-Calpe, S. A., 19o2), p. 17l+. 2Ibid,, p. 1 9 7 .

^Emilio M. Martinez Amador, D iccionarlo gramatlcal (Earcelona: Editorial Ram6n Sopena, S. A., 19^7, P." 12l6o Bello-Cuervo agrees with the Academy in approving the singular le as a direct object, but states in an added note that les is used as an accusative at times: n. . .la les ocurre con tanta frecuencia en escritores c^lebres de todas epocas, que serjfa demasiada severidad condenarla. Benot allows the use of 1©. as an accusative pronoun when the referent is a human being but does not accept les as an accusative plural form.^

Ramsey, on the other hand, shows both lo /lo s and le/les as accusative forms. However, it is not clear whether he confines the use of le to that of person only. Knapp, like Ramsey, presents lo/los and le/les 7 as masculine accusative forms.'

With verbs of perception followed by a dependent infinitive the Academy shows the pronoun as accusative even if le appears in such examples as _le_ oigo cantar,

^Andres Bello and Rufino J. Cuervo, Gramatica de la lengua c a ste lla n a (Buenos A ires: Ediciones Anaconda, 19 I+I), p. ^J+3* ^Eduardo Benot, Arte de hablar (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Anaconda, 194l)> p.-519* ^Marathon Montrose Ramsey, A Text-Book of Modern Spanish, 3rd e d . (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 19291 > p . 115. ^William I« Knapp, A Grammar of the Modern Spanish Language, 2nd ed. TBoston: Ginn and Company, 1892 !,' p. 95. le oigo cantar las coplas, and Le veo ballar un y ft rigodon. It should be indicated here that the

Academy does not require a syntactical change based on the nature of the infinitive. The three examples show the use of the accusative case when the infinitive

is intransitive and transitive with object expressed.

However, in the passive construction (se le oyen

cantar dos copies) the pronoun requirement is dative.^

Martinez Amador agrees with the Academy in case designation of the pronoun object as given in the two preceding grammatical environments, but qualifies his opinion regarding the second situation by stating

that the accusative should be used if a singular verb is employed in the construction: "Tratandose de una mujer, pues, diremos: ’se le oyeron cantar dos coplas', como dativo indudable; pero como en estas pasivas el uso vacila en construir el verbo en singular o en plural, y puede decirse ’oyeron’ u 'oyo', estimamos que con el verbo en singular el pronombre tie n e que e s ta r en acusativo: 'se la oyo cantar dos 1 f, L 0 coplas' y no 'se le_ oyo' .

It is noted that Martinez Amador accepts se l_e when both the verb and the object of the infinitive are plural, but requires _se_ la if the verb is singular

®Real Academia Espanola, o£. c i t ., pp. Ip06 —7 •

9Ibid., p. I 4.O7 .

■^Mart jfnez Amador, 0£. cit., p. 6 3 . and the object of the infinitive is plural. Therefore, it may be inferred that he would accept either s_e le_ or s_e la if both verb and object of the infinitive are singular, since there would be no way to determine whether the construction was intended as reflexive passive or impersonal active. Bello-Cuervo disagrees on only one point with the Academy. This grammar designates the pronoun as dative in such constructions as le_ ol'mos cantar dos co p, la s. 11

Benot does not discuss the usage of pronoun objects of a verb of perception followed by a dependent in f in itiv e . Hence i t is not possible to s ta te his viewpoint concerning this construction.

Ramsey, lik e the Academy, recommends the accusative forms in such a constru ctio n as "Lo vimos arder" meaning "We saw it burn". However, he differs from the Academy's opinion that les, in the constuction,

"Les vimos rechazar al enemigo" is accusative, stating:

". . • when the infinitive has both subject and object its subject becomes the in d ire c t object of the governing verb."^

It should be noted that Ramsey is the only author who makes a d is tin c tio n based on whether or not the infinitive has an object of its own in the construction

•^Cuervo, 0£. cit., p. 292„ 12 Ramsey, op. c it., p. I4.7 0. with verba of perception followed by a dependent

infinitive. Since Ramsey admits le/les as accusative forms

it is difficult to determine, from his examples showing the pronoun in the reflexive passive construction with verbs of perception, which case the pronoun is

in : "Se le oyeron cantar dos a r ia s." and "Se le

oyeron cantar."t»13 Knapp fails to mention the construction in which

verbs of perception are followed by a dependent infinitive. Consequently, we lack a precise statement

by this authority as to the case designation of the

pronoun in the different nuances of this particular

grammatical construction.

Concerning the verbs of volition followed by the infinitive, there is a two-fold distinction to be

made on a basis of whether the verb of volition is

followed by a plus the infinitive (in which case the

infinitive is the indirect complement of the governing

verb) or whether the infinitive follows the governing

verb without the intervention of a preposition.

Such verbs as require the intervention of a preposition

have been termed verbs of impulse or tendency (asplrar

a plus infinitive, ensenar a plus infinitive, obllgar

a plus i n f i n i t i v e , etc.), whereas those requiring no

preposition have been termed verbs of volition (mandar,

13lbid. ordenar, dejar, hacer, etc.)® The Academy sta te s th a t when the verbs of impulse are constructed with the infinitive, the infinitive

is considered the indirect object of the governing verb and the subject of the infinitive is accusative.

With verbs of volition constructed with the infinitive the subject of the infinitive (active in meaning) is dative: lj3 (feminine dative) ordena venir and le_

(masculine dative) ordena azotar a los cautivos. p

Martinez Amador is in agreement with the Academy concerning the designation of the pronoun as accusative with verbs of impulse and dative with verbs of volition 1 £ constructed with the infinitive. Bello-Cuervo also designates the pronoun as accusative in the construction with verbs of impulse followed by the infinitive and dative in the construction with verbs of volition followed by the infinitive.^ Neither Benot nor

Knapp treats verbs of impulse or volition in the construction in which such verbs are followed by the

infinitive. Ramsey fails to treat the verbs of impulse followed by the infinitive, but does discuss the verbs of volition followed by the infinitive. He states that the pronoun

■^Real Academia Espanola, 0£. c it., p. Ip08.

1^Ibld ., p. 1|.07. 1 Martinez Amador, o£. c i t ., p. 7 6 0 .

■^Bello and Cuervo, o j d . c i t ., p. 2I4.3 • object in this milieu is dative when the infinitive T ft is active in meaning.

At th is point i t seems appropriate to introduce two different schools of thought. The first is that given by Lenz who states that the pronoun object in such a construction as l£ mando venir is accusative -- in direct contrast with the opinion of the Academy,

In such expressions the Academy requires that the pronoun object constructed with a verb of volition and the infinitive be dative. Lenz, on the other hand, indicates that the object pronoun is accusative if the infinitive is intransitive but dative if the infinitive is transitive active with its own object:

" . . . los o las hago, de jo, mando, veo, oigo, s iento, entrar y sallr> pero . . . les hago ver las dificultades, con la misma distincion obligatoria en

America entre acusativo y dativo que se observa en frances (j_e le fais sortir ; pero lui fais voir les diff icultes .”-*-9

While Lenz' precept is based on a syntactical requirement contingent upon the nature of the infinitive there seems to be no apparent reason other than usage for the precept offered by Eoff: "Usage varies in treating the personal pronoun in this construction as

1 Q x Ramsey, o£. cit., p. [(-71. "IQ / 'Rodolfo Lenz, La oracion y sus partes, segunda edicion (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Hist6ricos, 1925), p. 398. direct or indirect object, A safe rule would be to consider it indirect (le_) when referring to people, p o and direct (lo,la) when referring to things Eoff’s statement applies to the construction only when verbs of volition are involved whereas that of

Lenz applies to verbs of perception as w ell as v o lit ion. Concerning the use of the pronoun object in the impersonal activ e con stru ctio n the Academy grammar indicates a divergence of opinion found among some authors: El pronombre le_ de la oracion.sje le tratara del eJemplo anterior , des dativo o acusativo? La cuestion, en castellano, es mas teorica que practica, ya que el pronombre le_ representa lo mismo al dativo que al acusativo masculino, Y aun cuando por el uso que se ha hecho en nuestra lengua de las formas atonas de los pronombres, haya llegado a creerse, y sostengan eminentes gramaticos, que en dichas construcciones cambia la naturaleza del complemento verbal, que pasa de acusativo a dativo , no debe autorizarse tal cambio, que nos llevarxa, al tratarsepe un nombre feminino, a confundir mas de lo que ya el vulgo 1astimosamente confunde las formas l£ y la, les y los. Sindigo, por ejemplo, colocaron A LAS SENORAS en el e stra d o , puedo decir, empleando el giro impersonal cop el pronombre se: se coloco A LAS SENORAS en e l e s tra d o , o A LAS SENORAS se las colocZ, y no se LES coloco, como

^Sherman H. Eoff, A Review of Spanish (New York: The MacMillan Company^ 1 9 6 3 ) > p» 8l« The entire example as found on p. 260 is "Al rucio se le dara recado a pedir de boca, 2. descuide Sancho, que se le tratarA como a su mesma persona (Q.ui jote . I I , 31J. 111 tendriamos que decir si admitiesemos el cambio del acusativo en dativo; y lo mismo cuando el coraplemento sea singular; a.sii admiran A LA REINA pero no se LE admira0

This statement is clear concerning the designation of the pronoun object in the above construction. However, the Academy makes no statement as to the case of the pronoun object or when i t occurs in the more highly complex impersonal active construction with se, e.g., se_ le_ ve_ venir or se le_ ve_ desgranar mafz.

Nevertheless, it has been indicated already that the

Academy requires the dative case of the pronoun when the passive construction is employed: se_ le

(dative) oyen cantar dos coplas and se_ le_ (dative) vio b a ila r un tango. Both Mart£nez Amador2-^ and

Benot2^ agree with the Academy in that they view the pronoun object as accusative in the impersonal active expression. Bello-Cuervo states that the pronoun object employed in the impersonal active with s_e_ is dative 29 and not accusative. The rationale for this point of view is shown in his equation of "se coloca a las mujeres” with Mse da colocacion a las damas.”

o o Real Academia Espanola, 0 3 5 . cit., p. 260. 2^Mart£nez Amador, o£. c i t ., p« 32.

^ B e n o t, 0£. cit., p. 195 >«

^ B e llo and Cuervo, ojd. cit., p. 208 0

2 6 Ibid. Although this grammar designates the pronoun here as d a tiv e , i t s ta te s th a t la and la s are to be employed for the feminine referents and shows that as employed these pronouns are probably dative:

"Pero esta razon no es decisive, porque la y las son formas que se emplean frecuentemente como dativos. De manera que la regia es emplear en la construce ion impersonal como dativo el que en la construccion regular es acusativo; pero con la especialidad de preferirse la y las a le y les en el genero femenino.‘,27

Ramsey, in agreement w ith the Academy grammar, states that the pronoun object in the impersonal active construction with sjs is accusative, but tells the reader that usage dictates the use of the dative les instead of the accusative los when the object is masculine plural.

Both Ramsey and Bello-Cuervo suggest forms based on usage Ramsey’s use of les, since it could conceivably occur through analogy with the accepted accusative ljs, appears to be less flagrant than that of Bello-Cuervo which suggest the use of lafsmo in this one particular aspect of the construction.

Knapp fails to designate any case requirement

27I b id ., p. 209 .

20Ramsey, op . cit., p. 296 . for the pronoun in this milieu. However, judging

from the tone of his examples and his acceptance of

le and les as accusative forms, the supposition is

that he considers the pronoun object as accusative,

for he equates nle mataron a pedradas” with "se le mato a pedradas” and "a tales hombres enganan

facilmente” with ”a tales hombres se les engana

facilmenteLack of any precise definition as to

the case of the pronoun in the impersonal active

construction with s_e would seem to indicate that he

regards le in the s_e le_ combination as an accusative

as is found in le_ mataron. Although it is not the scope of this chapter to

review the use of the third person pronoun in every

possible construction, it is felt that the preceding

summary suffices to point out that there is a lack of

uniformity and clarity among grammarians concerning

the pronoun objects of the third person. This lack

of authoritative guide-lines validates the endeavour

in the present study to elucidate the usage involving

conjunctive object pronouns as found in the Mexican

novel of the first half of the twentieth century.

^Knapp, op. eft., p. 21$. Chapter II

A Study of the Pronoun Object Usage in

Individual Novels

The novels employed in this study have been ranked in the following list according to the percentage of leismo, in an ascending order, based on the occurrences of the single pronoun object in ths simple construction of single verb and pronoun object (le visito, le esta visltando, le va a visltar, etc .) : 1. Juan Rulfo, Pedro Paramo — 1.1$

2. Agustin Yanez, La tierra prodiga — 1 .3$ 3. Miguel N. L ira, La_ Escondida — 1.1|$

I}.. Sergio C-alindo, El bordo -- 1.6$

5>. Jorge Perretis, Tierra caliente -- 2 . 1$

6. Luis Spota, Murieron a mitad del rio -- 2 .3$ 7. Jose Mancisidor, Se_ llamaba Catalina -- 2 .£$ 8. Fernando Benitez, El agua envenenada — 4 9. Carlos Puentes, La muerte de Artemio Cruz -- 2.7

10o Francisco L. Urquizo, Tropa vie.ja -- 3.2%

1 1 . Fernando Robles, La e s tr e lla que no qulso vivir -- 3.3%

1 2 . Jose Ruben Romero, La vlda inutil de Pito Perez — 3 4%

13. Rodolfo Usigli, Ensayo de un crimen --

k% li|. Juan Novell Luna, La pintura -- k»5%

15. Gregorio Lopez y Fuentes, Los peregrinos inmoviles — L.6%

1 6 . Luis Guzman, La sombra del caudillo --

5 4 $

17. Gregorio Lopez y Fuentes, El indio -- 6.1$ 1 8 . Mariano Azuela, Las tribulaciones de una

familia decente -- 6.5$

19. Xavier Icaza, Dilema -- 7.2$ 2 0 . Mariano Azuela, Los de aba.jo -- 8.9 %

2 1 . Rafael F. Munoz, Se llevaron el canon

para Bachimba -- 9*2$ 2 2 . Jose Ruben Romero, Mi c a b a llo , mi p e rro , mi rifle -- 11.1$ 23. Mauricio Magdaleno, El resplandor -- 13.6$ 2l\.. Salvador Q,uevedo y Zubieta, La camada

— 13.6#

25* Rosa de Castano, La gaviota verde --

18.5# 26. Teodoro Torres, La patrla perdida --

2 9 . 3% In examining these representative Mexican novels to determine twentieth century trends and variances in the usage of the third person object pronouns, the author of the present study has adopted the following procedure for each of the twenty-six novels:

a.) He has tabulated the occurrences of single direct object pronouns in categories according to whether the pronouns represent (1) usted, ustedes;

(2) persons not in direct address; (3) animals; and

(Lj.) things. The tabulations are given in two groupings:

Group A includes constructions that occur in dialogues of characters in the novels. Group B includes constructions that occur in the narrative portions, regardless of whether the narration is done directly by the author or by a participant in the action of the novel. The accusative forms (lo/los/la/las) are considered normal usage for direct objects and the number of occurrences is lis te d w ithout comment. The use of le/les is considered a deviation from the normal when used as accusative forms. In these cases the number of occurrences is lis te d and the circumstances 1.6 discussed. In the tabulation chart which accompanies

each novel only the number i3 given when the standard accusative forms are recorded. When the dative forms

are used as direct objects, the words "le/les" accompany the number of occurrences.

b.) He has examined the usage of single indirect object pronouns, but, because of the

regularity of usage of le/les as indirect objects, he has tabulated only the occurrences of lalsmo (use of lo / l o s / l a / las as in d ire c t objects) and has sought to

determine whether such deviation was a result of uncertainty concerning the dative or accusative

function of the pronouns; whether it was a conscious use of lo/los/la/las as a dative; or whether it may have been merely a printer's error.

c.) He has recorded as in a.) above the

incidence of le/les versus standard accusative forms

in constructions involving•verbs of perception, volition, permission, and causation followed by an infinitive. He has discussed separately the simple

active construction (le (lo) veo hablar con ellos)..

and the impersonal active construction (^e le (lo)

con ve hablar ellos). Here again, he has studied the

circumstances involved in order to find probable motives or explanations for the use of Le or les and

to determine whether there is a discernible pattern of usage. d.) He has examined and analyzed as in a .) above the p a tte rn of usage when two pronoun objects are involved, whether it be indirect and direct, re fle x iv e and in d ire c t, or re fle x iv e and d ire c t object pronouns. Lo/los/la/las following se_ (for le or les) is so nearly invariable in all novels studied that no tabulation was made of this regular usage. However, any deviations from this normal usage have been noted and discussed.

The discussions of object pronoun usage in each novel are given according to the classification of circumstances explained in the four immediately preceding paragraphs. Since lajfsmo is found in only four novels

(Murieron a mltad del r£o by Luis Spota; Dilema by

Xavier Icaza; La gaviota verde by Rosa de Castano; and La_ patria perdida by Teodoro Torres), this particular usage has not been discussed in any other portion of this work except in Chapter II in the individual analysis section for each novel involved. Analyses of Individual Novels NOVEL #1

Pedro Paramo^

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 7

Persons not in direct address 7^ (le) 1 (1.3%)

Animals 3 (l e s ) 1 (2£g)

Things 9&

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0 Persons not in direct address J 4.6

Animals 1

Things I4.8

Overall percentage of lefsmo: 1.1$

The one example of le_ referring to usted in

Group A is "—Abuela, vengo a ayudarle a desgranar maiz.” (p. 17)* Since the child is addressing his grandmother, le may represent tratamiento.

The one example of le referring to "him” is "Yo

■^Rulfo, Juan. Pedro Paramo. Quinta edicion. Mexico: FondO de Cultura Economics, 1981|« a ese le coconozco {s_icj (p. lj.8).

The one reference of les referring to animals occurs with the verb nombrar: "Asi les nombran a esos pajaros." (p. 11). It appears that the author is equating nombrar w ith ponerles e l nombre de.

Ayudar does not exist in the novel with a pronoun object other than in the example cited above. Conocer, on the other hand, is found with lo referring to-> usted, lo referring to "him" and la referring to ’’her”:

Group A, lo (usted), pages 9 and 102; lo, "him”, page

21; Group B, lo_, "him", pages 31 and 70; la, "her", page 99.

In the use of Le ("him") in the example cited above, it may well be that we have a case of tratamlento, since reference to el_ admlnlstrador de la Media Luna is made by a r u s t i c .

In Group B, persons not in direct address, the three examples of l€3 ("him") are the following: 21 Soy algo que no le estorba a nadie. (p. 56)

Le preocupaba la merma . . . (p. 6 8 )

No le preocupaba Fulgor . . . (p. 98)

Since these are the only instances of these specific verbs used with pronoun objects, it is difficult to surmise what character the author has assigned them.

Only the standard accusative forms occur with ver followed by an infinitive.

Group A

lo (’’him") (1 )

"--Seguramente manana lo veras venir."

(p. ^ 8 )

la ("her") (2 )

"--Ustedes tuvieron que verla salir.”

(p. 58)

"La vi deshacerse en el agua de su sudor

. . ." (p. 63) Group B

la ("her") (1)

La vefa venir. (p. Ij.2)

los (things) (1)

Y los (los labios) vio balbucir . . .

(p. 1 1 8 )

The only example of mirar followed by the infinitive shows la ("her") (1): Group A, . . l a miro cercar

. . ." (p. 96).

0 {v followed by the infinitive shows le ("him" /

"her") in Group A and le_ ("him") in Group B:

Group A

le ("him" / "her") (2)

"--Como que le ("him") oi decir algo de

. . (p. 51)

" I Que le ("her") ofste decir?" (p. 82)

Group B "Fue lo ultim o que le oyo d e c ir en sus

cinco sentidos." (p. 3 8 )

Hacer in the causative construction shows JLe (’’him”)

(2), les ("them” / human beings) (1), and la ("her”)

(2) in Group A;

le ("him")

"Soy la unica gente que tiene para hacerle

hacer sus necesidades ." (p, 1|9)

". . . le hice ver que aquello' tenfa ..."

(p. 87)

la ("her")

"Lo unico que la hace a una mover los pies

es la esperanza de . . ." (p. 70)

"Pedro Paramo la hizo s u f r i r ." (p. 8i|.)

les ("them" / human beings)

"Hazles ver que no andas . . ." (p. 112)

In Group B we find la ("her") and les / los

("them" / human beings) . . . que la hacia revolcarse en el

desvelo . . . (p. 99)

les (1)

. . . hacerles comprender que se trataba

de . . . (p. 121)

los (1)

"Lanzo aquel grito . . . y los hizo decir:

'Parece ser . . .*" (p. 91)

It is noted that le_ / les is used when the in f in itiv e following ver, ojfr, hacer, de jar is transitive while the standard accusative forms are used when the following infinitive is intransitive (or reflexive). The two exceptions are: "Lo unico que la hace a una mover los pies ..." and . . y los hizo d ecir: 'Parece ser

i '* • • •

With obllgar a, lo ("him") is used in both instances:

. . . despu^s lo obligo a salir. (p. 72) 25 . . . lo obligo a sacudlrla. (p. 9 6 )

De.jar followed by the infinitive, intransitive or transitive with a reflexive object, shows only the

standard accusative forms for persons and things in both groups:

Group A

"--Dejalo ("him”) moverse." (p. 68)

". . . lo (e_l gato) dej£ quedarse en . . .

(P. 92)

Gr oup B

Que lo ("him") dejaramos dormir. (p. 52)

. . . la ("her") dejo acercarse a el . . .

(p. 9^)

The impersonal activ e shows le ("him") (1) and les (1) ("them" / human beings):

Group B

. . . m£s allsi se le oyo dar un gemido

. . • (p• 65) Solo se les oyo sorber el chocolate . . .

(p. 100)

It may be of interest to note that le is used w ith robar in ", . . y no nos veamos urgidos de ro b arle a nadie." (p. 112). The Academy states that in the absence of the direct object of "thing” the remaining

p object must be accusative. Since Rulfo used the standard accusative forms preponderantly, we may assume that this 3^ is intended as a dative.

Preguntar, likewise, should exhibit the same type of syntactic commutation as does robar in the situation in which the direct object of "thing" is l a c k i n g . ^

Such an expression as "Yo le pregunte . . . a Pedro

Paramo por e l l a ." (p. 23) is not explained by the

Academy; one must assume th a t the s y n ta c tic a l requirement must be established by usage. I believe that it is

^Real Academia Espanola, 0£. cit., p. 2^0.

3Ib id . safe to assume that Rulfo regards le in this particular milieu as dative. NOVEL #2 La t i e r r a prodiga^

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes lip

Persons not in direct address 182 (le / les) 5 (2.7#) Animals 3

Things 169

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 309 (le) 3 (.9 i) Animals 3 Things 102 (le / les) 2 (1 .9 #)

Overall percentage of lefsmo: 1.3#

Because of the absence of le / les as direct objects referring to usted / ustedes f it is apparent that the author is not concerned with tratamiento.

It should be pointed out in this regard that in a

^-Yanez, Agustin. La tierra prddiga. Primer a ed icion. Mexico: Fondo de C ultura Econdmica, i 9 6 0 . 29 reference to God, the priest employs lo: "--Yo solo sirvo a Dios. Aquif lo llevo. Guarden respeto.”

(p. 219).

In Group A (persons not in direct address) the five occurrences of le_ / les are as follows (only feminine indicated):

A yudar:

ft ” . . . al que madruga Dios le ayuda • • •

(p. ll+9)

,f. . . les (feminine) ayudare a las

c ris tia n a s para que . . (p. 273)

D ivert i r :

”. . .dno le parece que les divertira

encontrarse . . . con un salvaje . . .?”

(p. 1 6 0)

E ncantar:

M. . .a las mujeres . . . les (feminine)

encantan todos esos lugares . . (p. l66) H alagar:

". . . le halague, le ofvec{ . . . ” (p. 115)

In Group B (persons not in direct address) the three occurrences of le_ are as follows:

M olestar:

. . . le molesta que confiesen . . . (p. 3 8 )

Olr:

. . . que muchos le oyeron . . . (p. 155)

Temer:

. . . pero le tem fan. (p. 99)

There are two occurrences of le_ / les as direct object with inanimate referents, both in Group B:

”. . . que le nombran Nacastillo (i.e. un rancho)"

(p. 85) and "Aquif le s llamamos sab lazo s." (p. llij.) .

Of the preceding groups of verbs the following are the ones which occur with the standard accusative form s:

Ayudar: 31 Group A

". . . con tal de ayudarlo ("him")."

(p. 2 3 1 )

"... tratando de ayudarlos (ustedes) a

salir." (p. 258)

Group B

. . . lo ("him") ayudo a utilizarlos.

(p. 105)

. . . Elena lo ("him") ayudara en hacer los v.

honores . . . (p. 137)

. . .iquien lo ("him") ayudara en la

matazon . . .? (p. 213)

D iv e r tlr :

Group B

. . . los chillidos . . . de los changos

. . . lo divirtieron . . . (p. 8l)

Llamar;

Group A n—Bien dijo su madre al llamarla (’’her")

giiila . . (p. 228)

Group B

. . . la gente dio en llamarlos la mancuerna.

(p. 91)

M olestar:

Group B

. . . lo molestaba . . . como lo molestaban

las extrafias cosas . . . (p. 1 9 )

. . . que no lo moles ten cuando trat"© de

. . . (p. 110)

Nombrar:

Group A

"... por cierto que a tu Manos Largas

lo ("him") nombraron interventor de

los bienes . . . (p. 2 2 9 )

Temer;

Group B

El numero de los que lo temfan . . . (p. 99) The statistical proportions shown for the frequency of occurrence of both kinds of pronoun with common verbs are as follows (objects referring to other than persons not in direct address are indicated):

Ayudar:

le (1), les (feminine) (1) // lo (I}.),

los (u ste d e s) (1)

D lv e r tir :

les (1) / / lo (1)

Llamar:

les ("things") (1) / / la (1), los (1)

M olestar:

le (1) / / lo (3)

Nombrar:

le (" it" ) (1) / / lo (1)

Temer:

le (1) / / lo (1)

With the verb ver followed by the infinitive lo 3^ ('’him”) (3) and la ("her") (1) are used:

Group A

la ("her") (1)

n--Me cuadraba verla coser a mano ..."

(p. 186)

lo ("him") (l)

"... nunca lo habfa visto ponerse as£"

. . . (p. 263)

Group B

lo ("him") (2)

. . . la desesperaba verlo hablar con . . .

(p. 1 6 8 )

. . . verlo hablar con las piedras . . .

(p. 1 6 8 )

ofr followed by the infinitive is used with le

(usted) (1), lo ("him") (1), and la (1):

Group A

le (u sted) (1) ". . . esas cosas de que le oigo hablar a

usted . . . (p. l 6 0 )

lo ("him”) (l)

”... con ofrlo hablar . . . parecia

hombre de te a tro . . (p. l 6 0 )

Group B y * 1

la ("her” ) (1)

Le gustaba ofrla hablar asf . . . (p. 9 6 )

With the verb hacer in the causative construction the count (taken from Group A and Group B) fo r the pronoun objects is le ("her") (1), lo (thing) (1), la (thing)

(3), lo ("him") (9), le_ ("him") (7), la (gente) (1), la ("her") (5) » los ("them" / human beings) (5), and les ("them" / human beings) (3):

Group A

le ("her") (1)

"... las verguenzas que le hace pasar

tan publicamente . . ." (p. 7 0 ) 36 lo (a rb o l) (1)

. . te convenga hacerlo desaparecer

. . . ” (p. 10) la (thing) (3)

. .la (la costa) hace tomar su paso

. . (p. 1^0)

”. . .la (la costa) hace lucir preciosa

. . .” (p. 150)

”. . .la (la pistola) hizo funcionar . . .”

(p. 250) le (’'him") (1)

”. . . le hizo consentir en que . . . era

obra . . . ” (p. 1 2 9 ) la (g e n te ) (1)

”... esa gente para hacerla entrar al

aro . . (p. 159) la (”h e r” ) (1)

”... haciendola pensar en que dispone ...”

(p. 235) los ("them" / human beings) ( 2 )

"... los hizo salir . . . por su casa

. . ." (p. 23i|.)

"... los hiciera corner a todos juntos."

(p. 305)

Group B

lo ("him") (9 )

. . . lo hizo exclamar a grito herido,

en son de reto al mar. (p. 8 8 )

. . . presumxa de hacerlo entrar en razon

. . . (p. 91)

• . . lo hacfan caer en . . . (p. 1 0 5 )

. . . lo hacfan sonar en . . . (p. I 0J4.)

. . . haciendolo regarlas de sudor . . .

(p. 105)

. . . que lo hacian caer en la crapula

mercenaria . . . (p. 1 0 5 )

. . . lo hacen estremecer las palabras . . 38

(p. 2l5)

. . . lo hizo callar. (p. 25l)

. . . lo hicleron olvldar . . . que no le

. . . (p. 259) le ("him") (6 )

. . . le habfan hecho sentir . . . las

muertes . . . (p. 2 0 )

. . . lo que le hacf’a revivir instantes

. . . (p. 8 8 )

. . . haciendole caer en un juego . . .

(P-. 129)

. . . le hizo consentir en que . . . (p. 1 2 9 )

. . . anecdotas que . . . le hacfa repetir.

(p. 163)

. . . que le hace volver a empezar. (p. 3 1 5 ) la ("her") (i^)

. . . que la h ic ie ra n b a ila r . (p. 1 0 2 )

. . . la hizo volver en sf . . . (p. 17l+) . . . la hizo bracear . . . (p. 313)

. . . la hizo gritar . . . (p. 313)

los (’’them” / human beings) (3)

. . . los hizo zozobrar . . . (p. 2 3 )

. . . los hac^a desistir de . . . (p. 25l|)

Los hizo levantar ("to get up") . . .

(p. 303)

les ("them" / human beings) (3)

. . . les haria conocer este submundo . . .

(p. 29)

. . . el intento de hacerles aceptar un

programa . . . (p. 15>7)

. . . haciendoles perder el miedo . . .

(p. 218)

Not included in this group are two examples in which the infinitive is taken to have passive orientation

Group B . . . que Ricardo lo hiciera nombrar jefe

. . . (p. 1 2 0 )

Group A

las (’’them” / human beings)

". . . si no es que hay quien las haga

respetar ("to be respected") a tiros."

(p. 11)

The verb obligar followed by a. plus the infinitive shows only the accusative forms — lo^ ("him") (3) and la

("her") (2):

Group A

lo (1)

". . . a o b lig arlo a que las lle v e ."

(p. 193)

Group B

lo (2)

. . . lo obligo a pasar por cobarde . . .

(p. 19)

. . . lo obligaron a aceptar el estado . . • Ip- . . . (p. 1 2 9 )

la (2)

La obligaba a s a l ir desarreglada . . .

(p. 73)

. . . la obligara a servirlas . . . (p. 1 0 6 )

The verb de.jar followed by the infinitive shows only the standard accusative forms—lo ("him") ( I 4 . ), la

("her") (2), los ("them" / human beings) (2):

Group A

l£ (3)

". . . lo dejaste llegar . . ." (p. 213)

". . . no le dejaran pasar . . ." (p. 276)

"Dejalo ir." (p. 280)

la (1)

"... dejarla venir sola ..." (p. 261}.)

Group B

lo (1)

. . . que lo habifan dejado pasar . . .

(p. 213) ^2 la (1)

. . . sin dejarla ya dormir . . . (p. 100)

los (2)

. . . los deja llegar . . . (p. 2 9 5 )

. . . no los deja hablar . . . (p. 2 9 5 )

The impersonal active co n stru ctio n in both Group

A and Group B shows only dative forms--le (el mar) (2), le ("him”) (2), and les ("them” / human beings) (1):

Group A

se les (1)

". . . se les ayudo siempre a bien morir.”

(p. 12£)

Group B

se le ("him” ) (2)

. . . donde menos se le espera . . . (p. 3I4.)

. . . nunca se le halla donde y cuando . . o

(p. 3i+)

se le (el mar) (2) ■ . no se le vefa . . . (p. 1 6 9 )

. . pero se le sentfa cada vez mas

cerca . . . (p. 1 6 9 ) NOVEL #3 La Escondida^

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 13 Persons not in direct address 61}.

Animals 3

Things 78 (le) 1 (1.3$)

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 108 ( l e ) 1+ (3 .6$)

Animals 0

Things 79

Overall percentage of lejfsmo: 1.1}.$

It should be pointed out that in Group A there are nine occurrences of la as referents to the feminine usted. Le is not used as a feminine referent for usted throughout the entire novel.

-^Lira, Miguel^N. nLa Escondida", II, in La novela de la revolucion mexicana, Antonio Castro Leal, editor. 2 volumes. M 6'xico: Aguilar, i9 6 0 . The only example of le referring to an inanimate object (!roup A) is found with the verb nombrar.

"—Va uste a ver como esa selva que le nombran

La Escondida es igualita a uste." (p. 1072)

The verb nombrar occurs in Group B with la as a referent to a human being:

. . . y la que ya la nombraba "La Escondida",

asociando su involuntario encierro, su

misterioso retratamiento, con los de la

selva . . . (p. 1 0 6 6 )

The four examples of le_ ("him") found in Group B occur with the following verbs:

Escuchar: . . . no le escuchaban . . .

(p. 10^ )

Irritar: . . . al "Heroe del Yaqui" le

irritaba saberse reducido a la

impotencia de . . . (p. 10^3)

Molestar: Como sab^an que le molestaba

repetir las ordenes . . . (p. IO 9 6 ) Resistir: . . . a ver a la mujer que supo

reslstlrle . . . (p. IO8 9 )

These four verbs do not exist elsewhere in the novel with object pronouns.

The verb ver followed by the infinitive (Group B) shows only the accusative forms:

lo ("him") (£)

. . . lo verian flaquear . . . por el

dolor . . . (p. IOI 4.O)

. . . lo vio caer de bruces . . . (p. 106 6)

Lo vio alejarse a traves de la luz . . .

(p. 1089)

, . . lo vio tambalearse . . . (p. IO 9 I4.)

Lo vexa juguetear como un pajaro . . .

(p. 1099)

la ("her") (1)

. . . la habfa visto humillarse . . .

(p. 1028) los ("them" / human beings) (2)

las gentes los vefan atravesar las callecillas

. . . (p. 1070)

. . . Remedios y su comadre los vleran

salir del pueblo—, (p. 1072)

Group A \ las (mu.leres) (1)

. . las acabo de ver pasar . . ."

(p. lOi^l)

The one example of ofr followed by the infinitive shows la ("her") (1)

. . . oyendola relatar murmuraciones que

llegaban a ella . . . (p. IO9 8 )

The causative construction with hacer shows only the standard accusative forms for both persons and things except in one case:

Group B

le ("him") (1) w . . . para hacerle sentir su fuerza

dominadora . . . (p. 1 0 3 5 ) lo ("him") (1+)

. . . lo hizo tirarse al suelo . . .

(p. 1077)

. . . que lo hacfa sentirse completamente

en paz. (p. 1082)

. . . hasta hacerlo ignorar la mas simple

y sencilla (palabra) . . . (p. 1088)

. . . lo hacfalevantar la voz . . .

(p. 1100) la ("her") (ii)

. . . que la hacfa descollar, entre todas,

por lo elegante de su porte . . .

(p. 1 0 2 9 )

. . . la hacfa resbalar por la pendiente

que (p. 1067)

. . . la habj^an hecho estrem ecer . . .

(p. 1078) . . . la hacia sentirse inmaterlal . . .

(p. 1098)

los (birds) (1)

. . . los hizo volar, (p. 1 0 3 5 )

Group A

lo ("him") (1)

"--Pues yo lo haremos hablar." (p. 1026)

la ("her") (1)

"... corre e l caballo en que la h iciero n

montart" (p. 1072)

The impersonal active shows the combination £e_ le_

and s_e les for the masculine and for the feminine se_

la. The author’s use of se_ la may be indicative of

the fact that he regards the pronoun in this construction

as accusative, but chooses to use ae_ le &nd se_ les

because of sound attraction. The possibility of his uncertainty as to the correct syntax is not to be

ruled out, however. Group A

se le ("him") (1+)

"... para que as£ se norme e l c r ite r io

con que tendr^a que ju zg arsele."

(p. 1030)

"--A un rebelde no se le juzga sino como

rebelde . . . (p. 1030)

"Se le in terro g a primero y conteste o no

conteste, se le ahorca despues." (p. 1 0 3 0 )

"Alii* donde se le encuentre, allf’ se le

fusilal" (p. 1090 ) (Occurs twice on the

same page.)

Group B

se la ("her") (l)

. . , desde el instante en que sela ve£a.

(p. 1021+)

se le ("him") (6)

Se le vio palidecer . . . (p. 1039) . . . se le vio perderse . . . (p. 10ij.3)

A1 que solo estaba herido se le condujo

. . . (p. 10if9)

Se le vefa sufrir, tembloroso . . . (p. 1085)

. . . no se le desprecia . . . (p. 1 0 9 2 )

Se le vejfa con los musculos faciales

contrafdos . . . (p. 1100)

se les ('’them” / human beings) (3)

A los soldados muertos se les enterro . . .

(p. 10i)-9)

— se les ofa g r ita r . (p. 105^)

Se les vefa radiantes de felicidad recorrer

. . . (p. 1098)

De.1 ar followed by the in f in itiv e shows lo ("him")

(1) and los ("them” / human beings) (1):

Proup B

. . . v£a crucis, en el que no lo hablfan

dejado tomar parte . . . (p. 1 0 3 2 ) . . . Felipe los dejaba hablar . . .

(p. 1 0 6 8 )

Obligar followed by a plus the infinitive shows only the accusative forms:

Group B

lo ("him") (2)

. . . lo obligarfa a renunciar a la

venganza . . . (p. 1032)

. . . que lo obligaban a huir sin . . .

(p. 10ij.8)

la (’’her") (l)

. . . la obligaban a desistir de tal . . .

(p. 1 0 66)

The verb impulsar followed by £ plus the infinitive shows le_ ("him") (1) and la ("her") (1):

Group B

lo

. . . le impulso a usar de los acicates

. . . (p. 10lf8) la impulsaba . . . a m irarlo

. 1070) NOVEL #i| El bordo^

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 10 Persons not in direct address 37

Animals 13

Things 87

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 1 \\% (le / les) 6 (3*3%) Animals ij.

Things 68

Overall percentage of lefsmo: 1,6%

The six examples of le / les occur with the following verbs (only feminine le_ will be indicated) :

Ayudar: . . . para que le ayudara en el

negocio, lo despidio . . .

(p. 30)

^Galindo, Sergio. El bordo. Segunda edicion. Mexico: Pondo de Cultura Economica, I960* 55 Divertir: A Hugo le divert^a verla . . .

(p. 6 2 )

Encantar: . . . que a su t i a le encantaba

verlo . . . (p. 73)

0 cu p ar: La tare a les ocupo toda la manana

Solozar: . . . le ("her") solozaba pensar

que . . . (p. 46 I )

Sorprender: A Eusebio le hubiera sorprendido

. . . saber que . . . (p. 3 2 )

The only one of these verbs which appears elsewhere

in the novel with the standard accusative form is d i v e r t i r . Group B:

. . . una expresion . . . que la ("her")

divirtio. (p. If5)

The verb ver followed by the in f in itiv e shows only

the accusative forms:

Group B

lo ("him") (9)

Lo habi’a vis to ir . . . (p. 9) Lo vio levantarse . . . (p. 33)

. . . lo vio sentarse en el sofa . . .

(p. 5l)

. . . lo vio examinar los techos . . .

(p. 65)

. . . verlo moverse all!" . . . (p. 73)

Lo vio desaparecer. (p. 91)

Lo vio alejarse velozmente . . . (p. 171)

Lo vio correr hacia Eusebio . . . (p. 178)

Lo vio s a l ir a la c a rre ra . . . (p. 206) la ("her") (5)

. . . la vio poner el cuerpo de su hijo

. . . (p. 48)

. . . verla trabajar la tierra. (p. 6 2 )

Lorenza la vio palidecer. (p. 87)

La vio descender de un . . . (p. 156)

Nadie la vio caer sobre la . . . (p. 189) los (’’them" / human beings) (2) 57 Los vio alejarse. (p. 71)

Esther los vio venir. (p. 7 6 )

0£r followed by the infinitive shows the accusative forms exclusively:

la ("her") (2)

Nadie la oyo gritar. (p. 23)

La oia contar los pasos . . . (p. 1 8 3 )

los ("them” / human beings) (1)

. . . s i los oye r e f r . . . (p. 185)

It should be noted that there is no case distinction effected when the infinitive has its own object.

The causative construction with hacer shows the

following dispositions:

Group B

le ("him") (1)

0 . . le hizo recordar el dia del nacimiento

. . . (p. 2 2 )

lo ("him") (2 ) £8

Algo que lo habfa hecho d esp ertar antes

de . . . (p. lli+)

. . . lo hizo parpadear. (p. I 2J4.)

lo ("it") (2 )

. . . lo (el cielo) hizo descender hasta

tocar . . . (p. 8 )

. . . lo (el_ perro) hacfa correr de un

extremo . . . (p. 1 8 3 )

la ("her") (i|.)

. . . hacerla caer a un charco. (p. 28)

. . . la hizo enrojecer. (p. ?6)

. . . que la hizo estallar en carcajadas

. . . (p. 80)

. . . la hizo helarse y vomitar . . .

(p. I 3I4.)

Obligar plus a followed by the in f in itiv e shows the accusative forms only:

Group B . . . la llu v ia la habifa obligado a caminar

. . . (p. 3l+)

. . . la obligaba a ve(r . . . (p. 99)

. . . La obligaba a pensar en . . . (p. 99)

los (1)

Los obligaba a cuidar las pisadas . . .

(P. 81)

Ensenar plus a followed by the infinitive presents

(’’he r” ) (2) and le_ ("her") (1):

Group A

Dona Teresa querfa ensenarla a bordar.

(p. 51)

Group B

Dona Teresa querfa ensenarla a tejer. (p. 68)

El le ("her") habfa ensenado a sospechar

de cada cosa . . . (p. 77)

This vacilation may indicate the uncertainty of the author as to the proper case in this construction or a typographical error.

The two examples of the impersonal active show se le ("her'’) :

Group B

Una familia que se la conocia desde antes

de la intervencion . . . (p. 3 2 )

. . . por haberse presentado en un lugar

donde aun no se la hab£a invitado. NOVEL #5 7 Tierra caliente1

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 9

Persons not in direct address 33 (le) 1 (2.9 $) Animals 3 Things 37 (le) 3 (7.#)

Group B Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 177 (le / les) 5 (2.6$)

Animals i|

Things l£8

Overall percentage of lefsmo: 2.1$

The use of Le (usted) does not appear to be indicative of tratamientot for the same verb is found w ith (,fhimn)» I t seems th a t the verb llam ar has influenced the use of le in both instances:

^Perretis, Jorge. Tierra caliente. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, S. A., 1935* usted

"Llameme . . . Pedro, como yo le he llamado

M artin .” (p. 52)

le ("him” )

”Si hasta ' taba yo tentada a llam ale don

Pancho.” (p. l68)

The three occurrences of le as referents for

Inanimate things (Group A) occur with the following v e rb s:

Buscar: ”E1 hermano alamo . . . es tan robusto

que vienen a buscar le de todos

los contornos.” (p. llj-8)

Nombrar: ”Le (arbol) nombran Jazmin Indio.”

(p. 2 3 0 )

"Le (arbol) nombran Mala Mujer ...”

(p. 231)

Attention is called to the possibility of the author's having regarded le as an indirect object with the verb nombrar.

Since it is the fig tree that is speaking of its own weakness and the strength of the poplar, le_, as it appears in the first example with the verb buscar, may may be construed to be representative of tratamiento and p e rs o n ific a tio n .

The five occurrences of le_ and les (masculine only) in Group B, "persons not in d ire c t address", are as follows:

C o n tra ria r: Le con trariab a ver que los

farailiares (p. 92)

Greer: . . declaraban que algo

harfan, habfa que creerles.

(p. 203)

Despertar: . . le despertarfan los

clarinazos . . . (p. 2 6 )

Llevar: Ir a sus jacales, tomarlos y

llevarles . . . a nuestras bk bibliotecas . . . (p. 153)

Salvar: . . . para salvarle de los

clnco balazos . . . (p. 9 1 )

Attention Is called to the verb creer in the preceding list. It is probable that the author was influenced by creerselo, reproducing les in the absence of the direct object lo.

Of all the verbs from the preceding lists only the following occur with both forms of the pronoun object:

Group A (u s te d )

Llamar

"dPor que el Mayor lo llama a usted maestro

y no Coronel?" (p. I|.l)

"Yo la (usted) llamare cuando sea necesario."

(p. 78)

Group B ("persons net in direct address")

Buscar

. . . lo busco en la forma mas cordial.

(p. 1 0 2 ) D espertar

. . . ningun ruido lo pudo despertar . .

(p. 152)

. . . lo desperto un rumor, (p. 155)

. . . lo despertaron para el desayuno.

(p. 22k)

Group B (''things")

Llamar

. . . "gran ejercito", como comenzaban a

llamarlo . . . (p. ll).)

. . . ese sortilegio de que es preciso

hablar . . . y llamarlo siempre asf

. . ." (p. 13l+)

The statistical representation for both species of the pronoun occurring with common verbs is as fo llo w s:

Buscar: le (a rb o l) (1) / / lo ("him") (1)

Despertar: le ("him") (1) // 1°. ("him") (3)

Llamar: le (usted) (1), ("him") (1) // 66

lo (u s te d ) (1)

la (usted) (l)

lo ( " i t ” ) (2)

The verb ver followed by the infinitive shows

(Group A) lo_ ("him” ) (1) and (Group B) lo. (’’him") (5), le ("him”) (1), los ("them" / human beings) (1), and la (ta r a n tu la ) (1):

Group A

lo ("him") (1)

"... cuando lo vi correr, aullando

. . (p. $9)

Group B

lo ("him") (5)

Martin lo vi6 saltar del camastro . . .

(p. k2)

. . . en cuanto lo vio desaparecer. (p. 6 0 )

. . . lo vefa pasar ypasar, con la mano a

la espalda. (p. 1 1 3 ) . . . verlo aparecer de improviso junto a

su cama. (p. 1 8 9 )

. . . si lo vio aparecer al borde de su

cama. (p. 1 8 9 )

le ("him") (1)

. . , lo que pensarfa el vecindario

viendole h u i r 1 (p. 176)

los ("them" / human beings) (l)

. . . los vio dar los primeros bocados . . .

(p* 29)

la (la tarantula) (l)

La (tarantula) vio saltar sobre su almohada

. . . (p. 2 0 6 )

The verb hacer in the causative construction the pronoun objects appear as indicated:

Group A

lo ("him") (1)

". . . lo haran contribuir con su mula." 68

(p. 9)

los ("them" / human beings) (3)

"Siempre los habia hecho vivir la esperanza

de dejar de hacer literatura hueca . .

(p. k2 )

"El nuevo pan los hizo filosofar a la

manera . . ." (p. 1 1 8 )

"... los hacen esperar mas de tres horas?"

(p. 172)

las (las jo y as) (1)

"Basta con hacerlas (las joyas) correr

entre los desvalidos." (p. 115)

Group B

lo ("him") (8)

. . . y lo hizo ponerse de pie . . .

(p. 22)

. . . hacerlo perder los estribos. (p. 2l|)

. . . el insomnio segufa, haciendolo pensar: —Yo no se , . . (p. 26)

Luego lo hizo acostar . . . (p« $l)

Aquella idea lo hizo no reparar ya en nada.

(p. 79)

. . . hacerlo tenerse en pie. (p. 97)

. . . lo hicieron meterse en su cama.

(p. 127)

. . . lo hizo caer de bruces . . . (p. 215>) le (’’him") (3)

. . . que le hiciesen volver a la U niversidad.

(p. 82)

. . . le habfa hecho recordar aquella

escena . . . (p. 1 0 9 )

. . . le hizo saber . . . lo satisfecha

que habia dejado a la amada . . . (p. 19 ^4-) los ("them" / human beings) (1)

Si no los hubiese hecho seguirlo,

ivivirfan aun? (p. 1 0 9 ) . . . haciendola avanzar por el corredor

a grandes trancos. (p. l68)

la (la carta) (l)

. . . para hacerla llegar a su impaciente

. . . (p. 39)

las (c o lin a s) (1)

. . . sin que sus pasos . . . las hicieran

sacudirse. (p. f?5>)

It is significant to note that Ferret is employs only the accusative form lo_ (Ip) in the only examples available with de.jar followed by the infinitive:

lo ("him") (k)

. . . el capitan lo dejo atraparla. (p« 17)

. . . se engrefa con la idea de no dejarlo

marchar. (p. 131)

. . . lo dejo hacer. (p. 1 8 9 )

. . . para no dejarlo o£r. (p. 2l£) The impersonal activ e co n stru ctio n shows the follow ing:

Group B

se le ("him” ) (2)

, . . se le oyo decir en son de amenaza

— (A ver s i gustan pasarl (p. i|5)

No se le mira envejeeer. (p. 199)

se les ("them” / human beings) (2)

No se les miraba temblar; pero se les

s e n tfa . (p. 12)

. . . se les vera siempre empenados en

urdir disculpas . . . (p. 2 1 6 )

se le (e l alamo) (1)

. . . se le vefa jugar con los vientos

. . . (p.

se les (g allo s and m icrobios) (2)

. . . no se les (gallos) ofa cantar. (p

. . . pensar que emborrachando a los

microbios se les atonta. (p. 131) NOVEL #6

Murleron a mltad del r3 lo®

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 6

Persons not in direct address 55 (le) 1 (1.8$) Animals 0

Things 83

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 201 (le) 10 (If.8$)

Animals 0

Things 120

Overall percentage of le^smo: 2.3$

In Group A the pronoun Le (him) occurs with the verb atizar (the only occurrence of this verb in the e n tire novel): H--(}Por que le a tiz a ro n ?” (p. 101),

In Group B, of the ten occurrences of le_, only

®Spota, Luis. Murieron a mitad del rjfo. Tercera edicion. Mexico! Libro Mex Editores, 1 9 6 2 , 73 one is fem inine:

Fem inine:

Sorprender: . . . le sorprendio mirando

la lluvia . . . (p. 8 3 )

Masculine:

A su star: . . . le asustaba pensar en

. . . (p. 128)

Convidar: . . . hasta a cafe le convidaban

. . . (p. 252)

Eno j a r ; . . . ni le enojaba estar en la

cancel, (p. 2 5 2 )

M olestar: . . . si" le mo le s t aba lo

suficiente . . . (p. 77)

Le molesto a Pavan el modo

. . . (p. 171)

Freocupar: „ . . preocuparle hacfa mucho.

(p. 1 8 1 ) S e g u ir: si los otros le segufaru

(p. 19)

Sorprender: Le sorprend{a la negativa

(p. 97)

Ni apenas le sorprendio el

verlos. (p. 1 8 6 )

It is important to note that of these verbs only

segulr appears with accusative forms: lo ("him”)

(pp. 108, ll6, and 1 8 0 ) and la ("her") (p. 58) in

Group B.

The verb ver plus the infinitive appears only in

Group B, "persons not in direct address," with lo / la

/ l ° s ;

lo (3)

Lo vieron avanzar de fren te (p. 1+5)

Lo vieron cruzar . . . ante la puerta„

(p. ll+3)

Pavan lo vio sorbar el revolver (p. 227) 75 la (1 )

La vefa venir (p* 7^)

los (5)

los vio irse a la aventura

(p- 23)

Los vio pasar (p. i|8)

• . . vieronlos subir . . . (p. 5 0 )

. . . se asusto a verlos llegar. (p. 1 5 2 )

Los vio s a lta r . . . (p. 1 6 9 )

Sentir, Group B, ’’persons not in direct address,” likewise is found with lo_: Lo sintio moverse en la sombra . . . (p. 2 l 6 ).

M irar, Group B, occurs w ith l£ ( " i t ” ) (2) and los

("them" / human beings) (1):

lo ( 1 )

Lo miraron perderse . . . (p. 121)

Prank lo (coche) miro diluirse . . .

(p. 228) 76 10 3 ( 1 )

Los (peones) miraron lle g a r . . . (p. 218)

The causative construction with hacer presents a regular pattern: the pronouns lo_ / los / la / las

(used for persons as well as things) are employed if the infinitive has no object or a reflexive pronoun object; le_, however, is employed if the infinitive has as its object a noun clause:

C lause:

Group A: "Le (him) hice ver que no habfa . . .

(p. 56)

Group B:. . . Pavan le (him) hizo saber

que no tenfan . . . (p. 171)

No o b je c t:

Group B: . . . la (mano) hizo bajar . . „

(p. 30)

. . . que los ("them" / human beings)

hacxa estremercerse. (p. 37) 77 . . . lo ("him") hizo volver en

s i . (p. lllj.)

. . . la (Have) hizo girar. (p. 1^3 )

. . . los ("them" / human beings)

hizo adosarse a la pared, (p. 1 6 2 )

. . . la (moneda) hizo volar . . .

(p. 1 9 6 )

. . . lo ("him") hizo incorporarse

. . . (p. 2 3 6 )

. . . lo ("him") hacia pasar . . .

(p. 2i|.l)

. . . lc ("him") hicieron subir a

. . . (p. 2I4.8 )

De ja r followed by the in f in itiv e (Group B only) presents lo ("him") and les ("them" / human beings).

It should be pointed out that les occurs in an example in which the infinitive has as its object a clause:

lo (3 ) . . . que ella lo (’’him") dejara entrar

. . . (p. 30)

. . . lo ("him") dejo" caer de nuevo . . .

(p. 67)

. . . no lo ("him") dejo dormir . . .

(p. 12^)

les (1)

. . . les dejaba hacer lo que quisieran.

(p. 128)

Similarly, obligar plus a followed by the infinitive

(Group E only) shows the same orientation as do hacer and de ja r :

No object or pronoun object:

lo (1)

. . . lo ("him") obligo a beberselo.

(p. 135)

los (2)

. . . los (prisoners) obligaron a alinearse

en plena c a lle . . . (p. 258) . . . los (prisoners) obligaron a ponerse

en fila . . . (p. 2j?5)

C lause:

le (1)

. . . obligandole ("him") a aceptar que

la querfa . . . (p. 9 8 )

With ayudar followed by a plus the infinitive we find lo / l© ("him") in G-roup A:

lo (2)

"—Por que lo ayude a contar." (p. ll^7)

"--Que lo ayude a contarlo." (p. llj.7)

le (1)

"Eso le ayudara a dormir su borrachera

. . ." (p. 17$)

Of a special category is the example "--S{. Los que pasan gente en sus lanchas. Gente como ustedes , mo.1 ados ♦ Matan para robarlos ." (p. 2f?) . • The use of los in this instance fulfills the requirement that the object of person be accusative in the absence of the object of thing.^

An example of lajfsmo, uttered by a character with reference to the patrulla, is found in ”-~dLa dan dlnero? AMordida, como declmos al otro lado?” (p.229 )•

Perhaps la is a typographical error.

^Real Academia Espanola, o£. c it ., p. 2$0 NOVEL #7 Se llamaba Catalina^

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 2

Persons not in direct address 6 (le) 1 (lij.,3^)

Animals * 0

Things 2^

Group B

Usted, ustedes"V 0

Persons not in direct address 8 I4. (le) 3 (3-W Animals 0

Things I4.3

Overall percentage of lefsmo: 2.5$

The one occurrence of le_ in Group A, "persons not

in direct address", is found with the verb conocer.

From the context of the novel i t does not seem th a t

tratamiento is intended:

■^Mancisidor, Jose. Se llamaba Catalina. Mexico: Universidad Veracruzana, 1958• "No le conozco. Solo se de el lo que los

periddicos han revelado<>" (p. 99)

The three occurrences <>f under "persons not

in direct address" in 3-roup E occur with the following v e rb s:

le ("him") (2)

Creer: --Asf nos hicieron a ti y a

mi—mas yo no le c re f. (p. 2£)

Llamar: . . . pero la generalidad de

gentes . . . le llamaba tio

Venta Ventura, (p. 8 9 )

le ("her") (1)

Encantar: A La Malaguenita le encantaba

el mar. (p. 66)

Of the verbs of the preceding groups the following

are the only ones which appear with the accusative

forms (group A):

Conocer . •. . llegue a . . . su prision y asf lo

(''him”) ccnoci (p. 8 9 )

Llamar

. . . y de lo que a li a , en Cuba, los

(^them" / human beings) llamaba . . .

(p. 12)

. . . unos lo ("him”) llamaban tio Vento

. . . (p. 88)

. . . a Eduardo el rayado como lo ("him")

llamaban a l i i . (p. 120)

The statistical representation for both types of pronouns which occur with common verbs is as follows:

Conocer: le ("him") (1) // lo_ ("him") (1)

Llamar: le ("him") (1) // lo ("him") (2),

los ("them" / human beings) (1)

It should be pointed out that both Lo and 3^ are used in the same sentence with llamar: . . . unos lo llamaban tio Vento, otros tio Ventura, pero la generalidad 84 de las gentes . . . le_ llamaba txo Vento Ventura.

(pp. 88-9)

The verb ver followed by the infinitive shows lo

("him") (2), la ("her”) (2), and Lo (el. mar) (1):

Group B

lo ("him”) (2)

. . . lo vimos desaparecer de la cubierta

. . . (p. 37)

Yo lo vi perderse, en la distancia . . .

(p. Ill) -

la ("her") (2)

. . . la vi debatirse atrapada por el rio

humano . . . (p. 102)

La vi andar de un lado a otro . . . (p. 138) i Gr oup A

lo (e l mar) (1)

"Lo he visto devorar a seres a los que am£

. . . (p. 109 ) The verb o£r followed by the infinitive shows lo

(e l mar) (1), Group A, and le (’’him” ) (3), Group B:

Group A

'*--Tu no sabes lo que es o£rlo (e_l mar)

golpear . . . contra las paredes . . .

(p. 109)

1 Group B

. . . le of decir un "no me gusta esta . . .

atmosfera de hoy" . . . (p. 17)

Porque yo a Giovani le habia ofdo recitar:

Beatriz, verdadera alabanza de Dios . . «

(p. 30)

. . . y le o£ cantar: Mu.jeres, amados

seres . . . (p. lj.3)

It should be noted that in each case in which le^ is used in the preceding sentences the infinitive has a direct object of its own.

The verb escuchar followed by the infinitive (having its own object) shows 1<3 ("him"): . . . y le escuche" cantar: Olas que el vlento arrastra . . . (p. 8 9 ).

The only example of a pronoun used with hacer in the causative shows lo ("him"): . . . £ 0_ voceara . . . para hacerlo rablar--Que dichi . . . qui fachi . . .?

(p. 28)

The verb de.jar followed by the infinitive shows the accusative forms for person and things:

lo ("him") (1)

. . . y "no lo dejan escapar" y yo, sin

volver . . . (p. hfS)

los (los ojos) (1 )

. . . los dejo vagar despues sobre las

. . . aguas. (p. 99)

It is noted also that les ("them" / human beings) is employed once with ensenar in the absence of the direct object: "Les ensenaremos s£ aenora, mas nada de dinero . . (p. 11). NOVEL #8

El agua envenenada^

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 20 (le) 1 (U- .3^) Persons not in direct address 22 (l e s ) 1 (k.3%) Animals 0 Things 32

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 75 (le) 3 (3.9$) Animals 1

Things i|3

Overall percentage of lejfsmo : 2.6$

The one occurrence of le_ re fe rrin g to usted (Group

A) is as follow s:

”Le han impresionado los indios?” (p. 75)

The only occurrence of les (Group A, ’’persons not

■*"^Benltez, Fernando. El agua envenenada. Mdxico Fondo de C ultura Economica, in direct address") is as follows:

"No, no se trata de hallarles semejantes

con sapos o caballos o pajaros, sino de

observarlos como son en realidad, esto

es, como animales a pesar de su

iivilizacion . . (p. 68)

The three examples of le found in Group B occur with the following verbs:

Aguardar: . . . sin saber el destino

particularmente doloroso que le

aguardaba. (p. Il6)

Greer: . . . empleando una energxa de la

que yo no le hubiera crefdo capaz

. . . (p. 165)

Llevar: . . . ordeno que le llevaran a

Manuel Espino . . . (p. 119)

The following examples show the accusative forms used with two of the verbs found in the above list: Aguardar: (Group A) . . las (las mu.jeres)

aguardaban en las esqulnas . . ."

(p. 68)

(Group B) . . . y fln g ir que la

("her”) aguardaba en la ventana

. . . (p. 55)

Creer: (Group B) . . . lo ("him") crexa

realmente capaz de cometer ese

delito . . . (p. 1 2 6 )

The proportions for the different classes of pronouns occurring with common verbs of the preceding

groups are as follows: (Persons)

A guardar: le (1) / / la (1), las (1)

C reer: le (1) / / lo (l)

The verb ver followed by the infinitive is found w ith lo ("him") (1) and los ("them" / human beings) (l)

Group A

"Yo los he visto salir de sus delirios . . Group B

. . . lo vieron pasar en un Ford . . .

(p. 59)

The causative construction with hacer shows v a r ia tio n :

Group A

le ("him") (1)

. . le hice ver que estaba casado .

(p. 76)

lo (u s te d ) (1)

"... haciendolo venir . . . (p. 175)

Group B

le (usted) (1)

Le hago perder su tiempo re firie n d o le

historias insignificantes . . . (p.

lo ("him") (1)

. . . lo hizo abandonar a su anciana

companera . . . (p. 82) 91 los ("them" / human beings) (2)

. . . que los hacfa v iv ir preocupados

. . . (p. 86)

. . . para hacerlos huir acobardados.

(p. 100)

With obligar plus a followed by the infinitive we

find le_, lo, and los:

Proup B

le ("him") (1)

Una convulsion le obligo a soltar el arma.

(p. 35)

lo ("him") (2)

. . . obligandolo a sentarse en el suelo.

(p. 123)

. . . de o b lig a rlo a s a l i r de . . . (p. 127)

los ("them" / human beings) (1) J . . . los obligo a establecer su ficha de

identidad . . . (p. 178)

i It may be that the vacilation between le_ and Lo either represents the author's uncertainty as to the syntax required in the construction, or it may be a simple lapse into lefsmo> The use of los is highly indicative of his regard for the pronoun in this construction as accusative.

In the impersonal active construction all the examples show the se le_ / £e les combination:

Group A

se le ("him") (l)

. . al campesino se le ha libertado de

su antiguo senor . . (p. 9^f)

Group B

se le ("him") (Lp)

Podfa versele en las cantinas . . . (p. i+7)

. . . se le hubiera tornado por un viejo

. . . (p. 59)

. . . o se le acepta o se le combate . . .

(p. 85) 93 . . . se le sent^a ausente . . . (p. 121) se lea ("them" / human beings) (2)

. . . se les ve encorvados como . . .

(p. 1+1)

Si se les insulta, contestan con insultos

. . . (p. 1+3)

s NOVEL #9 La muerte de Artemlo Cruz 12

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Croup A

Usted, ustedes I 4.

Persons not in direct address I 4.I

Animals 0

Things 70

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0 Persons not in direct address 218 (le, les) 16 (5%) Animals I). Things 2lj.l (l e s ) 1 (.1$)

O verall percentage of lexsmo: 2.7%

The f if te e n examples of le. an<3 l e s , masculine and feminine, Group B, "persons not in direct address", occur with the following verbs:

Masculine

■^Fuentes, Carlos. La muerte de Artemlo Cruz. Primera edicion. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1962 . 95 Acompanar: . . . que le acompanar£an

durante las horas . . .

(p. 259)

Aguardar: Solo le aguardaba un nuevo

sile n c io . (p. 174)

C ansar: Le esta cansando esa falta de

. . . (p. 251)-)

Cegar: Les cego la noche . . . (p. 233)

El viento helado les cegaba.

(p. 2 3 6 )

Conducir: . . . el coronel Zagal le

conducfa a un destino . . .

(p. 176)

Desconcertar: . . . le desconcerto . . .

(p. 267)

D is tr a e r : Los ribetes plateados de agua

le distrajeron . . . (p. 281).)

D iv e r tir : La ironfa . . . le divertia.

(p. 43) M irar: . . . y el joven le miro sin

pestanear . . . (p. 2 6 6 )

M oleatar: El pensamiento le molesto

. . . (p. 39)

Rodear; Le rodeaban todos los rumores

confusos . . . (p. ?i|)

S alu d ar: . . . paso a su lado y le

saludo con un gesto. (p. l5l)

Sorprender: . . . hasta que la oscuridad le

sorprendio al verse reflejado

. . . (p. 255)

Feminine

H alagar: Hasta le halaga la vanidad que

vengan a rendirle . . .

(p. 25^)

Sorprender; Le sorprendio pensar que todos

esos ruidos . . . eran

secretos . (p. 2 6 ) The one example showing les (referring to canones) occurs with the verb seguir. In this instance it is possible that the author equated a los canones with the dative, hence les: ”... les (los canones) segufan los armones cargados . . .” (p. 71).

Of the f if te e n verbs with which le and les are found, only the following verbs are found with the accusative form (Group B) :

Acompanar: Y los (”them” / human beings)

acompanaba el olor penetrante.

(p- 5k)

. . . lo ("him”) acompanaba a

todas partes . . . (p. 1 2 6 )

Conduclr: . . . lo ("him") condujeron al

cuarto . . . (p. 8l)

Halagar: . . . halagarlos ("them" /

human beings)con una mencion

en el periodico . . . (p. 2 6 0 ) 98 M Irar: Las ("them’' / human beings)

miro . . . (p. 1 8 )

. . . la ("her'’) miro* alarmada

. . . (p. 20)

Lo ("him") miro sobre e l hombro

. . . (p. 39)

. . . lo (’'him”) miro" fijamente

. . . (p. 130)

. . . no lo miraban a e l . . .

(p. 135)

La ("her”) miraba desde el

fondo . . . (p. l53)

La ("her”) miro. (p. 155)

. . . lo ("him”) miro fijamente

. . . (p. 215)

. . . lo miro a e l . (p. 215)

. . . la ("her”) miro. (p. 215)

. . . para mirarla. ("her”) 99 (p . 255)

Los ("them" / human beings)

miro fijamente . . . (p. 2 5 7 )

Rodear: . . . lo (’’him") rodearon hasta

que paso . . . (p. 22)

. . . antes de que los companeros

los ("them" / human beings)

rodearan . . . (p* 236)

Seguir: . . .los ("them" / human beings)

siguio a lo largo . . .

(p. ^1)

The occurrences of the different forms of the pronoun are as follows ("persons not in direct address" unless otherwise indicated):

Acompanar: le (l) / lo_ (1), los (l)

Conducir: le (1) / lo (l)

Halagar: le ("her") (1) / los (1)

M irar: le (1) / l£ (5),la. (3)> los (1),

las (1) Segulr: les (los canones) (l) / los (1)

In the construction with ver followed by the in fin itiv e we find only the accusative pronouns (Group

B, "persons not in direct address") lo (2), la (3)» las (1 )

. . . las vio entrar a la tienda. (p. 1 8 )

Verla caminar, arreglar la cama . . . (p. 65)

. . . la vio pasar por una calle. (p. 1 0 1 )

. . . al verlo entrar . . . (p. 13^)

La vio s a l ir de la recamara . . . (p. 211)

Solo le faltaba verlo llorar. (p. 230)

Sentir followed by the infinitive also shows the accusative form of the pronoun: Y l£ ("him") siento lie gar . . . (p. 3 0 ).

Escuchar followed by the infinitive is found with la ("her"): El no la escucho decirlo . . . (p. 93)

Hacer in the causative presents a variation in 101 the form of the pronoun employed (G-roup B) :

le ("him") (k)

. . . le haras ver los peligros . . . (p. 15)

. . . le hizo ver la hora . . . (p. 26)

El vapor le hacia sudar . . . (p. li+8)

V . . . le hizo volver el rostro . . . (p. 255)

le C'her”) (1)

. . . hacerle creer que la habia amado . . .

(p. 101)

lo ("it") (1)

. . . lo hizo (el puro) circular entre los

labios . . . (p. 2 5 )

los (nthemT* / human beings) (3)

. . . alguna derrota que los hacia retroceder

. . . (p. 65)

. . . para hacerlos ingresar a un mundo ancho

. . . (p. 158)

. . . hazlos pensar en mi . . . (p. 272) los (things) (1 )

. . . se mordian los cuellos hasta hacerlos

(los cuellos) sangrar . . . (p. 2 7 )

It is interesting to note that the author used le in the singular .,exclusively for nhim" and "her".

This use of le as a feminine re fe re n t seems to e s ta b lis h that he regards the pronoun in this construction as

dative when the infinitive is transitive. Judging from the forms employed by the author, it seems likely

that he is not certain as to the syntactic discipline of the construction.

Obligar followed by a plus the infinitive shows the accusative form in ten out of thirteen occurrences:

le ("him") (3)

. . . le obligaban a despertar todos sus

sentidos . . . (p. 1| 5 )

. . . le obligaba a permanecer allf. (p. 2^5 )

. . . le obliged a despojarse del saco . . . 103 . . . (p. 2 6 1 ) lo ("him") (6 )

. . . obligarlo a descansar . . (p. 6 5 )

/

Lo obligaron a recostarse . . . (p. 187) ,

. . . que lo obligo a retirarse . . .

(p. 187)

. . . obligarlo a encontrar los cabos . . .

(p. 242)

. . . no lo o b lig aras a hacer lo que . . .

(p. 2I4.6 )

. . . lo obligan . . . a disfrutar . . . de

esa identidad . . . (p. 2 5 9 ) los ("them" / human beings) (1 )

. . . los obligara a abandonar . . . (p. I 4.8 ) la ("her") (2 )

. . . la obligo a tomarlo por esposo . . .

(p. 1 0 1 )

. . . la obligarfa a preferir el cuerpo . . .

(p. 15>6) io 4 la s ("them" / human beings) ( 1 )

. . . las obligue a abrir la ventana . . .

(p. 59)

De.i'ar followed by the infinitive presents the standard accusative forms' except in one instance

(les ) :

Group A

lo ("him") (1 )

"--Dejenlo descansar." (p. 205)

Group B

lo ("you") (1 )

. . . y lo dejo cumplir todas las

ceremonias . . . (p. 2 4 4 )

la ("her") (1 )

. . . y la dejara vivir a gusto . . .

(p. 254)

les ("them" / human beings) ( 1 )

♦ . . les dejo destruir las apariencias

s • o (p o 279 ) NOVEL #10 13 Tropa vle.ja

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A Usted, ustedes 11 Persons not in direct address 27 (les) 1 (3.6$) \ Animals 5

Things 35

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address Sb (i®. / les) 5 (8.5$) Animals 0

Things 51

Overall percentage of lei's mo: 3*2$

The reference to God and the saints does not demonstrate tratamiento, for we find: "Se van a volver locos Dios todos los santos en este enredo que los metemos . . ." (p. 385)

%rquizo, Francisco L. "Tropa vieja," II, in La novela de la revolucion mexicana, Antonio Castro Leal, editor. 2 volumes. Mexico: Aguilar, 19^0. io6 The occurrences of le_ / les are as follows :

Group A ("persons not in direct address")

Ayudar: "--Les ayude tantito, alia por el

ano de . . (p. ip 3 1 )

Group B (only the feminine indicated)

Acompanar: . . . los dos c iv ile s que le

acompanaban . . . (p. Jqipi).)

Ayud ar: . . . alguna alma caritativa le

("her") ayudcf seguro para

escribirme . . . (p. 3 6 1 )

Convldar: Les convide de mis gordas

(tortillas) . . . (p. 3I4.3 )

O ir: . . . le o£amos como quien oye

Hover . . . (p. 38 l)

Of the verbs in the preceding lists, two occur with the accusative forms:

Group B ("persons not in d ire c t address")

Ayudar: iCuando podria yo verla y ayudarla

("her")? (p. 362) . . . general Pascual Orozco,

que tanto lo ayudo en Chihuahua.

(p. k2$)

i . Convidar: . . . a los dos oficiales los

convidaron a tomar cerveza

. . . (p. 387)

The statistical count for the pronouns ("persons not in direct address") occurring with common verbs is as follow s: (Group A or B indicated)

A y u d a r: les A (1) / / le ("him") B (1),

le ("her") B (1)

Convidar: les B (1) / / los B (l)

The verb ver plus the infinitive shows l£ and los:

Group A

los (things) (1 )

". . .iquien los (cinco anos) vera acabarl"

(p. 355)

Group B 108 lo ("him") (1 ), los ("them" / human beings)

( 1 )

. . . como nunca lo ("him") habf’a yo visto

hacer. (p. 3^+2 )

. . • los ("them" / human beings) vimos

pasar al paso de sus caballos . . .

(p. 393)

The verb hacer in the causative construction occurs w ith lo (1 ) and le ("him") ( 1 ):

Group B

. . . que ya no lo h ic ie ra s u fr ir mas.

(p. 397)

Imposible hacer le creer la verdad. (p. 1+2 2)

De.1 ar followed by the infinitive presents the use of las ("them" / human beings) ( 1 ).

Group B

--A todas las viejas las dejaron entrar

desde . . . (p. 3 7 3 ) With the verb ensenar followed by a plus the infinitive we find both los (l) and les (l) referring to human be in g s:

. . . las viejas soldaderas los ensenan a

robarse las gallinas . . . (p. 3 6 6 )

. . . pretexto que les ensenan a tocar

las cajas . . . (p. 1+2 2 ) NOVEL #11

La estrella que no quiso vivlr^

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 12

Persons not in direct address 19 (le) 1 ($%)

Animals 0

Things 33

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 78 (i®. / b (b>9%) Animals 1

Things 33

Overall percentage of lefsmo: 3.3$

The only occurrence of le (usted), Group A, appears to have been executed as a conscious effort to indicate tratamiento. Upon meeting Ernesto Bianchi, Ada says:

^-Robles, Fernando. La estrella que no quiso vivir. Primera edicion. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Econ^mic a, 195>7 o "—Encantada de conocerle . . ." (p. 49)• However, as the conversation progresses she employs lx>_ in speaking to him, e.g., ". . . en que puedo ayudarlo?"

(p. 51).

In Group A, "persons not in direct address," le appears with divertir: "... esos incidentes le

("him”) divierten mucho a mi conciller . . ." (p. 6 5 ).

Le and l e s , GroupB, occur w ith the follow ing v e rb s:

Esperar: . . . entonar sus nervios para

la prueba que le ("her")

esperaba. (p. 1 8 6 )

Dejar: . . . dejandoles ("them" /

human beings) a disposicion

de la P residencia de la

Republica. (p. 1 1 0 )

Sorprender: A ella no le ("her") sorprendifa

lo infructuoso . . . (p. 2 7 ) . . . que a e lla misma le

("her1') sorprendio, (p. 1 8 6 )

The verbs in the above list do not occur with the accusative forms.

With ver followed by the infinitive the two examples available show lo ("him") an<3 Ij* ("her"):

. . . lo vieron caer asesinado por . . .

(p. 2 0 3 )

. . . al pueblo que la habia visto nacer,

(p. ll+)

0 i r followed by the in f in itiv e afford s only one example in which los ("them" / human beings) occurs:

Al o^rlos gritar podfa . . . (p. 21).

With hacer in the causative construction we find only lo (usted, "him"):

"Ahora lo (usted) haremos tomar un buen bano

. . (p. 127)

"£No le he dicho que lo ("him") haga pasar?" 113 (p. 175)

In Group B, ’’persons not in direct address", hacer in the causative construction shows lo and la_ in the singular and los and les. It should be pointed out that the infinitive in the example in which les occurs is transitive while the infinitive in that with los is intransitive. Also in one of the examples in which lo occurs the infinitive is transitive. Hence, it appears that the orientation of the infinitive is not important In establishing any syntax that the author may have felt:

Masculine Singular:

. . . lo hicieron pensar que . . . (p. 1 3 1 )

. . . que lo hacfa parecerse a un jefe

. . . (p. 139)

Feminine Singular:

. . . que la hiciera triunfar . . . (p. Ij.0)

. . . la hizo pasar un camarero a la sala

. . . (p. 1 2 2 ) Ilk . . . la hicieron descender al otro lado.

(p. 195)

P lu r a l:

. . . que los hac^a sentirse superiores

. . . (p. 8 6 )

. . . haciendoles sentir la macicez de sus

largas piernas. (p. 1 8 8 )

In the same category as the above we find lo employed when the infinitive has a passive nature:

"Se suponjLa que habxa sido llamado por e l general

Presidente para mediar como apaciguador. Incluso se decia que el general Presidente pensaba renunciar y hacerlo nombrar substituto por las Camaras.” (p. l 6 8 )

Obligar followed by a plus the infinitive is found only with the phonologically.correct accusative forms:

. . . la ("her”) habi'an obligado a interesarse

. . . (p. 9 6 ) . . . los (’’them" / human beings) obligo

a caminar separadamente . . . (p. 121).)

It may be of interest to note that Robles is conscious of the requirement of accusative with robar in the absence of the direct object of "thing", for he uses the correct case in "No la (usted) voy a. robar ni . . ." (p. [(.8) .

The im personal active shows only se_ le_ and _s£ les combinat ions :

S in g u la r:

Se le ("him") acusaba de acaparar . . .

(p. 6 2 )

P l u r a l :

. . . se les ("them" / human beings) estaba

fusilando . . . (p. 115)

. . . se les ("them" / human beings) amontono

en un salon . . . (p. 20lj.) NOVEL #12

La vlda inutil de Pito Perez‘S

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A Usted, ustedes I 4. (le) 1 (2%)

Persons not in direct address 21 (le / les) 2 (9.1$) Animals 2

Things 56

Group B

Usjbed, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 2

Animals 0

Things 1

Overall percentage of lejismo: 3.1 ).%

The one example of le_ (u s te d ) is . . que no le entiendan para que piensen que usted es sabio

(p. 70).

It is found that reference to the deity, God and

C h rist, both show lo (Group A ):

"^Romero, Jose R. La vida inutil de Pito Perez. Tercera edicion. Mexico: Talleres Gr'^ficos de la Nacion, 19^0. ". . . alabando a Dios, pretendiendo enganarlo

con el Jesus en los labios . . . (p. 8 9 )

". . .a Jesus lo coronaron de espinas . . ."

(p. 197)

The two examples of l£ and les, Group A, ’’persons not in direct address", are as follows:

Llamar: "Por algo le llaman don Prudencio

. . ." (p. 51)

Perdonar: "Perdoneles ("them" / human beings),

Senor, aqui los tiene ..."

(p. 72)

Of these three verbs only llamar occurs with the pronoun lja (1): "La llamaban MarjLa." (p. 20J4.) .

With ver plus the infinitive in Group A we find le and los :

le ("him") (1 )

. . le vimos rodar de tienda en tienda los ("them" / human beings and animals): ( 2 )

"... los (human beings) vl regresar ya

casados . . . (p. 1 0 9 )

. . yo los (anlmalltos) veia subir y

subir . . . (pp. l61).-5)

In Group B lo ("him") is found once: . . . que lo yen pasar como una sombra desleidja. (p. 2 1 7 )

Mlrar plus the in fin itiv e is found with la in both Group A and Group B:

Group A (1)

"... mirandola (avecllla) esconder en lo

mas alto . . ." (p. 1| 3 )

Group B (1)

. . . y al mirarla (victima) sufrir . . .

(p. 227)

Hacer in the causative co n stru ctio n shows le^ fo r usted (1) and "him" (1) (Group A):

"... quiere que . . . cuente aventuras

que le (usted) hagan re iv . . ." (p. 88) 119 "... haciendole ("him") barrer todo el

pueblo . . ." (p. 1 2 0 )

The only example of the pronoun used with d e .j ar followed by the infinitive shows the accusative form:

". . . y lo ("him") dejo salir de la estancia . . ."

(p. 8 6 ). NOVEL #13 Ensayo de un crimen

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 32 (le) 1 ( y f o )

Persons not in direct address ij.0 (le / les) 3 (Tfo) Animals 0

Things I4.O

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 305 (le) 22 (b.7%) Animals 0

Things 210

Overall percentage of lefsmo: \x%

The only example of le. (usted) in Group A occurs in a conversation in which Lo (usted) is also employed in identical circumstances (same speaker, same person addressed, same conversation):

l^ U si^ li, Rodolfo. Ensayo de un crim en. Mexico Editorial America, 19^ • 121 "Le llame cuatro veces . . (p. 45)

»—Lo espere cuatro noches . . ." (p. 4 5 )

Concerning the use of the pronoun object with the verb llamar meaning llamar por telefono, the above example is the only incidence in which le is used. Other examples employing lo(usted) are found on pages 39* 212, and 231. The use of le , th e re fo re , seems to be a ttrib u te d to le^smo or the d is ­ regard for the transitive character of the verb, but not to tratamicnto, for Usigli does not demonstrate tratamiento in the novel.

In Group A there are three occurrences of l£ / les:

"--A ella le halagarla saberlo . . ." (p. 42)

"--Yo les ("them" / human beings) servi." (p. 15 4 )

"... que nunca le ("her") habfa querido ..."

(p. 270)

These verbs do not occur with objects under Group A in other than these examples. However, the verb servir does occur in Group B, and the object refers to "him": . . . 122 alternandose las dos mujeres para servirlo. (p. 2 2 2 )

In Group B the twenty-two examples of le ("him” /

’’her”) occur in the following examples in which only the feminine will be indicated:

Alegrar: . . le alegraba que . . . (p. 5 0 )

Atraer: . . le atraia la intimidad . . .

(p. 2if3)

Desconcertar: Le desconcerto que . . . no mostrara

. . . (p. 1+9)

D iv e rtir . . . y le divirtio pensar . .

(p. 37)

Lo que mas le d iv ir tio fue

(P. 85)

Le d iv e r t {& la idea de . . . (p. 236)

Esperar: El coche le esperaba . . . (p. 38)

Fasclnar: Carlota le conto que le ("her”)

fascinaban las nubes . . . (p. 2l|l|.)

Incomodar: . . . le incomodo no encontrar . . .

(p. 229) 123 Le incomodcf la idea de . . .

(p. 253)

M olestar: . . . si aquello no le ('’her'*)

m olestaba. (p. 31)

. . . que le molestaba . . .

aquella actitud . . . (p. l\.6)

Le molestaba un poco la

vulgaridad . . . (p. 2 1 5 )

Preocupar; . . . ni le preocupaba . . .

(p. 13)

Ahora no le preocupaba pensar

. . . (p. 70)

. . .sin que le preocupara j

la idea . . . (p. 7 3 )

. . . el punto que mas le

preodupaba . . . (p. 1 7 2 )

. . . no le preocupaba. (p. 2I4.I)

Repugnar: Aunque le repugnaba un poco . . .

(p. 58) 121 ]. Le repugnaba seguir . . .

(p. 155)

Era una especie de improvisacion,

y le repugno. (p. l8l)

Sorprender: Le sorprendio ver que . . .

(p. 205)

Of these verbs, in Group B, "persons not in direct address", only the following occur with the accusative pronoun: esperar (lo), p. 66; esperar (la), p. 230; d ivertlr (lo), p. 88; molestar (lo), p. 66; molestar

(lo), p. 6 9 ; and sorprender (la), p. 265.

The occurrences which show a deviation in the forms of the pronoun objects in the category "persons not in direct address" in Group B are as follow s:

Esperar: le (1) / lo (1), la (l)

D iv e r tir : le (1) / lo^ (l)

M olestar: le ("him") (2), le ("her") (1) /

lo (2 ) Sorprender: le (1) / la (1)

In Group B the verb ver plus the in f in itiv e we find lo ("him"); la ("her") and los / las ("them" / human b e in g s):

lo: . . . lo vio sonreir . . . (p. 15>l)

la: . . . la ve^a manejar . . . su fichs

. . . (p. 2 0 0 )

. . . la vio sonrefrle . . . (p. 2 0 3 )

. . . los habia visto reir. (p. 1 0 2 )

las: . . . verlas sonrejLr. (p. 182)

The verb mirar plus the in f in itiv e in Group B shows lo ("him"): . . . lo miro bajar la escalera

. . . (p • )-|-8 ) •

With sentir we find lo_ ("him"): . . . sin que el lo hub!era sentido llegar. (p. 2 1 )

With o^r plus the infinitive we find le / lo

("him"), la ("him") and los ("them" / human beings):

le: Roberto . . . le oyo decir: --No 126 seria . . . (p. 267)

lo: . . . lo oyo subir jadeante la escalera

. . . (p. 93)

. . . lo oyo subir . . . (p. 117)

. . . o^rlo hablar de . . . (p. 217)

la: . . . la oyo repetir: —iQue lastimal

(p. 37)

los: . . . los oyeron discutir El In.geniero

Robles . . . (p. 262)

In the causative c o n stru ctio n w ith hacer in Group

A we find the reference to usted as lo_, la and l£. The reference to "him" is found as le:

u s te d : "... con lo que la ha hecho tra b a ja r

. . •" (p. 33)

". . . lo hice invitarme a tomar

. . ." (p. 3l+)

"... quien lo hace trabajar asi

. . ." (p. Ip2) 127 ”Y asx le hacfa creer a usted . . .”

(p. 267)

"him”: ’’Ella le hlzo creer que era . . .

(p. 36)

"Yo le hare confesar . . (p. 108)

In the same construction under Group B we find le / l£ ('’him"), la ("her”), ("it”), and las (things):

le (2 ): . . . haciendole entender con que

intencion . . . (p. 1 2 6 )

. . . le hizo buscar el viejo

convento . . . (p. l 6 6 )

lo (2 1 ): . . . lo hizo reaccionar un poco.

(p. 1 0 )

. . . lo hizo pensar que . . .

(p. 1 0 )

. . . lo hizo sentarse con el.

(p. l 6 )

Lo hizo saltar de la silla . . .

(p. 1 8 ) 128 Lo hizo sentarse. (p. 21)

Lo habia hecho salir por . . .

(p. 52)

. . . lo hizo despertar . . .

(p. 55)

. . . lo hizo detenerse un momento.

(p. 61j.)

. . . hacerlo volver al lugar

. . . (p. 70)

. . . lo hizo sufrir de pronto

. . . (p. 9 I4.)

. . . lo hizo detenerse. (p. 1 0 8 )

. . . haciendolo salir de la fila.

(p. 109)

. . . lo hizo pasar. (p. 121}.)

. . . lo hacia desconfiar del

resultado. (p. 13&)

. . . quiso hacerlo entrar . . .

(p. 155) 129 . . . lo hizo olvidar de su

conducta . . . (p. 1 7 0 )

. . . lo hizo aterrizar . . .

a Mexico, (p. 194)

. . . lo hizo aceptar . . . un

trato . . . (p. 1 9 4 )

. . . lo hizo estremecerse . . .

(p. 2 0 2)

. . . hacerlo identificar el

cadaver . . . (p. 2 6 2 )

. . . lo hizo aceptar . . . la

boda . . . (p. 2 7 5 ) la (6 ): . . . la ("her") habfa hecho

perder al rummy y al poker . . .

(p. 52)

. . . hacerla ("her") sentar.

(p. 139)

La ("her") hizo sentar . . . (p. 245) . . . haciendcla ("her”) volver a

su lado. (p. 2l|7 )

. . . hasta hacerla (la pared)

retroceder. (p. 1 7 7 )

. . . pero la (la impaclencla)

hizo pasar. (p. 2 4 5 )

las (1 ) : . . . las (lasHaves) hizo girar

. . . (p. 1 8 0 )

Under Group A and Group B d ejar followed by the in f in itiv e shows only lo_ / los / la :

Group A

”... hay que d ejarlo s (los jugadores)

vivir." (p. 2 7 )

"... para dejarla ("her") ir sola ..."

(b. 158)

"Esta vez no lo (usted) dejare ir.” (p. 228)

Group B

• . . lo ("him") dejaba pasar . . . (p. 20) . . . ella no lo ("him") dejo protestar.

(p. kS)

No lo ("him") dejo continuar el disgusto.

(p. 65)

. . . dejarlo ("him") creer lo que . . .

(p. 8 9 )

. . . no lo ("him") dejo hablar . . .

(p. 195)

. . . el la ("her") dejo adelantar . . .

(p. 2 2 1 )

. . . dejarla ("her") ir de nuevo . . .

(p. 253)

. . . no lo ("him") dejo encerrarse en sus

pensamientos. (p. 2 6 6 )

. . . lo (cigarro) dejo apagarse de nuevo

. . . (p. 277)

In the impersonal active in Group E the pronoun which he employs exclusively for "him" is le : Se le h abia tr a ta d o como . . . ( p . 89 )

Se le vio a menudo, con e lla s . . .

(p. 19i[)

The use of le with preguntar was not registered in the tabulation for le_ as direct object since it is a verb which requires that the indirect object of person become accusative only in the absence of the

17 direct object of thing. 1 Since the author presents le (usted) in the speech of a character, it is difficult to determine whether the author has overlooked the rule or used le_ as an accusative. Tratamiento in this case can automatically be ruled out because of the lack of it in other portions in which these characters converse with each other. The example is

"Pero voy a p re g u n ta rle . M (p. 1 9 6 ).

^Real Academia Espanola, op. c it., p. 2^0„ NOVEL #llf 1 O La pintura

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 6

Persons not in direct address 3i+ (le) 3 (8 . 1^) Animals 1

Things 93 (le) 3 (3.1#)

Group B

Ustedj ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 85 (le) 5 (5.6#) Animals 2

Things lif

Overall percentage of lefsmo : if.5#

The three examples of Ip in Group A in the category "persons not in direct address" are as follows

Creer: "A otro no le creeria ..."

(p. 59)

■^Luna, Juan N. La pintura. Mexico: (no publisher), 19 ^4-8 • Llamar: "—El que se "revienta" a

uno o a dos le ('’him” )

llaman criminal ..."

(p. 1I4.2 )

Ver: "JY que dia le ("her") viste

acompanada? (p. 5 9 ) (typographical

e r r o r ? )

Of these three verbs only llamar and ver occur ith accusative forms:

Llamar: ” la llamaba el amori"

(p . 58)

Ver: "Y J la vio con o tro !" (p. 62)

"Y no los (los seres) vere

. . . (p. 151)

The tabulation for the different types of objects s as follows:

Llamar: le ("him") (1) / la ("her") (1) 135 The three examples of l£ used as a referent in the category ’’things” are as follows:

A p lau dir: ”... apl^udele a lo que no

te cuadre . . . ” (p. lij.2)

”. . . y acabaras por aplaudirle

a la muerte.” (p. li^-2 )

Llamar: ”Le (la pintura) llamare

Aparicion . . ." (p. 5J+)

The two verbs in the list above are not found with objects belonging to the category "things” throughout the novel except in the two cases cited above.

The fiv e occurrences of l_e in Group B, "persons not in direct address", are found with the following verbs (only the feminine is indicated):

Extranar: . . . mas le ("her") extrano

la manera analftica . . .

(p. 7) 136 M olestar: lo cual le ("her")

molesto a ella (p. 76)

Llamar: Y ella con deleitosa emocion

le llamo: --Miguel, (p. 35)

Reconfortar: Le reconforto un tanto la

quietud (p. 1 0 1 )

SatIsfacer: cosa que le satisfizo

(p. 71)

The verbs found in the preceding list are not found with pronoun objects except in those cases already cited above.

The verb ver followed by the infinitive shows let

(1) and la (1) as feminine re fe re n ts in Group A in the category "persons not in direct address" and la ("her")

(1) in Group B:

Group A

le ("her")

le vf salir apresuradamente

(P. 58) 137 la Cher”)

. la viste salir apresuradamente

(p. 59)

Group B

la ("her")

. la habia visto salir . . . (p. 6 0 )

The verb hacer in the causative construction shows la ("h er”) (l) in Group A and lo ("him” ) (3), .la

("her") (1) in Group B:

Group A

”. . . la hizo vivir en el artificio del

color . . (p. 87)

Group B

lo

. . lo haria levantar la diestra para

darle muerte (p. 7l+)

. lo harfa dormir . . . (p • 9 3 )

Lo hizo pasar (p. 102) . . . lo que la hizo creer que su novio

. . . (p. 32)

La (’’her11) is the pronoun employed in the only two examples afforded us in the construction de jar followed by the infinitive:

Group E

. . . sin dejarla leer. (p. 5 2 )

. . . no la dejaba coordinar ideas.

(p. 53)

The impersonal active shows only one example.

In the combination se_ _le, le_ refers to cascabel, which is found in the phrase a cuyo casacab el. This prepositional phrase is highly indicative of a dative orientation, thus causing the author to consider perhaps the object as dative:

Group A

"--Polichinela del infierno a cuyo cascabel en mala hora--se le llamo lengua.”

(p. III4 )

The verb obllgar followed by a_ plus the infinitive shows lo (u s te d ) in the only occurrence of th is construction with a pronoun object:

Group A

”. . . lo obliga a enganarme?” (p. 6 3 ) NOVEL # l£

Los peregrinos Inmoviles✓ 19 '

Direct Object Single Pronouns

• Group A

Usted, ustedes 7

Persons not in direct address 32 (le) k (11%) Animals 2

Things 52 (le) 1 (1.9%)

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 68 (le) 7 (9*3%) Animals llj.

Things 70

Overall percentage of lefsmo:

The one example of le_ (Group A, "th in g s” ) occurs with the verb llamar:

. . al huarache le llama coturno y

clamide al jorongo . . . ” (p. 17)

■^Lopez y Puentes, G regorio. Los peregrlnos inmoviles. Mexico: Ediciones Botas, 19W» Ikl However, we find lo (el insecto) with llamar (1):

". . . por eso lo llaman tlazolmama . . ."

(p. 36)

The four examples of le (Group A, ’’persons not

in direct address") occur in the following:

Ayudar ("him"): "JPues yo le ayudol" (p. 32)

"Yo le ayude a Antonio con

un puerco . . (p. 25l)

De.jar ("him"): "—D ejale. Antonio tien e

un fuerte . . (p. 5 7 )

Atacar ("her"): Antes de atacarle g r ite ,

anunciandole mi presencia

. . ." (p. 128)

The verbs atacer and dejar also occur once each with accusative forms:

" (los coyotes . . . lo ("him") atacan y

se lo comen." (p. 1 0 1 )

"... que no puedo dejarla ("her")’’

(p. 269) 1I+2 No other verbs in Group A occur with both dative and accusative forms.

The seven occurrences of le in Group B are as fo llo w s:

Ayudar: Como le ( him") ayudaba al matancero

. . . (p. 90)

Como yo le ("him") ayudaba al

matancero . . . (p. 105>)

Escuchar: . . . fueron bien pocos los que

le ('him") escucharon . . .

(p. 81)

Esperar: . sin preocuparse de cuanto le

(la multitud) esperaba. (p. 82)

Herir: . . . que esta le ("him") habfa

herido en lo mas fntimo. (p. 33)

Llamar: . . . enfrentandose con quien le

("him") llamara . . . (p. 2 3 0 )

Rodear: Los que le ( him") rodeaban opinaron

. . . (p. 81) The verbs in the preceding list do not occur with the accusative forms with persons as referents.

The verb ver followed by the infinitive occurs six times with accusative forms and once with a dative form:

lo ("him") (3 )

Antonio lo ("him") vio" alejarse . . .

(p. 28)

. . . a verlo ('’him") salir del pueblo

. . o (p . 5^)

. . . explicaba a quienes lo ("him”)

veian trabajar-- (p. 137)

lo / la (thing and animal) (2)

. . . lo (el fuego) vimos subir por las

cuestas . . . (p. 1 6 9 )

La (el aguila) vimos aparecer abriendose en

cruz . . . (p. 9 I4.)

los ("them" / human beings) (l)

Cuando los vio diluirse . . . (p. 57) les ("them'* / human beings) (1)

Viendoles trepar por entre las penas . . .

(p. 92)

Sentir plus the infinitive shows only l£ (l) and la (1):

. . . lo (nuestro dios) siento detener mi

paso . . . (p. 152)

Yo la (el agua) sentia correr . . . (p. 9 8 )

Qlr followed by the infinitive shows lo ("him")

(1). It is to be noted that the infinitive has as its object the quoted element:

Su figura escueta se me quedo en la memoria.

Me parec^a ofrlo decir: "Hoy seria

d£a de . . ." (p. 105)

Hacer in the causative construction occurs three times in Group A followed in each case by an infinitive with passive meaning:

Group A "... h^ganlo ("it") saber a todo mundo

. . ." (p. 233)

. . lo ("it") haremos saber a nuestros

viejos . . (p. 2 6 9 )

". . .la (la campana) hiciste sonar . . ."

(p. 271)

In Group B hacer plus the infinitive occurs with dative forms three times referring to persons and with accusative forms three times, once referring to persons and twice re fe rrin g to things:

Dative forms:

. . . lo que le hac£a sonrefr . . . (p. 72)

. . . les hice ver que ellos eran los . . .

(p. 1 6 8 )

. . . les hizo ver la necesidad de . . .

(p. 1I4.3 )

Accusative forms:

. . . lo ("him") hizo enderezarse . . . ii+6 . . . haciendolo (el machete) desaparecer

. . . (p. 79)

. . . para hacerla (la campana) sonar . . .

(p. 1 2 6 )

The object pronouns occur eight times following se (impersonal active construction) and in all cases the dative forms are used.

Group B

se le ("him") (3)

. . . se le vio dirigirse hacia la puerta

. . . (p. 37)

. . . no se le habjCa llamado . . . (p. 131)

Jose habia agregado algo a las prendas

con que se le vio llegar . . . (p. 2l(.2)

se les ('’them” / human beings) (5)

. . . cuando que tan solo se les esperaba

para salir . . . (p. Il6)

. . . si se les enterraba en forma

superficial, (p. 202) Otras gentes murmuraban deapechadas de

que se les hiciera esperar tanto. (p. 2l|.8)

. . . porque si se les tiene con las manos

lib re s . . . (p. 2{i>0)

Si se les hubiera hecho notar, acaso se

instalan en una casa . . . (p. 27k-) NOVEL #16 20 La sombra del caudillo

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 15 (le) 2 (11.8$)

Persons notin direct address 38

Animals 0

Things 102

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0 Persons not in direct address 72 (le) 16 (1 8 . 2$)

Animals 0

Things 91

Overall percentage of leismo : I4..79^

It is apparent that the author does not wish to

establish tratamiento, for we find in a conversation

that a social inferior speaks to a social superior using (usted): "Excuse usted, ml general, que

^Guzman, L uis, La sombra del c a u d illo , Mexico Companfa General de E diciones, S. A., l96lj.. 1^9 venga a interrumplrlo a semejantes horas ..."

(p. 2 2 6 ) .

In a continuous passage it is found that a

character uses lo and le_ in speaking to the same person: "Lo he llamado para que . . . en dar las

ordenes que le de.jaran a usted satisfecho." (p. liplp) .

The second example of jLe referring to usted is

" E®. 1 ®. enganara su conviccion cuando habla de ..."

(p. 57). Since enganar occurs only once in the hovel with an object pronoun, it is difficult to assign an explanation. Le_, then, represents tratamiento or lejjsmo •

The sixteen examples of le_ ("him") encountered under Group B are as follow s:

Acometer: . . . como si le acometiese . . .

un impulso . . . (p. 2 3 )

. . . que solfa acometerle . . .

(p. 6l) 150 Acompanar: . . . que aun le acompanaba.

(p. 151+)

. . . que le acompaftaban . . .

(p. 19D

. . . cuantos le acompanan habran

cafdo . . . (p. 23I+)

A sa lta r : . . . cuando le asalto el

temor de . . . (p. 2 5 2 )

Atormentar: Le atormentarcn luego el aire

apacible . . . (p. 2I4.O)

Ayud ar : Tarabana le ayudaba . . . (p. 154)

Encantar: Al general Catarino Ibanez le

encantaron aquellas ordenes

de Oliver, (p. 8 l)

E storbar: . . . que tu le estorbas. (p. 6i|.)

. . . enemigos pudieran estorbarle.

(p. 1 7 0 )

. . . le estorbara en el espfritu

. . . (p. 2 2 9 ) i5i Guiar . . . su voluntad . . . no era

ya lo que le gulaba . . .

(p. 2 5 2 )

Impreslonar: . . que a Axkana le impresiono

como algo nuevo. (pp. 6l - 2 )

Rodear: . . . de cuantos le rodeaban

. . . (p. 39)

Sorprender: Pero lo que sf le sorprendio fue"

que . . . (p. 6 2 )

In Group A only one of these verbs occurs w ith the accusative form lo ( 1 ):

Ayudar ”. . .la benevolencia de usted

lo ("him") ayude en sus deseos.”

(p. 57)

In Group B the following verbs occur with lo

("him "):

Acompanar: . . . simplemente lo acompanaban.

(p. 226) Asaltar: . . . que amenazaba asaltarlo

. . . (p. £6 )

Rodear: . . . los hombres que lo rodeaban

. . . (p. 1 9 8 )

The indiscriminate use of lo and le in Group B serves to indicate that the author lapses into lefsmo for no apparent reason.

The proportions that exist between the use of le

("him") and lo ("him”) in Group B w^th those verbs of the preceding lists with which both occur are as fo llo w s:

Acompanar: le (3) / / lo. d )

A s a lta r: le (1) / / lo_ (1)

Rodear: le (1) // l£ (1)

Only the accusative forms occur with the verb ver plus the infinitive in both groups A and B: l£ / los

("him” and "them" / human beings):

Group A M. . .s i antes no los hubieramos visto

comer a ellos." (p. 1 1 0 )

Group B

Aguirre lo vio hablar con Lopez . . .

(p. 2 li|)

Al verlo aparecer . . . (p. 223)

. . . Leyva los vio pasar. (p. 2lj.£)

Sentir plus the infinitive has los (motivos) in

Group A: MLos (m otivos) sen tfa Aguirre moverse uno

dentro del otro . . (p. 1 2 ).

With hacer plus an infinitive, the accusative

forms occur once in Group A and seven times in Group B.

With one exception the accusative forms occur when

the infinitive is of an intransitive verb. (Although

the verb perder is transitive, the verb phrase in which it occurs, perder pie, has the sense of an intransitive verb). With two exceptions the dative forms occur with a transitive infinitive. The two exceptions are: sonrefr, an intransitive verb, but which has transitive effect in the verbal expression sonrefr a; and beber, normally transitive, but used here with intransitive function, meaning ”to imbibe”.

Accusative forms with intransitive (7 1):

. . . "Hagala usted pasar en seguida”

(Group A) (p. li+7)

Los hicieron pasar al comedor . . . (p. L1-I4.)

Los hicieron caminar trescientos metros

. . . (p. 2I4.6 )

. . . la hacl^a integrarse en el paisaje

. . . (p. 1 2 )

• . . hacerlo subir a l coche . . . (p. llij.)

. . . lo hicieron caminar . . . (p. I 2I4.)

. . . lo hizo caer sobre el suelo . . .

(p. 125)

E xception:

. . . porque bastaba a hacerlos perder pie 155 . . . (p. 197)

Dative forms with transItlve (6 2):

. . . le hizo recordar regocijos . . .

(p. 25)

. . . lo que le hizo decir: --Me pides . . .

(p. 74)

. . . le h ic ie ro n presumir que e l coche

pasaba . . . (p. 1 2 8 )

Eso le hizo exclamar: . . . (p. 218)

. . . le hizo comprender . . . lo comprometido

. . o (p. 229)

. . . le hacia s e n tir que e l dado de su

destino . . . (p. 2 3 1 )

Exceptions:

. . . le hicieron sonrefr a la sola idea

. . . (p. 107)

. . . la operacion de hacerle beber degenero

en . . . (p. 133) There are ten examples of pronouns with obligar a plus an in f in itiv e in Group B. In a l l cases the pronoun objects are masculine and of the category

"persons not in direct address". In all but two cases the accusative forms are used:

lo (6)

. . . o b lig arlo a defender . . . que

rechaza. (p. 6 3 )

. . . lo obligaba a soltar prenda . . .

(p. 8 1 )

. . . lo obligaron a subir al automovil

. . . (p. I 2I4.)

. . . lo obligo a trag a r enorme cantidad

. . . (p. 1 3 2 )

. . . obligandolo a tomar otro trago.

(p. 133)

. . . lo habfa obligado . . . a copiar . . .

un escrito urdido . . . (p. 1 6 3 ) . . . que le obligaron a contar. (p. 232)

. . . le obligaron a bajar otra vez. (p. 2 5 7 )

los (2 )

Los obligaba . . . a ensayarla . . . (p. 206 )

. . . los obligaba . . . a no decir lo que

. . . (p. 2^5)

The verb de.jar followed by the infinitive occurs twice with accusative forms and twice with dative, all in the category "persons not in direct address":

Group A

. . si los dejasemos vivir ..." (p. 1 3 )

Group B

. . . no le dejo concluir . . . (p. 1 2 9 )

. . . lo dejaban descansar . . . (p. 1 3 3 )

. . . todos nosotros no les dejamos ir encima

. • • (P- 199)

From what is shown w ith regards to de.1 ar in th is 158 particular construction, it appears that the author used dative and accusative forms impartially.

In combination with se, impersonal active construction, In both Group A and Group B the author is consistent in his use of l£ ("him") and les ("them" / human b e in g s):

Group A

”. . . se le ataca, se le desprecia, se le

f u s i l a . 11 (p. 1 3 9 )

”... para que no se le n o tase." (p. 1 9 8 )

M. . . se les vio moverse . . ." (p. 2 0 0 )

Group B

. . . se le empujara, se le obligara . . .

(p. 2 1 0 )

. . . de que en su casa se le necesita . . .

(p. 2lij.)

Convencidos de que se les iba a matar . . .

(p. 2i|.6) NOVEL #17

El Indio 21

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 27

Animals 0 Things 5

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 1^7 (le / les ) 8 (1

Animals 10

Things 35

O verall percentage of lei's mo: 6.1%

The eight examples of dative forms in Group B occur with the following verbs:

Ayudar: . . . le ayudaron mucho las nociones

le g a lis ta s . . . (p. 173)

Encontrar: . . . seguros de que les encuentra

^Lopez y Fuentes. El_ indio 0 Mexico: Editorial Novaro Mexico, S. A., 1955* 160 facilmente . . . (p. 33)

Errbender: El diputado . . . se dirigio a los

indfgenas . . . al que no le entendian,

dio instrucciones al mexcatl. (p. 1)4-9 )

Flanqucar: . . . la barrera que les flanqueaba del

lado . . . (p. 39)

Llamar: . . . le llamaban el cuatitlacatl, hombre

de monte . . . (p. ll£ )

Rodear: . . . estudiando cuanto le rodeaba. (p. i^O)

Seguir: . . . los que le segufan no pudieron . . .

(p. 3)|)

. . . los que le segufan se auxiliaban

. . . (p. 37)

Of the seven verbs that occur with dative forms in the eight instances cited, three also occur with accusative forms of the pronouns in the following constructions (all in Group

B):

Ayudar: . . . que e l ind£gena los (nthem” /

human beings) ayudara con . . . (p. 37) l6 l Rodear: . . . las casuchas pardas que los ("them"

/ human beings) rodeaban . . . (p. J->0)

Seguir: R1 forastero la ("her") siguio a todo

correr. (p. 26)

It is noted that the author used accusative forms with these verbs when the referent was plural or feminine, and that he used the dative form only in the singular with a masculine referent. This lejLsmo is in accord with the usage

22 sanctioned, i f not recommended by the Academy.

The verb ver followed by the infinitive appears only with the accusative forms (Group B), Lo (2) and los (1):

. . . los ("them" / human beings) vieron montar y

dirigirse por . . . (p. lj.5)

. . . lo ("him") vieron ganar la orilla . . . (p. 133)

Lo vieron recoger del matorral su caballo . . .

(p. 131}.)

Hacer in the causative c o n stru ctio n in Group A occurs

22cf. supra and footnote 1 of Chapter I. with los ("them" / human beings) (1):

”... para hacerlos confesar cuales son

nuestros escondites.” (p. L|.8)

In Group B le_, lo , les and los occur in th is con­ s tru c tio n :

lo (el ciervo) (l)

. . . lo (cl ciervo) hizo hundirse. (p. 1 2 3 )

lo ("him” ) (2)

. . . lo hizodecidirse. (p. 1 6 9 )

. . . en la nuca delhombre, haciendolo

caer. (p. 122)

le ("him") (1)

. . . que hacerle recordar el decir:

”linda . . .” (p. 1 9 )

les ("them” / human beings) (1)

. . . les hizo notar lo urgente que era . . .

(p. l66)

los ("them” / human beings) (i{.) . . . los hizo adoptar otra resolucion . . .

(p. 151)

. . . el temor los hizo terminar la carretera

. . . (p. 156)

. . . los hacia saber deseoso de que pagara

la deuda . . . (p. 157)

. . . los hizo arrodillarse. (p. l 6 0 )

In combination with se, in impersonal active con­ struction, the dative forms are used seven times and the accusative once, as follows:

Group A

"A medida que se les ("them" / human beings)

exploto y se les (los indios) engano . . .”

(p. 35)

n. . . se les ("them" / human beings)

necesitaba . . .H (p. 6 2 )

n/Eduquese al indio y veremos despues quien

cultiva la tierral De no exterminarsele 161+ (el indio), es necesario dejarlo en el

estado . . . ” (p. 53)

Group B

. . . se las (las abe.jas) puede mane jar

confladamente . . . (p. 99)

. . . ya se le (’’him”) habria visto . . .

(p. 13)

. . . no resignado a que se le ("him” )

arrancara del pueblo . . . (p. 5 0 )

. . . que se les (c u le b ra s) tr a ta r a bien

(p. 1 1 6 )

. . . que se les (nthem,? / human beings)

viera desde el rancho, (p. 39)

Perhaps it is well to note that throughout the novel only the accusative forms occur with obligar plus a followed by the infinitive. NOVEL #18 Las tribulaciones de una familia decente~3

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes l6 (le) 1 (S.9%)

Persons not in directaddress 15 (le / les) 2 (11.8$)

Animals 0

Things 52

Group B

TJsted, ustedes** 0 Persons not in direct address 59 (le) 9 (13.2$)

Animals 1

Things ij.6 (le) 1 (2.1$)

Overall percentage of lejfsmo: 6.5$

There are two examples of le_ / les used in Group

A, ’’persons not in direct address", with the following v e rb s:

^Azuela, Mariano, Las tribulaciones de una familia decente. Tercera edicion. Mexico: Ediciones Botas, 19l|7. 166 Acomodar: ". . . es muy libre de tomar el

que mejor le (’’him”) acomode.”

(p. 63)

Saludar: nLes ("them” / human beings)

saludo y me marc ho, t£o.n

(p. 194)

The use of les with saludar in the preceding example

seems to be a case of tra ta m ie n to »

The only verb in the above list which occurs with pronoun objects is the verb saludar. The occurrences of the standard accusative forms are found in Group B:

Saludar: . . . exclamo don Ulpiano

saludandola . . . (p. 157)

. . . Archibaldo deseaba saludarlo

. . . (p. 2 4 5 )

The occurrences, then, for the verb saludar are as

fo llo w s:

Group A: les ('’them” / human beings) (1)

Group B: lo ( ’'him” ) (1) / la (uh erM) (1) 167 The ten occurrences of 1*. i*1 G-p oup B, "persons not in d ire c t address" (9) and "things" (1) are as follows: (Reference to persons are all masculine.)

Persons

Acompanar: . . . solo Lulu le acompanaba

. (p. 2^7)

Arro .j a r : le arroja de la casa

. . . (p. 218)

Creer: Nadie le crexa en la capital.

(p. 194)

Detener: Agustina toma e l brazo .

le detiene . . . (p. 2l|.2)

Escuchar: Archibaldo le escuchaba muy

nervioso. (p. 212)

. . . y le escuchaban profundamente

consternados . . . (p. 2i|5)

Intrigar: La fuerza . . . no le Intrigaba,

(p. 217) 168 Llcvar: La fuerza . . . que le habia

llevado . . . (p. 217)

S o lta r : . . cogio un brazo de Pascual

y no le so lto / hasta que . .

(p. 25)

Thing

Indignar: A la socledad no le indlgnan el

robo y el aseslnato . .

(p. 155)

Of the verbs in the preceding list, the following occur with the accusative forms in Group B:

Acompanar: Procopio lo acompano hasta la

• • • ( p . 19^4*)

. . que lo acompanaba hasta el

zaguan . . . (p. 201)

Detener: . . . el trafico lo habrla

detenido. (p. 58)

Escuohar: . . . interrumpiola . . . casi

sin escucharla . . . (p. 11) 169 . . . lo escuchabamos corao al

cielo . . . (p. 37)

The proportions of the different pronoun objects used with the verbs of the preceding lists are as follows:

Acompanar: le (''him") (1) / l£ ("him”) (2)

D etener: le ("him") (1) / lo ("him") (1)

E scuchar: le ('’him” ) (1) / la ("her") (1),

lo (’’him") (1)

With the verb o£r followed by the infinitive both lo and le occur:

Group A

lo ("him") (1)

"--(iNo lo has ofdo . . . j u s tif ic a r la

obra . . (p. l|.5>)

le ("him") (1)

"--Le he o£do d ecir muchas veces que ..."

(p. 159)

Group B 170 lo ("him") (1)

. . . el octogenario en cuyos brazos me

dormia oyendolo contar el cuento . . .

(p. 37)

With the verb ver followed by the infinitive only the accusative forms occur:

Group B

lo ("him") (1)

Se mantuvo a su lado hasta que no lo vio

desaparecer . . . (p. 228)

la ("her") (l)

. . . la vio alejarse, empequenecerse, y

desaparecer . . . (p. 228)

The verb hacer in the causative construction shows the use of both the accusative and dative forms:

Group A

les ("them" / human beings) (1)

"Ya les hare comprender . . . que no soy

. . ." (p. 62) Group B

lo ("him") (3)

. . . lo hizo venir de los Estados Unidos

. . . (p. 82)

. . . dos horas . . . fueron suficientes

papa hacerlo recobrar su perfecta

lucidez. (p. 1 8 6 )

. . . que lo hiciera abandonar el pupitre

. . . (p. 235)

le ("him") (5)

Intente hacerle comprender mi disgusto

. . . (p. 6l)

. . . le hicimos tomar asiento . . .

(p. 105)

. . . le hizo volverel rostro . . .

(p. 1 6 6 )

. . . el habito . . . le hizo someterse a

todas e lla s . . . (p. 228) 172 . . . que habxa visto que le hacfa contenerse

. . . (p. 2J4.5 ) lo (food) (1)

. . . la voracidad con que todo lo hicimos

desaparecer . . . (p. 1 1 9 ) la -("h e r" ) (3)

. . . to rre n te s de lagrimas que e l la

habifa hecho derram ar. (p. 1 6 9 )

. . . ni la hizo ceder en sus intentos.

(p. 228)

. . . hacerla esperar a e ll a , a su misma

madre. (p. 2 3I4J la (la socledad) (l)

. . . que la hace sonrojarse. (p. 15>5 ) los ("them" / human beings) (2)

. . . miLS idea que la de hacerlos s e n tir

el peso de . . . (p. 6 2 )

. . . los hizo precipitarse a la alcoba

. . . (p. 2I4.7 ) With the construction hacerse followed by an infinitive we find le_ (’’him”) in the two examples found in the novel:

Group B

. . . se le hizo entrar en el salon de

radiografias . . . (p. 228)

• . . se le hizo entrar de nuevo en el

gabinete . . . (p. 229 ) NOVEL #19 Dilema2^

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes I4. (le) 2 (33.3#) Persons notin direct address 20 (le) 6 (23.1$) Animals 0 Things 12

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 109 (le) 5 (k-b%) Animals 0

Things 23

Overall percentage of le fsmo : 7 •2.%

The two examples of le^ used for usted are found in the following examples:

Le aburre, pues, pensar en mi?” (p. 15)

"dComo esta usted? No le hab^a visto . . •

2^Icaza, Xavier. Dilema. Mexico: Editorial Andres Botas e Hi jo, n.d. 175 . . (p. 1 6 )

Both of the le_'s in the above examples refer to the same person, but each is spoken by a different person. It appears that both examples may reflect tratamiento, since the person addressed is an important literary figure.

The six examples of le, "persons not in direct address" in G-roup A, occur with the following verbs

(only the feminine is indicated):

Amagar: Si le ("her") amaga un nuevo

vertigo . . . (p. 71)

Amar: . . s i tu le amabas . .

(p. 37)

tt . . no le amo . . (p. 77)

O d iar: "Le odio, me repugna ese hombre

. . (p. 5D

Querer: ". . . le quiero, le quiero

demasiado." (p. 36) (Two

examples.) "Le quiero demasiado, le quiero

mucho." (p. 3 8 ) (Two examples.)

Of these verbs, the following occur with the accusative forms in Group A. These verbs do not occur in Group B with objects:

Amar: , . a Canseco lo amaba . .

(p. 76)

si lo querxa, lo amaba

. . •” (p. 77)

Querer: ". . . si lo querfa, lo amaba

. . (p. 77)

. , y no lo quiero . . «"

(p. 95)

The occurrences as shown by these two l i s t s are as fo llo w s:

Amar: le (2) / lo (1)

Querer: le (1|) / lo (2)

In Group B in the category "persons not in direct 177 address” we find the occurrence of Le six times.

Am enazar: . . • amenazandole con un dedlto

. . . (p. 92)

. . . amenazandole de nuevo con

su pequeno dedito . . . (p. 9 2 )

Encontrar: . . . al encontrarle, olvidaba

sus palabras . . . (p. 72)

Hacer: . . . hacerle participe de sus

alegrias. (p. 10l±)

In ter e sa r : . . . que solo le interesaban los

cuentistas franceses. (p. 1 3 )

Saludar: . . . la sequedad con que ellas le

saludaron . . . (p. 58)

The verbs of the preceding group which are found with the accusative forms are as follows:

Amenazar: . . . amenazandola con el dedlto

. . . (p. 56)

Encontrar: . . . la encontro la camera . . .

(p. 52) . . . seguro de encontrarlas.

(p. 75) I) Hacer: ’’Dios los haga felices,--'* (p. 106)

(Qroup A)

Interesar: . . . fuera de los hombres nada

r era capaz de interesarla . . .

(p. 13)

. . . anslosa de encontrar algo

que . . . la pudiera In te re sa r.

(p. ij-1)

Pero ella . . . escapaba a sus

caricias, interesandolo asf mas

y mas . . . (p. 80)

Saludar: . . . saludandola desde lejos . . .

(p. 17)

. . . un joven las saludo . . .

(p. 59)

The count for those verbs which occur with both 179 sets of pronoun objects are as follows ("persons not in direct address"):

Amenazar: le ("him") (2) // la ("her") (1)

Encontrar: le ("him") (1) // la_ (1), las (1)

Hacer: le ("him") (1) // los ("them") (1)

Interesar: le ("him") (1) // lo_ ("him") (1),

la (2)

Saludar: le ("him") (1) // la (1), las (1)

The only examples of the pronoun objects used with ver followed by the infinitive are found in the following.

Group A

la ("her") (1)

La vimos subir al automovil. (p. 90)

las ("them" / human beings) (1)

. . . para verlas partir . . . (p. 107)

Group B

lo ("him") (1)

n. . . lo vi tomar muchas tortas . . .

(p. 65) 180 The only example in which an infinitive with passive

orientation is employed in this construction shows the use of lo ("el dfa de campo"):

G-roup B

. . . muy contrariada al ofrlo mencionar.

(p. 56)

The pronoun objects used with hacer in the

causative construction show the following orientation:

Group B

le ("her” ) (1)

. . . le hizo ver lo desanimados que todos

se hallaban . . . (p. 11)

la ("her") (l)

. . . que la hizo sonre^r . . . (p. 50)

le ("him”) (2)

. . . le hac£a olvidar el sitio . . .

(P. 3^)

. . . le hizo recorrer una por una todas sus piezas de plata . . . (p. 105)

The only example of ofr followed by the infinitive shows lei (’’him11) :

Group A

"Le of decir al doctor que me iba a morir

. . . (p. 71)

With the verb urgir we find . . . la_ ("her") urgfa con ahinco. (p. ?6), while with a subordinate clause the pronoun le_ ("him") is employed: . . . le urgio que comenzase . . . (p. 100). It is difficult to determine whether this usage is indicative of lefsmo or whether it was felt that a dative was required.

Three examples of what appear to be cases of lafsmo are as follows:

Group B

. . . provocandola sensaciones que no

recordaba haber sentido antes, (p. $1)

. . . la o tra criad a que la decfa que

estaba abierto un balcon . . . (p. 69 ) 182 . . . ayud^ndola (accusative), tratando

de agradarla, considerandola ya como

su ig u a l. (p. 97) NOVEL #20

Los de aba .jo

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 6

Persons not in direct address 35 (le) 2 (5.W

Animals 0 Things 32

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 56 (le / les) 13 (1 8 . 8 $)

Animals ' 2 Things 22

Overall percentage of lef'smo: 8.9$

The two examples with Le / les, Group A, "persons not in direct address", occur with the following verbs

Ayudar: . . . a los que le (masculine)

ayudaron . . (p. 77)

^Azuela, Mariano. Los de abajo. Mexico: Ediciones Botas, 1961. 181* Chocar: . . si usted le cae blen a

mi general Villa, le regala

v una hacienda; pero si le

choca . . . ” (p. 1 2 3 )

The verb chocar, as seen in its context, is the transitive verb meaning "to disgust” or ”to shock”; it is equated with caer mal, perhaps.

The fifteen examples of le / les in Group B

"persons not in direct address”, occur with the following v e rb s:

Conducir; . . . que le ("him” ) habifa

conducido a tal estado de

desencanto. (p. 113)

D e sp e rta r: . . hasta que sus feroces

vigilantes le ("him") despertaran

. (p. 36)

E n v iar: le ("him”) envia. a la

impedimenta como ayudante de

cocina. (p. 3 8 ) Interrogar: Camilla siguio interrogandole

(''him") . . . (p. I4.9 )

Interrumpir: --Desquitas bien el sueldo,

hijo--le interrumpio Demetrio

. . . (p. 193)

LIamar: . . . oyo rep e tid a s veces a

Natera llamarle "mi coronel."

(p. 110) (Note presence of

objective complement.)

Les llamaban los gorrudos.

(p. 116) (Note presence of

objective complement.)

Oifr: Pero Valderrama no le ("him")

oyo . . . (p. 238)

R e c ib ir: . . . en vez de recibirle ("him")

con los brazos abiertos . . .

(p. ^1)

Rodear: Le ("him") rodeaban Luis Cervantes

. . . y otros muchos. (p. 158) Seguir: . . . le ("him") siguio con los

ojos . . . (p. 5?1)

Mirar: . . . la gente le ("him") segufa

mirando como a un desconocido.

(p. 6l)

Torturar: A Luis Cervantes le torturaba

la conversacion . . . (p. 112)

Of the verbs found in the preceding lists, the only ones which occur with the accusative forms are as follows:

Group B ("persons not in direct address")

Despertar: . . . su coronel lo ("him")

despierta . . . (p. 38)

LIamar: --Loco, te habla mi general--lo

llamo mas cerca . . . (p. 2 3 9 )

(Note the absence of objective

complement.)

The statistical count for both kinds of pronouns occurring w ith common verbs (Group B only) is as follows LIamar: le (1), les (1) / / lo (1)

It Is of interest to note that le and les accompany

11amar when the objective complement is present and that lo is employed when the verb has the connotation of "to call to".

The verb hacer in the causative construction shows l e , lo , and la .

Group A

lo ("him") (1)

". . . lo hacfa caminar veinticuatro

boras , . ." (p. 183)

Group B

le ("him") (1)

. . . le hace derramar lagrimas . . .

(p. 39)

lo ("him") (2)

. . . lo hizo seguir adelante. (p. 97)

. . . lo hacfa retroceder . . . (p. 1!?7) 188 la (la yegua) (1)

. . . la hicieron entrar con br£o . . .

(p. 153)

It may or may not be significant, but it is well to note that le (the only example the novel affords us) is used in the construction in which the infinitive has a d ire c t o b je c t.

De.jar followed by the in f in itiv e shows the follow ing variations in the examples found in the novel:

Group A ("persons not in d ire c t address")

l o s (1)

"... los dejamos conocer estas veredas?"

(p. 15)

(!)

"IEl muy burro lo deje" pasarl" (p. 13b)

Group B

le ("him") (1)

. . . pidiendo que ya le dejaran regresar

. . . (p. 97) 189 les (1)

. . . que les dejaran hacer un tiro

s iq u ie ra . (p. 21)

The only examples of the impersonal active

(Group B) show only the se les (’’them" / human beings) combination:

se les (3)

. . . nos supusimos que se les atacaba

vigorosamente por la espalda. (p. 128)

. . . a los amigos se les recibe con el

f u s il en las manos. (p. 167)

3e les escucho en un silencio de estupefaccion.

(p. 23k)

Group A

se les (1)

"... revolucionarios, bandidos o como

qulera llamarseles . . (p. £0) NOVEL #21

Se llevaron el carKon para Bachlmba

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A Usted, ustedes 3

Persons not in direct address 9 (le) 2 (1 8 .2#)

Animals 1

Things l5

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 33 (le) 10 (2 3 .3#)

Animals 2

Things 65 (le) 1 (15.2#)

Overall percentage of lefsmo: 9*2#

The one example of le_ (Group B, ’’things”) occurs with the verb detener:

Detener: . . . ni le (ejL mezquite)

Pf" ^ s Munoz, R afael F. ”Se llev aro n e l canon para Bachimba”, II, in La novela de la revolucion mexicana, Antonio Castro Leal, editor. 2 volumes. Mexico: Aguilar, I 9 6 0 . detiene, como no posee nada

. . . alia se va el mezquite

correteando por el llano . . .

(p. 796)

The one example of le (Group A, '’persons not in direct address”) occurs with the following verbs:

Sitiar: ”—No pudimos sorprender al

enemigo y ahora vamos a

s i t i a r l e . " (p. 790)

The ten examples of 1® (Group B, "persons not in direct address") occur with the following verbs:

Comprender: No le comprendf, cambie el

tema . . . (p. 8l6)

Bntender: Comprendx, sin entenderle, que

era . . . (p. 827)

Esperar: . . . vi un coche que le esperaba,

(p. 765)

Llamar: Guando nadie nos ofa, me gustaba

llamarle Marcos. Cuando habia 192 otros . . . le llamaba

"gen eral” , (p. 775) (Two

examples)

Matar: . . . una de mis balas le

(masculine) hubiera matado

. . . (p. 8llj.)

ofr: Si gritaba tambi^n, no le of.

(p. 810)

Segulr: Yo le (masculine) segufa . . .

(p. 76l)

. . . otros le (el .j inete)

siguieron a paso largo . . .

(p. 813)

. . . que no in te n ta ra se g u irle

(masculine) . . . (p. 837)

Ver; Yo le vefa atentamente. (p. 76if)

Of the preceding verbs, the following are found used with the accusative forms of the pronoun: 193 Group A (’’persons not in direct address”)

Esperar: ”Lo hemos estado esperando.”

(p. 783)

M atar: ”... nada mejor que matarlos

a balas . . . ” (p. 817)

Ver: ”... que no lo habias v isto

. . .” (p. 8 1 9 )

”Lo vide muchas v e c e s.” (p. 822)

”Lo vefa sereno . . . ” (p. 835)

S eg u ir: ”... para ver si era yo capaz

de seguirlo . . .” (p. 779)

Group B (’’persons not in direct address”)

Llamar: . . . lo llame aparte a decirle

. . . (p. 8l6)

Ver: . . . lo volv{ a ver . . . (p. 8l5)

The statistical representation for the occurrences of both species of pronoun forms with common verbs is as follows: 191* E sp e ra r: le (1) // lo (1)

Llamar: le (1) // lo (1)

los M atar: le (1) // . (1)

S eg u ir: le (4) / / lo (1)

Ver: le (1) // lo (2)

It is possible that the distinction between the use of le_ and lo is felt to be more than just- a lapse

into le^smo,when the verb llamar is employed in an utterance in which the pronoun and the objective

complement are employed.

Ver followed by the in f in itiv e shows both the

standard accusative forms and le_ (’‘him"):

Group B

lo ("him") (k)

Lo vimos montar sobre su caballo . » .

(p- T9i*)

. . . lo han visto pelear. (p. 767)

. . . lo vimos emprender el galope . . .

(p. 79U-) . . . lo vefa empequenecer y quedarse

atras. (p. 8 1 0 )

le (masculine) (1)

A Orozco le vi pasar junto a mi . . .

(p. ?66)

la (la masa de hombres) (1)

. . . la vi venir hacia mi refugio . . .

(p. 812)

los ('’them” / human beings) (3)

Corrimos a verlos llegar. (p. 780)

Los vi golopar . . . (p. 8o£)

Los vimos re g re sa r. (p. 80f>)

las (las bru.jas) (1)

. . . las veia . . . pasar volando sobre

. . . (p. 760)

p fr followed by the in f in itiv e shows las (1) and lo (1):

A1 o£rlas (las granadas) romperse con sonido cristalino . . . (p. 80 i|.)

". . . lo ("him”) habxa oi’do quejarse."

(p. 782)

The verb hacer in the causative construction shows only the accusative forms:

los (’’things") (l)

. . . y de nuevo los (punados de municion)

hacia caer . . . (p. 7 9 0 )

la ("things") (2)

. . . la (la maquina) hacia oscilar como

una canoa . . . (p. QlO)

. . . la (masa de hombres) hizo dividirse

ahora en cuatro lineas . . . (p. 8 1 2 )

De.jar followed by the in f in itiv e shows only the accusative forms:

Group A

los (1)

"—No hay que d e ja rlo s ("them" / human 197 beings) descansar . . ." (p. 774-)

Group B

lo ("him” ) (3) and 1° ( " i t ” ) (1)

. . . yo lo ("him”) deje seguir hablando.

(p. 8l£)

. . . lo ("him") dejo ir solo. (p. 831)

. . . lo ("him”) dejababa partir? (p. 837)

. . . lo (el r i f l e ) deje caer. (p. 839)

The only existing examples of the impersonal active show the combination of £e_ le (1) and se_ les (1) :

. . . se le nombra jefe de las operaciones

. . . (p. 8ll)

. . . se les verla aun como espinas que

arahan e l horizonte. (p. 801) NOVEL #22 27 Ml caballo, ml perro, ml rifle

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A,

Usted , ustedes 2

Persons not in direct address 9 (le) 1 (1%) Animals 1

Things 16

Group B

Usted , ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 5>2 (le / l e s ) 8 (13.3$) Animals 8 (le) 2 (2i)

Things 1

Overall percentage of lefsmo: 11.1$

In reference to Christ the pronoun l£ is employed

u. . . si bajara otra vez a la Tierra lo

crucificarian de nuevo . . .” (p. 9 2 )

The only example of le ("him") in Group A occurs

^^Romero, Jose R. Mi caballo , mi perro, £ El r i f l e . Barcelona: Agustin Ntinez, 193^7 199 in a circumstance in which the pronoun lo ("him”) is also used:

Temer: "... todos lo respetan y le

temen." (p. 3 7 )

The eight examples of le / les ("him” and "them"

/ human beings) G-roup B, occur with the following verbs:

A tra e r: A mi hijo le atra{an los puntitos

plateados . . . (p. 1 2 9 )

E scuchar: . . . como si antes no le hubiese

escuchado. (p. 2 2 1 )

H alagar: . . . lo que le halagaba . . .

(p. H I )

Llam ar: El Rey de Oros, El Rey de Bastos

y e l Rey de Copas, como les

llamaban en el pueblo, (p. 8 l)

. . . obligara a sus familiares

a que le llam aran en e l tra to

casero, Ilustrfsimo Senor.

(p. 216) 200 Oiv A1 ojfrle me separe del grupo

. . (p. 2 2 1 )

Reganar . el senor Obispo le reganaba

por no haberlo.dejado oficiar

. . . (p. ij.2 )

S eg u ir: . . . todas las balas le siguen

. . . (p. 1 2 8 )

The two examples of le referring to animals occur with the following verbs:

Llamar: Ella le (el ave) llamaba carinosamente

. . . (p. 56)

S eg u ir: . . . el toro se introdujo en una

tienda del portal y todos

nosotros le seguimos . . . (p. 1 6 6 )

Of the verbs in the preceding lists with which le

or les is used, the following occur with the accusative form s:

Group B A traer: Hay que a tra e rlo s ("them” /

human beings) fuera de aqui’

. . . (p. 131)

Escuchar: Yo los ("them" / human beings)

escuchaba con odio . . . (p. 3 7 )

Oir: Y en fuerza de oirla (la_ piadosa

excla.maci6n), me familiarice

con . . . (p. 116)

Las gentes se re{an al oirlo

(referring to that which was

said or "him") . . . (p. 11)

Seguir: . . . lo ("him") segufa caminando

de rodillas . . . (p. I 4.I)

Sumisa lo ("him") seguia la mujer

. . . (p. 218)

Temer: Yo mismo lo ("him") temfa . . •

(p. 123)

The proportions for the pronoun objects referring 202 to persons and things are as follows:

Atraer: le (l) / los (1)

Escuchar: le (1) / los (1)

0 i r : le (1 ) / l£ (l), la (exelamacion)

( 1 )

S e g u ir : le (l) / lo (2)

' Jemer: le (1 ) / lo_ (1 )

The verb ver followed by the infinitive shows lo and la :

G-roup B

lo ("him") (2 )

. . . que lo habfa visto morir. (p. 1 5 2 )

. . . cuando lo vio regresar . . . (p. 1 9 5 )

la ("her") (1)

. . . la vi llorar . . . (p. 6 3 )

Mirar followed by the in f in itiv e shows lo (el p e rro ) (1 ) and la ("her") ( 1 ):

Yo la mlraba entrar . . . a nuestra casa

. . . (p. 53) 203 Mirandolo rodar sin vida . . . (p. 2)4 6 )

Oiv follov/ed by the infinitive shows l£ ("him”)

(1) and la ("her") (2):

Gustabamos mucho ofrlo platicar . . .

. . (p. 77) \

. . ; ofrla sorber . . . cuanto atrapaba

en la cocina. (p. 3 0 )

. . . la madre del Prelado y ofrla decir:

— Cuando . . . (p. 217)

The verb hacer in the causative construction shows the follow ing:

Group B

lo ("him") (1)

. . . lo hizo ponerse en pie . . . (p. 15>7)

las (varas de m em brillo) (1)

. . . pues solo con hacerlas silbar en el

aire . . . (p. 107)

las (passively oriented infinitive) (1) 20\\ . . . y las (las armas) hizo cargar en una

mula . . . (p. lIt-6)

De.jar followed by the infinitive (passive orientation) shows lo (Mit ” ) (1):

Group A

M. . . y el viejo lo dejo decir como quien

oye H over y no se moja . . (p. 15>1)

In v ita r followed by a plus the in f in itiv e shows les ('’them” / human beings) (1):

Group B

Eran . . . los nuestros que apostados en las

esquinas coqueteaban alegremente con los

federales, invitandoles a bajar en su

persecucion. (p. 131)

Obligar occurs with la (’'her11) (1):

. . . la obligo a u n irse con hombre veinte

anos mayor que ella . . . (p. 1 9 )

The impersonal active construction shows the fo llo w in g :

Group B

se le ('’him”) (l)

. . . se le vio andar por los portales '

. . . (p. Il6)

se las (las lomas) (l)

. . . dos lomas de tan parecida figura que

se las hubiera podido tomar por bermanas

gemelas. (p. 1 8 3 )

se le (perles£a) (1)

. . . una paralisis infantil--perles£a

como se le llamaba . . . (p. 28)

The use of _le in the last example is either the result of his having assigned the incorrect syntactical requirement to llamar or the uncertainty of the require­ ment for the pronoun object in the impersonal active construction. 206 NOVEL #23 oQ El resplandor 0

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 17 (l e s ) 1 (5.6$) Persons not in direct address 5l (le / les) 5 (8.9$) Animals 1

Things I4.7

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0

Persons notin directaddress 80 (le / les) I4.7 (37$) Animals 2

Things 66

Overall percentage of lefsmo: 13,6$

In Group A, los (ustedes) is found in the follow ing u tte r a n c e :

S e rv ir: ”... estoy para servirles (p. 971)

^^Magdaleno, Mauricio. ”E1 resplandor”, II, in La novela de la revolucion mexicana, Antonio Castro Leal, editor. 2 volumes. Mexico: Aguilar, i 9 6 0 . 207 The five occurrences of le / les (masculine) in

Group A, ’’persons not in direct address”, are as follows:

Desoir . lejos de desoirle, siguen

sus consejos . . (p. 8 5 9 )

P ic a r : ”iQ,ue le s p ico ?” (p. 950)

S a lu d ar: . ahora le escribo saludandole

. . (p. 869)

S a lv a r: . . le salvo un sinfin de

veces de que fuera capturado

. . (p. 865)

V er: ”--Ya sabi^a yo . . . que le ver£a

antes de morir.” (p. 86 9 )

The fo rty-seven examples of le / l e s , Group B,

’’persons not in direct address” are referents to masculine and feminine genders, of which the feminine will be in d ic a te d :

Abandonar: . . . a no abandonarle jamas

. . . (p. 8 7 6 )

Amparar: . . . y le amparaba como a un hijo 208 . . . (p. 875)

Asaltar: Le asalto el temor del suefro

. . . (p. 8 9 2 )

Atender: Don Melquiades . . . le atend^a

. . . (p. 900)

Ayud ar: . . . le ayudo a cambiar una

puerta . . . (p. 850)

Buscar: . . . y le busco . . . (p. 9 ^4-2 )

Calar: . . . cuando les calaba e l hambre

. . . (p. 857)

Confortar: . . . el pan eucaristico le

comfortaba en su soledad . . .

(p. 879)

Conmover: Nada . . . le conmovio n i ta n tito ,

(p. 88 l)

Dejar: No les dejo hasta que no les vlo

en sus jacales . . . (p. 8 5 9 )

Despedir: . . . le despidio . . . (p. 9 ^8 ) 209 Despertar: Le desperto una trifulca de

voces . . . (p. 9 1 8 )

Detener: . . . y ya nadie le deten^a.

(p. 868)

. . . Lorenza, sobresaltada, le

detuvo.. (p. 9 1 6 )

Bsperar: Ya les esperaba el comerciante,

con un conac . . . (p. 9 1 2 )

Interrumpir: . . . Lugarda le interrumpio:

--(No sirven las territas . . . I

(p. 9 0 6 )

—El problema del indio, Saturnino,

es el problema de Mexico—le

Interrumpio Pedroza . . .

(p. 907)

Llamar: No tuvo mas remedio el fraile

que llam arles a la paciencla

. . . (p. 8f?8)

Les llam^ y se inform^ de un 210 sinffn de . . . (p. 900 )

. . . Lugarda les llamaba para

tomar el atole . . . (p. 9^7)

Les llamo Esparza . . . (p. 95>1)

Mirar: Don Melquiades le mira con una

sorpresa . . . (p. Qlp8)

Lorenzo le miro y luego mir6 a

Bonifacio . . . (p. 913)

Les miro, entre so n rien te y serio

. . . (p. 971)

Les miro Rendon . . . (p. 987)

Le miraban desde . . . (p. 1000)

. . . le miro . . . (p. 1000)

. . . le miraba maliciosamente

. . . (p. 1002)

Nombrar: . . . y le nombro Presidente de

la Antigua Cofradla de San . . .

(p. 879) 211 O fr: Esparza no le ofa . . . (p. 868)

Le oia. Don Melquiades . . . (p. 999)

P ersegu lr: . . . le persegufa para rematarlo.

(p. 919)

Recriminar: . . . que le recrim inaba con

odio: — Ahora si te perjudicaste

. . ." (p. 919)

Saludar: . . . que hasta le saludo de

mano . . . (p. 865)

. . . se detuvo a saludarles.

(p . 9 W

Salvar: . . . que les salvasen del hambre.

(p. 856) 1 . . . solo un m ilagro pudo

salvarle. (p. 9®0)

S ed u cir: . . . le sedujo . . . la voz de

Ursulo . . . (p. 9 1 0 )

Segu ir: . . . y muchos . . . le sig u iero n .

(p . 856) 212 Le siguio dona Guca . . . (p. 885)

Sorprender; . . . el otomi le sorprendiese

durmiendo . . . (p. 888)

. . . sorprendiendoles en lo

mejor de la copula . . . (p. 897 )

Temer: . . . e l cura Ramirez le (MherM)

temia . . . (p. 868)

Ver: . . . no les vio en sus jacales

(p. 859)

. . . con s6lo verle, las ganas

de ahogarlo . . . (p. 91 ^)

. . . e l medico le vio . . .

(p. 1003)

Unir: . . . la intima amistad que le

unio con su difunto padre.

(p. 88l)

Of the preceding verbs, the following are those which occur with the accusative forms: 213 Group A (usted, uatedes)

Ayudar : 11—Si usted quiere que la ayude

con . . ." (p. 892)

Ver: ". . . con ganas de verlos menos

cieg o s--." (p. 881)

". . . viene de buena fe a verlos

a ustedes . . ." (p. 1003)

". . . no los vuelva a ver jamas."

(p. 887)

Ofr: "Lo he ofdo a usted nada mas porque

. . (p. 958)

Group A ("persons not in direct address")

Ver: ". . . lo van a ver hablando a

todos . . (p. 935)

" Ya los vera borrachos ..."

(p. 938)

"... espero verlos ya en . . ."

(p. 973) "Vayan a v erlo . . . (p. 976)

^Donde anda Gregorio Mendez que

no lo veo?" (p. 990 )

". . . yo lo (el diablo) vi . .

(p. 99D

Group B ( persons not in direct address")

Dejar: . . . la dejo buena y sana . . .

(p. 894)

Lo dejaron en casa . . . (p. 914)

. . . la dejarfa barrigona . . .

(p. 914)

Se habia escapado de donde lo dejo^

Lugarda . . . (p. 918)

Lo dejaron mentando a los finados

. . . (p. 990)

Detener En Tula los detuvieron . . .

(p . 894)

Mirar: La miro Esparza . . . (p. 1006) Oir: . . . Don Melquiades, se inquietaba,

oyendolos. (p. 9&3)

. . . rauchas veces lo habla oido y

no le habfa prestado la atencion

. . . (p. 102)

The statistical count for the pronouns of both types occurring with common verbs in all preceding lists is as follows (All pronouns belong to the category

’’persons not in direct address” unless otherwise indicated.):

Ayudar: le_ (1) / / la (usted) ( 1)

De.iar: les (2) . (1) // (2), la

Detener: le (2) / / los (1)

Mirar: le (5), les (2) / / la (1)

Oiv: le (3) / / lo (1), los (1)

Ver: le (3), les (1) /// lo s (ustedes) (Ij.)

lo (3), los (2)

In G-roup B (’’persons not in direct address'*) it appears that the author has proved to be a lexsta in an apreciable degree. We note that he varies the form of the pronoun in the same sentence:

. . . con solo verle ("him’*)* las ganas

de ahogarlo ("him”) . . . (p. 91 ^)

In th is same group the use of _1® as a feminine referent with the verb temer (. . .e l cura . . . le tem^a . . . (p. 868) shows the possible transference of the dative from the expression tenerle (dative) miedo.

The verb ver followed by the infinitive is found with the following variations:

Group B ("persons not in direct address")

le (masculine) (6)

. . . le vio partir en su . . . (p. 902 )

. . . hasta que le vio desaparecer entre el

gentio . . . (p. 913)

Le vio ganar lo m^s alto de la nopalera 217 . . . (p. 919)

L© vio huir con su pitanza . . . (p. 9^1)

. . . al verle pasar entre . . . (p. 9^8)

Le vieron partir . . . (p. 1006)

la (feminine) (1)

La vio p artir, en silen cio . . . (p. 918)

lo (1)

Lo vieron pasar las perradas . . . (p. 919)

les (2)

Les vio partir Saturnino . . . (p. 92i|)

Les vio marchar, lentamente . . . (p. 92 I4-)

los (1)

. . . los veian correr a caballo . . .

(p. 1008 )

0j(r followed by the infinitive shows the following:

Group A (’’persons not in direct address”)

los (l)

’’Oyenlos subir . . . ” (p. 9 9 0 ) Group B ("persons not in direct address")

le (masculine) (ij.)

. . . que le oye maldecir y condenar a la

mitra . . . (p. 8!j.8)

Le oyo hablar . . . (p. 97&)

Le oyeron hablar . . . (p. 99^)

Le olan hablar . . . (p. 1001)

la (1)

La oia revolverse en la noche . . . (p. 893)

With mlrar plus the infinitive the following are found:

Group B ("persons not in direct address")

le (masculine) (1)

Le miro alejarse en silen cio . . . (p. 913)

la (1)

Mirandola llorar . . . (p. 993)

les (1)

. . . les miro marcharse . . . (p. 99^) In the causative construction with hacep we find the following variations:

Group B

Passive orientation of the infinitive:

. . . 1c ("it") hizo saber por boca de su

administrador, en terminos concisos:

(p. 887)

Group A ("persons not in direct address")

le (masculine) (2)

"... que le hacfa andar bebiendo ..."

(p. 909)

"... nadie le hara rendir su plata . . .

(p. 965)

l e s (2)

"... hagales ver desde el pulpito donde

. . ." (p. 886)

"Hagales ver . . . que ya no se llama . .

(p. 1007) "Hagalos entrar en razon . . ." (p. 997)

Group B (’’persons not in direct address”)

Passive orientation of the Infinitive;

Lo ("him") hlzo conducir a la hacienda, y

a fuerza de inyecciones reacciono • . .

(p. 1003)

lo ("him") (3)

. . . lo hacia dormir . . . (p. 895)

. . . que lo hacifa temblar de frenesi^--.

(p. 991)

. . . manera de hacerlo hablar. (p. 1000)

le (masculine) (5)

. . . le hizo ver que las almas . . .

(p. 879)

Le hac£a cobrar fuerzas . . . (p. 897)

. . . le hicieron ver la sinrazon . • . . . . le hizo girar sobre sf . . . (p. 9 1 9 )

. . . le hizo recular . . . (p. 9^-8)

la (1)

. . .- quiso hacerla hablar. (p. 913)

los (1)

. . . haciendolos realizar jornadas

tremendas . . . (p. 955)

lea (3)

Les hizo volver espaldas . . . (p. 859)

. . . para hacerles ver su espantoso pecado

. . . (p. 875)

. . . tratando de hacerles ver la

inconveniencia . . . (p. 1001)

It is apparent that the author does not concern himself with the correct case of the pronoun to be employed in this construction, except perhaps when the infinitive is passive (accusative form used exclusively)

It is difficult to discern his regard, since he may consider le and les accusative as well as dative, for the pronoun. The feminine, however, shows that in that specific instance he considered the pronoun as accusative.

De.iar followed by the infinitive shows the following orientation:

Group A ("persons not in direct address")

los (1)

. .no los dejo entrar." (p. 936 )

Group B ("persons not in direct address")

lo (1)

. . . resolvieron dejarlo despabilarse.

(p. 915)

los ("them" / human beings) (1)

. . . dejarlos trabajar a su arbitrio

. . . (p. lOOij.)

The one example with obligar followed by the in fin itiv e with which a pronoun object is found shows le (“him”): . . . j le obllgo a desembuchar. (p. 1000).

With ensenar followed by the infinitive, the author chooses to use les (”themn / human beings):

”... para que les ensene a le e r . . . n (p. 99®). NOVEL #21*. 2Q La camada 7

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 7 (le) 3 (30$)

Persons notin direct address 71 (le ) 8 (10.1$)

Animals 0

Things 68

Group B Usted, ustedes 0

Persons not in direct address 87 (le ) 37 (2 9 . 8 $) Animals 0

Things 71

Overall percentage of lefsmo: 13.6$

In one example of the three uses of le^ referring to usted, we find that the speaker uses both le and lo

in speaking to the same person: "--OJala que el

Inspector General se declda por nombrarle a Ud.

^Quevedo y Zubleta, Salvador. La camada. Mexico: Librerfa de Ch. Bouret, 1912. p ractlb an te de numero . • • A s i me .1 orara su aueldo

• • • Lo he recomendado a IJd. eon el, de preferencla a

C arrllea . . ." (p . 6 8 ).

The three occurrencea of le as referents to usted are found with the following verbs:

M oleatar; ”... vengo a molestarle

. . (p. 130)

Nombrar: "... por nombrarle a Ud.

practicante . . . (p. 68)

Traer: "— dQue le trae por aqu£,

amigo?" (p. 58)

The e ig h t occurrences of le (Group A, "persons not in direct address") refer to "him" and are found with the following verbs;

A b u rrlr: "Los e lo g io s le aburren . . ."

(p. 285)

D ls t r a e r : "... los ataquea le distraen

. . ." (p. 285) Llamar: ”Conque tengo que llamarle

. . . ” (p. 2i|.0)

Tocar: ”No le toquen.” (p. 472)

Ver: ”. . . apenas le hemoa vlato

y hablado . . . ” (p. 6l)

MSi voy a verle . . . ” (p. 138)

", , , voy a verle acompanado

de algun . . .” (p. ij-75)

”Vamos a v e r l e .” (p. ij.76)

In Group B ’’persons not In direct address”, there are thirty-seven occurrences of le as referents to

”hlm” occurring with the following verbs:

A s a lta r : ILe asaltaban incllnaciones

a . . .? (p. 70)

Un vago deseo le asaltaba de

que . . . (p. 260)

Atormentar: . . . la palabra que le

atormentaba . . . (p. 14-3 4 ) 22? Buaear; A buscarle fue . . . (p. 157)

Curart . . . que le curar^a de la

vagancia. (p.

Espantart . . . le espanto la posibilldad

. . . (p. ij.57)

Esperar: . . . le esperaba en ”el

D i s t r it o ” , (p. 129)

. . . lo s golp es . . . que le

esperaban . . . (p. 273)

Interrogar; . . . le habian interrogado

en igual o peor sentido . • •

(p. 2V7)

Le interrogo con interes . . .

(p. 278)

Interrumplr: . . . le interrunrpio requiriendo

su presencia en . • .

(p. lj-2)

--No tanto, companerito, le interrumplo el otro . . .

(p. 87)

Irritar: • . . esta Idea refleja le

irritaba . . . (p. 275)

Le irritaban aquellos pujos

. . . (p. 480 )

Llamar: . . . le llamo aparte • . •

(p. 58)

• . . una junta . . . a que

. . . le hab^a llamado

. . . (p. 205)

Llevar: . . . le llevaban a revanchas

eroticas . . . (p. 222)

. . . la curiosidad le llevaba

cerca de ella . . . (p. 238 )

Su in s tin to . • . le lle v a b a

a la cantina . . . (p. 366)

M irar: . . . le miro de reojo . . . 229 (p. 82)

. . . el fraile le miro con

asombro . . . (p. 159 )

. . . el gran indio le miraba

severamente . . . (p. J4.3I4.)

R ecibir: . . . le recibio encendiendo

un cigarrito . . . (p. 77)

• . • le recibi^ Lino con

. . . (p. 86 )

• . • le recibio tecleando

. . . (p. 101)

Reconocer; . . . reconociendole a su

v e z . (p. 6 3 )

Reconfortar: • . . los molletes le reconfortaron

. . . (p. Ij.3^)

Saludar: Quienes as^ le saludaban . • •

(p. 31*-)

S eg u lr: . . . no se apresuro . . . a 230 seguirle . . . (p. 45°)

Someter: . . . le some tie r a a

tentacion . . . (p. 432)

T entar: Ese idilio no le tentaba

. . . (p. 37)

T ocar: Le tocaron el ebrio y la

histerica . . . (p. 64)

V er: Le hab^a visto de civil,

r e lu c ie n te de sedas . . •

(p. 12)

. . . le vic£ ocupado . . .

(p. 208)

Levantose este al verle . . •

(p. 319)

Prometio al preso venirle a

ver de nuevo. (p. 436)

V is it o r : . . . le visitaba en la

manana . . . (p. 274) Of the verbs in the three preceding lists, only the following are also found used with the standard accusative forms:

Group A (u sted , u s te d e s )

Esperar: ”Que lo espera el Gobernador.”

(p. 138)

”... Velazquez los espera a Ud.

y al Dr. Sergio.” (p. 298 )

Llamar: ”. . . y lo he llamado a Ud.

para que . . .” (p. ij-5 )

Group A (”persons not in direct address”)

Mirar: ’’--MjCralal Que vayas a la

Tlaxpana, que te espera Don

Antoni” (p. 213>)

Llevar: ". . .la llevaron al hospital

. . . ” (p. 60 )

”. • . lo llevaron a su domicilio.

(p. 136) ”. • . que lo lleven a su casa.”

(p. llj.2 )

Reconocer; ’’Cuando lo reconoci6 e l Juez

estab a . . . ” (p. 4 I-6O)

Group B (’’persons not in d ir e c t address” )

Buscar: . . . la buscaba como companera

. . . (p. 3^7)

L la m a r : . • . lo llamaba a consulta.

(p. 311)

Llevar: En vez de llevarla . . . la dej 6

recostada . . . (p. ij.6 )

. . discurrio llevarla . . . a

casa del Dr. Hermundio . • .

(p. 212)

Hasta la llevo al colmo de la

sugestion despierta . . •

(p. 215)

. . d el ob jeto que lo s llev a b a

a la Secretaria. (p. 250) . . . lo llevaron al cuarto de

guardia . . . (p. 371)

• • . derecho de llevarlo al

Municipal . . . (p. 371)

. . . la curiosidad que all£ lo

habfa llevado . . . (p. I4.3 6 )

Mlrar; Venfa contenta de escapar al

retrato que la miraba . . •

(p. 112)

Reconocer: El medico fu£ a reconocerlo . • •

(p. 3l+2 )

The schematic presentation of those verbs which occur with both kinds of objects referring to human beings (usted indicated) is as follows:

Esperar: le (2) // lo (1), los (1)

Llamar: le (3) // lo (Ud.) (1), lo (l)

Llevar: le (3) // lo (^)» los (l), l a (ij.)

Mlrar: le (3) // la (2) Reconocer: le (1) // Ip (2)

The verb ver followed by the infinitive occurs only three times with le^ ("him") (2 ) and lo (’’him”)

(1) (Group B ):

le

. . . viendole ir y venir . . . (p. 196 )

Vi^ndole entrar, sintio . . . (p. 300)

lo

• • . al verlo venir a pasos lentos . . .

(p. 19)

With the verb hacer in the causative construction in Group A we fin d ] £ (u s te d ) (1), le ("him") (1), lo

("him” ) (1), los ("them” / human beings) (1), and le s

(”them" / human b e in g s, fem inine) (1):

lo (u s te d )

". . . si lo he hecho venir aqui . . (p.

le ("him”)

"Manana le hare venir.” (p. 269 )

lo ("him") 235 ”. . . lo hizo vacilar . . ." (p. 369 )

lo s ("them" / human beings)

”... mejor que hacerles absorver jTsicJ la

nicotina bajo los fresnos • . (p. 187 )

In Group A the only la occurs in the two examples in the causative construction when the infinitive has passive orientation show la (“her”):

”A la parterita acusada, la hice soltar

. . ." (p. 51)

” . . . si que quisiera hacerla declarar loca

. . (p. 129)

In Group B when the I n f in it iv e has a c tiv e o r ie n ta tio n we find le (’’him”) (6 ) , lo (”him”) 1 ( ), la ("her”)

(1 ), and lo s ("them" / human b ein gs) (1 ):

le ("him")

. . . le hizo notar que . • . (p. 9 7 )

• • . le hacfan parecer la personifIcacion

viva del tifo . . . (p. 218)

. . . que le hizo buscar refugio bajo . . • 236 (p . 214-1)

. . . le hizo observar las . . . convulsiones

. . . (p. U-06)

. . . le hizo dlsparar una respuesta . . .

(p. ij.19)

. . . le hizo pensar en que . • . (p. i+28)

la ("hep” )

. . . la hace pasar a la Secclon medica

. . . (p. 190 )

• . . haciendola sentarse al borde de . . •

(p. 203)

• . . un nombre que la hizo estrem eeer. (p. 233)

. . . la hizo sentarse frente a la maquina

. . . (p. 314-lj-)

. . . la hizo solozarse en . . . (p. 1+9 2 )

los ("them” / human beings)

. . . como lo s hace barrer . . . cargar

bultos . . . (p. 376)

The only example in which lo_ occurs shows that the Infinitive is to be taken as passive,

lo ("him”)

. . • gra cla s a l mledo que a sa lto a Morones

de renunciar a la risa digestlva para

hacerlo aprehender. (p. l 6f>)

The only occurrences of de.jar followed by the infinitive show le ("him”) (1 ), la ("her") (1 ) , and la

(la bola) (1 ):

le ('’him” )

"Pues a ese dejarle ir." (p. 3i+0)

la ( "her” )

”—Yo no la querJLa dejar salir sin ...”

(p. 77)

la (la bola)

”... tiro la bola y la deja rodar ...”

(p. 80)

Impulsar (Group B) followed by a plus the infinitive shows le (”hlm”) 1 ( ) and l a ("her” ) (1 ): 238 le (11 him”)

. . . que le impulsaba a un£rsele en la

lngrata tarea . . . (p. 66)

la ("her” )

. . . la impulso a hacer jugar la Have de

la luz . . . (p. 2l|2 )

The only example of forzar followed by a plus the

I n f in it iv e (Group B) shows l £ (”him") (1):

La curlosidad le indujo a retenerla. (p.238 )

The impersonal active shows the combinations ae Lb

(’’him”) (3 ) and se lea ("them" / human b ein g s) (1 ) when the o b je cts are persons (Group A and B). The

only accusative form which occurs is in the combination

se la (1 ) when la refers to the inanimate indumentaria:

Se le ("him")

Group A

”... por qu£ le y se le va a juzgar

. . (p. 375) Group B

. , , se le declara afllado en la secta

de ”los insociables". (p. 179 )

. . . no se le vio sonreir ni . * . (p. 357) se les ("them” / human beings)

Group A

. . se les sepulte a la trompa talega?”

(p. 262) se la (lndumentarla)

Group B

Se la hizo avanzar del sombrero . . . al

kepi . . . (p. I4.62 ) NOVEL #2£

La gavlota verde^

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 1). ^ ^ 3 ^3 .9 ^)

Persons notin directaddress 31 (le) 13 (29.5#)

Animals 0

Things 1)2 (le) 1 (2.3#)

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0 Persons not in direct address 191). (le / les.) 60 (23 .6#)

Animals 0 Things 69

Overall percentage of lefsmo: 18.5#

The three examples of le / les used as referents for usted are as follows:

le (masculine) (1)

”... que le buscan a usted . • ." (p. l68)

le (feminine) (1)

3®Castano, Rosa de. La gaviota verde. Mexico: Edlclones Botas, 1931)-. ". . . le fasclna llevar a cabo hazafias

inauditas * . ." (p. 8)

le s (1)

"Por mi parte les acompariarfa . . (p. 67)

These are the only occurrences in which these verbs are found with pronoun objects referring to usted / ustedes.

For the category "persons not in direct address" in both Group A (13) and Group B (60), the two groups are presented in a combined form (73) J each group, however, is marked by A or B. The thirteen examples in Group A are all masculine referents; the sixty-one occurrences of le / les in Group B are divided as follows: Le (masculine) (lf7)j 1© (feminine) (If); les (masculine) (6); and les (feminine) (3). The feminine referents alone are indicated.

Following this list of examples, the proportions will be presented for each individual verb in a schematic fashion. This schematic form will indicate the group to which the pronouns belong and the feminine will be marked accordingly, Les is indicated by an asterisk.

A batir: B . . . le abatfa cortandole toda

iniciativa . . . (p. 160)

Abofe ta r ; B • • . ganas de abofetarle . • .

(p. 13)

Abrazar: B . . . le abrazaba . . . (p. lip.)

B . . . le habia abrasado • . •

(p. lij.5)

Absolver; A ”. • .no perdonar ni absolverle

antes de . . ." (p. 108 )

Advertir: B Aquella rubia . . . le habfa

afectado . * . (p. 153)

A gasajar: B . . . las hijas . . . que le

agasajaban . . . (p, 27 )

Aguardar: B Era Sara que le aguardaba • , •

(p. 179)

Alentar: B . . . le alentaba siempre # • • 2l+3 (p. 8 8 )

Amar: B . . . que le ama a el . . .

(p. 52)

B . . . sentia que le amaba . . .

(p. 73)

A "Me divierte . . . pero amarle

. . ." (p. 101)

A ”Yo no le amo • • ." (p. 101)

B . . • le habia amado a 61

. . . (p. ll+6)

Amenazar: ■»B (feminine) . • • grit

muchachos amenazandoles • . •

(P. 49)

A auatar: ■k-B (feminine) . . . no les asusta

un divorciado. (p, 1+0)

Ajudar: B El labriego ayudabale en su

. . . (p. 1+7)

B esar: B • . • le abrazaba y le besaba zkb • • • (p • li-j-1 )

Conocer: A nYo le conozco . • ♦ " (p. 9^)

Desarmar: B . . . le habfan desarmado

completamente . . . (p. 108)

Desconcertar: B . . . le desconcertaba . . .

(p. 161)

Desesperar: B . . . le desesperaba a Juan

ver a Lily . . . (p. f?6)

Despreclar: B . . . despreciandole y tratando

de . . . (p. 127)

D esp ed lr: B . . . le despidieron . . . (p. l6l)

D lv e r t lr : B Le divertfa pensar . . . en

. . . (p. 26)

Embargar: B . . . el goce . . . que le

embargaba. (p. 98 )

E ncantar: B . . . encantabale mirar a . . .

(p. k$)

Entus iasmar: B . . . a Juan le entusiasmaban 2^5 . . . (p. 45)

Eseuchar: 5 . . . ella escuchabale encantada.

(p. 88)

B . . . al escucharle le tomaria

por . . . (p. 109 )

Esperar t B . . . dificultades que le

esperaban. (p. 183)

E spantar: #B (feminine) . . . a sus amigas

. . . les espantaba la idea de

. . . (p. 20)

B (feminine) . . . a Lily le

espantaba esta mujer . • .

(p. 6l)

Felicifcar: B . . . y el les felicito . • .

(p« Mj-)

Plechars A ”jLe has flechadoi le has fleehado

. . . (p. 98)

Favorecer: B . . . le habian favorecido • . • 21+6 (p . li+7)

Increpar: B . • • Mrs• Pol le increpaba

duramente. (p. 189 )

Intrlgar; *B . . . les intrigo . . . (p. l68)

Juntar: *B . . . les habfa juntado para

luego separarlos . . . (p. li+7)

Lacerar: B . , . como agujas que le

laceraban dulcemente. (p. 118 )

Librar: B . . . que le librara del . * .

deber . . . (p. 92 )

Llamar: In all three of the following

examples the verb has the meaning

of ”to telephone”.

A "Llamele a ml nombre. (p. 6)

A 11. . . le llamare para que

est£ listo . . .” (p. ll+)

B . . . el padre • . . le habfa

llamado * • . (p. 18 ) 21+7 Mirar: B . . . le mirasen con recelo

. . . {p. 2l+)

B . . . que le miraba con el

odio mas terrible . . . (p. i|9)

■»B L ily les miro a ambos . . .

(p. 77)

A ’’Mfrale Lily . . .” (p. 98 )

A M. . . esperanzas de mirarle

. . ." (p. 120)

*B . . . acostumbrado a mirarles

juntos . . . (p. 123)

Mortificar: B (feminine) No le mortified

. . . este pensamiento • . •

(P. 92)

O bservar: *B . . . les habia estado observando

. . . (p. 103)

Obtener: B . . . deseoso de obtenerle . . .

(p. 87) 2J4.8 O fr: B • . . per> Lily no le ofa . . .

(p. 50)

P er se g u lr : B . . . le perseguirfa judlcialmente

. . . (p. 136)

Querer: A (”to love”) T'. . . no le quiero

. . ." (p. 127)

R econocer: B . . . le habfa reconocido

. . . (p. lOlj.)

#B . . . a pesar de reconocerles

autores . . . (p. l\\$)

Rodear: B . . . que le rodearon . . .

(p* 9)

B . . ♦ todo cuanto le rodeaba

. . . (p. 151)

Satlsfacer: B . . . le sa tisfa c fa grandemente

. . . (p. 8ij.)

S e d u cir: B (feminine) . . . que le seducfa

y la arrastraba . . . (p. 9) S eg u lr: B (feminine) . . . le sigue una

doncella . . . (p. 5)

B . . . s e pegaba a Juan

siguiendole para aalir . • .

(p. 73)

B . . . el senor Albornoz le

segufa . . . (p. 173)

Sum erglr: B . . . aquellos reproches . . •

le surmergian en un mar de

. . . (p. 108)

Tener: B Ella le habfa tenido siempre a

su lado . . . (p. 59)

A . . a l pobre le tiene anonadado

. . . (p. 188 )

Tornar: B . . . le tomaria por un

desequilibrado . . . (p. 109 )

Ver: A ”. • . solo le habia visto

dos veces . . (p. 102) w / 250 A . . . y ahora le vera otra vez

. . (p. 102)

B • • • le vio de nuevo . . .

(p. 132)

The following list contains the proportions for the pronouns of both classes (le / les and lo / los / la / las) as they are found with the following verbs:

Amenazar: les (feminine) (1) // la (A) (1)

/ la (B) (1)

Ayudar: le (1) // la (B) 1)

Conocer: le (1) // lo (B) 1)

Despreciar: le (1) // la (B) 1)

D esp ed ir: le (1) // la (B) 1)

Escuchar: le (2) // la (B) 1)

P e l i c i t a r : le s (1) / / lo (B) (1)

M irar: le (J^), le s (2) / / lo (B) (2 ),

la (B) (5)

M o r tlflc a r; le (feminine) (1) / / lo (B) (1 ),

la (B) (1) o £ r : le (1) // lo (B) (1 ), la (£) (4)

Querer: le (1) // lo (A) (1 ), la (B) (1)

Rodear: le (2) // la < * ) (1)

Tener: le (2) // la (B) (2)

V er: le (3) // lo (A) (2), la (A) (3);

lo (B) (1 ), la (B) (10)

The only example of le referring to an abstract noun shows the possible analogy of temer with tener mledo a: w. . . no Le temo a la vida.11 (p. 68 ) •

With the verb o£r followed by the infinitive the pronoun objects show the following orientation:

la ("her") (3)

Cuando la o£a lamentarse . . . (p» 22)

• . • se asusto al oirla decir que . . •

(p. 101)

. . . s6lo la o£a hablar de su infelicidad

• • • (p • 156)

le ("him") (if) Lily se sorprendio de o^rle hablar as^.

(p. k°)

• • . le oia hablar de ideales . . . (p. 89 )

. . . le oyo . • . invitar a Lily Ann a

dar un paseo . . . (p. 110)

A1 ofrle hablar tan econi&sticamente de

. . . (p. 130)

In the causative construction with hacer we find the following examples:

le ("her") (k)

. . . trataban de hacerle descansar • . .

(p. W

. . . que le habfa hecho concebir aquellos

. . . libros . . . (p. 63)

. . . le hizo conocer /slcj el motivo de su

vlaje . . . (p. 93)

. . . sentimiento, que le hacfa entrever las

venturas sonadas . . . (pp. ll!j.-5) 253 la ("her") (llO

. . . la hace correr a contestar. (p. 6 )

. . . haciendola padecer indeciblemente•

(p. 13)

. . . para hacerla "entrar en razon" • » .

(p. 20)

. » . eate . . . sueno hizola despertar

. . . (p. 1^9)

. . • como la hicieron sufrlr . . • (p. 53)

. . . la hicieron decidirse . . . a confiar

la nina a su madre . . • (p. 67)

Por hacerla rabiar . . . (p. 92)

• . . querfa hacerla creer que . . . (p. 95)

. . . hacerla olvidar sus tristezas . . .

(p. 113)

. . . la hizo conocer su pasado compromiso

con . . . (p. 129)

. . . haciendola llorar . . . (p. 1I4.I) . . . la hicieron tomar medicinas . . .

(p . li+3)

• . . haciendola remontarse al clelo . • .

(pp. 157-8)

. . . le pelaron las unas y la hicieron

vomitarse las anginas . . • (pp. 171- 2 ) le ("him") (6 )

. . . le hizo promet^rselo . . . (p. 98 )

. . . antes de hacerle sufrir la pentencia

/s lc 7 . . . (p. 108 )

• . . haciendole perder la nocion . . .

(p. I 2I4.)

. • . le hizo comunicarle la causa . . .

(p . 1 3 3 )

• • . le hacfa sufrir interiormente. (p. 176) lo ("him”) (2 )

. . . en hacerlo caer en sus redes, (p. 9 )

. . . haciendolo conocer el tesoro. (p. l 6l) 5 les (’’them" / human beings) (1 )

. . . irrefutables pruebas les hicieron

recogerla inmediatamente . . . (p. 138)

With the verb dejar followed by the infinitive the orientation of the object pronoun is as follows:

le ("him") (2)

. . . Jose Luis no le dejo terminar . • .

(p . lOij.)

. • . no le dejaba imaginarse dueno . • •

(p. H I )

la ("her") (5)

. . . el medico la dejaba hacer . . .

(p. 50)

. . . sin dejarla seguir adelante . . .

(p. 76)

. . . no la dejo acompahar a nadie . . •

(p . 10l+)

. . . no la dejaban correr nl jugar . . .

(p. lip.) . . . no la dejaba creer que . . . afanaban

ellos . . . (p. 176-7)

The combinations of pronoun objects in the impersonal active construction are as follows:

se le ("him”) (2)

• . . se le vela con . . . (p. 18)

. . . s i se le comparaba con aquellos hombres

. . . (P • )

se le ("her") (3)

. . . se le desteto . . . (p. 52)

. . . que se le bautizara en Boston . . .

(p. 63)

. . • se le llam arla Jane . . . (p. 6 3 )

se las ("them" / human beings) (1)

Group A

. .no creo que a las mujeres se las

pueda comprender jam^s." (p. 108)

The two examples of lalsmo (perhaps typographical errors) are seen in the following examples

. . . no conseguian interesarla

(p. 76)

. . volvio a decirla su nombre y le ofrecio

acompanarla . . . (p. 78 ) 2£8 NOVEL #26 31 La patrla perdlda^

Direct Object Single Pronouns

Group A

Usted, ustedes 1

Persons notIn direct address 12 (le / les) £ (2 9 .W) Animals 0 (les) 1 (100$)

Things I4.3

Group B

Usted, ustedes 0 Persons 110 (le / le s ) 119 ( 5 1 .# ) Animals 1

Things li+3

Overall percentage of lefsmo: 29*3$

In Group A, the two examples of le and les referring to usted and ustedes are found with the following verbs:

^Torres, Teodoro. La patria perdlda. Mexico: Ediciones Botas, 1935. Ayudar: ”... puede ayudarles . . . cuando

eaten ustedes . . ." (p. 202)

Vert "No le vf . . ." (p. 265)

These two verbs do not occur elsewhere with le^ or les as referents to U3ted and ustedes in Group A.

In the category, "persons not In direct address", le and les occur with the following verbs In Group A:

Conocer: "Le ("him") conocio usted . . .?"

(p. 267)

Detener: "... pudiendo detenerles en . . ."

(p. 221)

Esperar: ". * .e l porvenir que les espera

. . ." (p. 189)

Ver: "... hace tantos anos que no les

veol" (p. 190 )

"dPor que no le ves?" (p. 37^)

Of the verbs in the preceding group, only ver appears with the accusative—la ("her") (2): Ver: ”. . . la vi el sabado . . (p. 26)

. hasta que la vean . .

(p. 32)

Thus in Group A, ’'persons not in direct address”, the occurrences of deviation with ver are les (1) and la (2)*

The one example of les referring to an animal is found in the following in Group A:

Ver: ”Nos parecemos un poco a los

avestruces que ocultan la cabeza

en la tierra para no ver al

cazador, creyendo que asf el

cazador no les ve a ellos." (p. 370)

The one hundred nineteen examples of le and les referring to human beings (only the feminine indicated)

are found with the verbs in the following list; the

asterisk indicates that the verb also occurs with the

standard accusative form: 261 Group B

Abrazart . . . para abrazarle. (p. 379 )

Acechar: . . . por donde lea acecha el

desorden. (p. 206)

C Acometer: . . . e l miedo que le acometiera

al emprender e l viaje . . .

(p. ll+9)

Aoomodar#: . . . donde mejor lea acomodaba

. . . (p. 269)

Acompanar; . . . alslandoae del mundo por

acompaftarle . . . (p. 13)

. . . si le acompanara la mujer

de su vida . . . (p. 261)

Acompanabale . . . tres viajeros

. . . (p. 323)

Acongojar: Acongojabales . . . el desconocimiento

del idioma . . . (p. 198 )

Acuaar: . . . le acusaba de vagancia 262 . . . (p. llj.2 )

Agotar: . . . sensaciones que le agotaron

. . . (p. 308 )

Aguardars . . . los palsanos que les

aguardaban . . . (p. 80 )

Amenazar*: . . . le amenazaba la . . .

amante? (p. 4 II4.)

. . . ahora que le amenazaba

aquella . . . pobreza . . .

(p. lij.8 )

A traer: . . . los . . . senderos del

panteon que le atrala con su

infinita paz . . . (p. 2I4.3 )

. . . no le (Mher") atra^a

con algtin interes . . .

(p. 133)

. . . que le atrajo como iman

. . . (p. 376) 2 6 3 A rrancar: . . • que les arrancara de su

condici6n . . . (p. 365)

A rrastrar: . . . que le arrastraba . • •

al verde rincon . . . (p. 13)

. . . donde le arrastraba el

afan de quedarse . . . (p. 323)

A tar: . . . que les ataba a la tlerra

. . . (p. 108)

Ayudar: • . . nadle que quisiera

ayudarles . . . (p. 220)

Conocer: . . . todo el raundo le conocfa

. . . (p. 23)

. . . curlosidad de conocerle

. . . (p. 181)

. . . en que le conoclo . . .

(p. 320)

Dejartt: . . . Luis le dejo en la flnca

. . . (p. 319) 26q. Deaeaperar: . . . una mudez que le deseaperaba

. . . (p. 176)

De ap ed ir: . . . deapuea de acomparlar al

medico . . . de despedirle

• . . (p. 6)

Desnaturalizar: . . . lea desnaturalizan

. . . (p. 372)

De apart ar*-: Le despertaba ese ritmo . . •

(p. 252)

D esterra r: . . . que lea deaterraba . . .

(p. 171*)

Detener: . . • pudiendo detenerlea . • •

(p. 221)

D iv e r tir : . . . porque le divert{an . . •

(p. 271)

Echar: . . . a deaalojar a quienea lea

habfa echado. (p. 136)

Encaminar: . . . le encamine por la aenda menos soflada. (p. 205)

Encantar: . . . cuentos que . . . le

encantaba oir. (p. 270)

Encontrar#: . • . le encontro posefdo de

• • • (p • )

Entrlstecer: . . . remediar las miserias

que le entristeci(an. (p. 203)

Escuchar: Alfaro le escuchaba divertido.

(p. 159)

Su amigo le escuchaba con

interes . . . (p. 159)

• . . encontrar alguno que

les escuchara. (p. 202)

E sperar#: • . . de lo que les espera . . .

(p. 80)

. . . la juventud . . . que

les esperaba. (p. 200)

• • • no sabe que le espera alii . . . (p. 257)

• . . e l taimado chofer 1©

esperaba. (p. 285 )

• • . que le habia eaperado

. . . (p. 288 )

E a t r u j a r : . • . unos brazos que le

e8 trujaran . . . (p. 26I4.)

H a la g a r : Halagabale el /ilcj italiano

aaber de la fuerza de

Musaolini . . . (p. 12i^)

H e r i r : . . . para herirle . . •

(p. 173)

In v a d ir: Le invadio un desconocldo

blenestar . . . (p. 2ip.)

I n ic ia r : • . . a la escuela . . . donde

lea inician en eate otro

m lsterlo . . . (p. 169 )

In q u le ta r; . • . para no inquietarle. (p. 267 Inundar: . . . la delectacion que le

inundaba . . . (p. 289 )

Invadir: Le invadio . . . un sopor

. . . (p. 236)

I r r i t a r : . . . n o perd^a ocasid>n de

irritarle para que repitiera

. . . (p. 83 )

Llamar*-: • . . y como si le llamara

hasta el fondo . • . (p. 8)

• . . de otra mujer que le

llamaba . • . (p. 10)

. . . la enferma le llamo con

su vocesita . . . (p. 18)

• . .les llama con una clarinada

. . , (p. 85)

. . . les llamaban "spanish

men" . . . (p. 139)

. . . les llamarian los repatriados . . . (p. 211)

• • • las exigencias que le

llamaban . . . (p. 379)

L len ar: Todo le (Mhern) llenaba de

a le g r fa . . . (p. 3lf)

. • • que le llenara de gloria.

(p. 157)

. • . les llenaba de timidez

. . . (p. 198)

Llevartf: . . . a donde les habfa llevado

la mano del destlno. (p. 269 )

Matar: . • • les mato la alegria.

(p. 59)

Mantener: . . . que antano les mantuvieron

lejos de . . . (p. 3lj4)

. . . que les mantenfa sujetos.

(p. 363)

MIrar: • . . le mlraban con envldla.

(p. 231) 269 Le m lr 6 la anciana . . .

(p. 2^8)

Le miro el guardia . . •

(p. 351)

Molestar*: . . . les molestaba con el

menor motivo . . . (p. ll|8)

• . le molestaban ya las

ciudades . . . (p. 2J|ij.)

. . a quien le molestaban

• . . (p. 305)

Mover: • . . el objeto que le mueve.

(p. lt-5)

Obsesionar: . . . que les ohsesionaba.

(p. 3^5)

0 fen d er: . . porque le habrfan ofendido

. . . (p. 102) o i r : . . . para que le oyera . . .

(p. 373) 270 Oprlmlr: . . . le oprimfa el pecho por

aquel d isc u r r ir entre tumbas

. . . (p. 267)

P er se g u lr : . . . la avalancha de quejas

que le persegufa . . . (p. 201)

. . . si alguien le persiguiera

. . . (p. 205)

P o seer: Le posefa una vaga lnquietud

. . . (p. 57)

Preocupar: Le recibieron en esta ribera

. . . (p. 1 6 8 )

• . . recibieronle con un mudo

g esto . . . (p. 310)

R econocer: . . . sin reconocerle con una

frialdad . . . (p. 313)

Redimir-fc: . . . le habfa redimido del

pecado . . . (p. 102)

Repatrlar: . • . que les repatriaran . . •

(p. 198) 271 Repugnar: • . . todo le repugnaba . . .

(p. 3l*.l)

Rodear: . . • entre lo s m il que le

rodean . . . (p. ij.5)

. • . lo s o b jeto s que le s

rodean . . . (p. llj-7)

• . . multitud que le rodeaba

. . . (p. 218)

. • . que les rodeaba. (p. 3^7)

S acar-fc: Le saco de su enslmlsmamlento

. . . (p. 97)

Les sacaba de la rutlna . * •

(p. I l l )

• . . sacarle . . . del abandono

. . . (p. 2i|£)

S e d u cir: Le sedujo la proposicion . . .

(p. 272)

Separar: . . . la barrera que les separaba 272 . . . (p. 3 6 3 )

Soportar: . . . que les soportaban.

(p. 331)

Sorprender*-: • . . no le sorprendio, pues,

a Luis . . . (p. 157)

Les habfa sorprendido el

'’desastre*1 . . . (p. 190 )

Le sorprendio el suerio . . .

(p. 325)

Subyugar: . . . del baile que le subyugaba

. . . (p. 123)

Temer: . . . al que le temia . . •

(p. 115)

T entar: . . . pues no le tentaba * . •

(p. 5k)

T ocar: . • . como si le hubiera toeado

una corriente el^ctrica.

(p. 62) Tornar: • . . tornarles impenetrables

y frfos• (p. 2 7 )

. . . le tornaran desconflado

. . . (p. 99)

Tranquillzar: . . . el rector le tranquilizo

. . . (p. 377)

Uni for mar: . . . e l con tacto . . . le s

hab{a uniformado . . . (p. 23 )

. . • reprlmir una sonrlaa

al verle. (p. 15^)

• • . v e r le dueno de aq u ella

raaquina . . . (p. 15>7)

. . . vien d ole sentado . . .

(p. 261+)

• . . viendole callado . . .

(p. 368 )

. . . verle a todo trance • . • 27k Visliar» : le vigllaba con el

rablllo del ojo* (p. 366)

V olver: . como si el camlnar entre

sombras les volviera desconfiados.

(p. 225)

le volvfa teraeroso.

(p. 2k2)

Only those verbs of the above group marked with an

asterisk also occur with the etymologically correct

a ccu sa tiv e form s. The s p e c if ic o b ject and the number

of occurrences w ill be indicated in the following

statistical representation in which the occurrences

of both forms of objects are compared. The examples represent "persons not in direct address”, group B.

Acomodar: les (1) / los (1)

Amenazar: le (2) / la (1)

D ejar: le (1) / la (]+), lo s (1)

Despertar: le (1) / los (1) 275 Encontrar: le (1) / la (1)

Esperar: le (3), les (2) / lo (1)

Llamar: le (k), les (3) / la (2)

les los . , Llevar: . (1) / lo .

Molestar: le (2), les (1) / la (3)

R eciblr: le (2), les (1) / lo (1), la (1)

Redimir: le (1) / IS. (1)

Sacar: le (2), lea (1) / lo (1)

Sorprender: le (2), le3 (1) / lo (1)

Ver: le (6) / lo (k),, los (1), la (10)

V ig ila r: le (1) / lo (1)

The verb ver followed by the Infinitive shows the following: le (MhimM) (3), la ("her") (iO, la ("it”)

(1), lo (Mexico) (I)*

Group B

le ("him") (3)

. . . a la tierra que le vio nacer . . .

(p. 31) ' 276 Le habia visto 3 ubir al pat^bulo . . *

(p. 83)

. . . al verle dirigirse a la eaealinata

. . . (p. 277)

la ("her") (if)

. • . porque la veia sufrlr . . . (p. 21)

Este la velfa hablar . . . (p. 9 6 )

. . . acudian a verla bajar del coche

. . . (p. 109)

. . . la vio palidecer . . . (p. 132)

la ("it") (1)

. . . para verla salir, letra por letra.

(p. nk)

lo (Mexico) (l)

• • . lo viera transmutarse poco a poco

. . . (p. 332)

The verb oir followed by the infinitive shows le

(’’him") (if) and la ("her") (2 ): Group A

la (1)

". • .la olras suspirar . . .w (p. 171)

Group B

la (1)

. . . la o ia . llamar al ’’gringuito ...”

(p. 21)

l e (ij.)

. . . oyendole contar sua aventuras . . .

(p. 3i|-)

Oyendole hablar, se advlnaba . . . (p. 3£)

. . . oirle hablar era corao volver a ver

. . . (p. 8l)

. . . se divertian oyendole hablar. (p. 89 )

The verb hacer in the causative construction shows the following orientation of the pronoun objects: le ('’him”) (12), lo ("him") (1), les ("them” / human beings) (7), la ("her”) (2), and (la cabellera) (1). Group B

le (12 )

. . . para hacerle desear . . . un poco

. . . (p. 5l)

. . • le hacia recordar y desear . • .

las alegrias . . . (p. 52 )

. . . l e hab^an hecho sublr . . . (p. 8 I4.)

. . . problems . . . que . . . acaba de

hacerle olvldar . . . (p. 85 )

• . . le hac£a devolver la cabeza al sitlo

« • • (p • 2ij.3 )

. . . le h izo notar . . . que (p. 28ij.)

. . . le hizo saber a Luis . . . (p. 285)

. . . que le hacia sacar consecuencias

. . • (p • 32!).)

Le habia hecho caminar enormes distancias

. . . (p • 32JL|.)

Le hizo temblar un poco . . . (p. 327) 279 . . . hacerle salir de nuevo . . . (p. 379) lo (1)

. . . bacerlo camblar de ideas . . . (p. 36l)

le s (7)

. . . les hizo saber del . . . (p. 43)

. . . les hiciera variar todos sus . . .

(p. 46)

. . . les hacia recordar su condicion

. . . (p. 76)

. . . que les hiciera volar, en el caballo

de . . . (p. 174)

• • . les hacia desear . . . la olvidada

tierra . . . (p. 219 )

. * . les habl^a hecho salir . . . de los

Estados Unidos. (p. 212)

. • . les hicieron perder el caracter . . .

(p. 372)

la (2) 280 . . . la hieieron prorrumpir en

exclamaciones . . . (p. i}.6)

. . . la hacia temblar . . . (p. 312)

la (la cabellera) (1)

. . . la hac^a caer en . . . madejas . . •

(p. 305)

Dejar followed by the infinitive shows the following pronouns: le ("him”) (1), la ("her") (2), las ("them” / human b ein gs) (1 ), and lo s ("them" / human b ein gs) (1 ):

Group B

le (1)

• • . le dejaba hablar . . . (p. l6l)

la (2)

. . . hasta dejarla morir en suelo extranb

. . . (p. 65)

• . . la dejo ir para no alterar nada

. . . (p. 131)

les (1 ) 281 . . . les habia dejado trabajar a su antojo.

(p. 112)

Group A

lo s (1)

. . . los dejan llegar hasta la frontera

. . (p. 221)

The one example of la (la fiesta) used with dejar and a passively oriented Infinitive is as follows:

. . . la dejaba hacer . . . (p. 106).

With obllgar followed by a plus the infinitive we fin d , in Group B, le ("him” ) (5 ), la ("her” ) (3 ), las ("them” / human beings) (1), and los (los automovlles)

(1)

Group B

le (5)

. . . que le obligaran a flaquear. (p. $2)

. . . que le obligaba a ser sincero • . •

(p. 63) 282 . . , le obligara a cumplir con . « .

(p. 150)

. . . que le obligaba a permanecer en

. . . (p. 195)

. . . que le obligar^an a descubrir . . .

(p. 26l ) la (3)

, , . que la obligaba a permanecer . . .

(p. 66)

. . . la obllgaron a acostarse. (p. 4 J.6 )

. . . obligarla (la vj-ctlma) a utilizer

sus eervicios . . . (p. 328) las (las muchachas) (l)

. . . una costumbre que las obligaba a

chapurrear las conversaciones . . .

(p. 225) los (los automovlles) (1)

. . . que los obllga a cqminar eternamente.

(p. 3 6 1 ) Forzar followed by a plus the infinitive in the one occurrence with the pronoun object shows les

("them" / human b e in g s):

• . . les forzaba a quedarse . . . (p. 219 )

Ayudar followed by a plus the infinitive in the one occurrence of the construction in which the pronouh is used shows le ("him"):

. . . le ayudo a veneer las repugnancias.

(p. 12)

The impersonal active shows the following o r ie n ta tio n o f the pronoun o b je c ts: Group A: £e le

("her") (1) and se le s ("them" / human beings) (1 );

Group B: se le ("him") (2 ), se l a ("her") (1 ), s£ le s

("them" / human b ein gs) (ij.), s

Group A

se le ("her") (1)

"dSe le podia ver?" (p. i^O) se les ("them” / human beings) (l)

”... ’guercos* como se les llamaba a

los ninos." (p. 171)

Group B

se le ("him”) (2)

. . . y veiasele materialmente arrullado

. . . (p. 305)

• . . se le tomara como guia . . . (p. 35l)

se les ("them” / human beings) (lj.)

. . . se les hace vivir entre gente . • •

(p. 68)

. . . se les oia trajinar . . . (p. 237)

. . . se le s o ia . reclamar, como siempre

. . . (p. 2l|.0)

. . . se les veia . . . empenados en • • •

(p. 298)

se le ("thing") (5)

. . . se le (el porche) preferia en verano 285 . . . (p. 78)

La '’expatricion” como se le llamaba . . .

(p. llj.0)

. . . cuando mas veleldoso se le (el

negoelo) mlra . . . (p. 176)

• . . se le (la cludad) comparaba con las

ciudades . . . (p. 232)

La raza errante, podia llam^rsele a la

suya . . . (p. 3^1)

se la (l)

Se la (la relacion) aabfa de memoria . • •

(p. 201)

The examples of la used for Le (dative) are found in the following instances:

Group B

Par: . . . para darla . • . los

recados . . • (p. I4.O) • . . para darla la bienvenida

• • • (p • IfO)

No se atrevia a darla

uno de los mas eficaces.

(p* 64)

D e c lr : . . para decirla adios . • •

(p. 332)

E n c la v lja r : . . . la e n c la v ijo la s manos

. . . (p. 131}-)

H acer: . . haclendola companfa.

(p. 270)

Rehusar: • . . no la rehusaban la cordial

correspondencia . . . (p. 26$)

Group A

Hacer: M. . . prometfa hacerla una

larga vis it a . . .” (p. 1+0)

It is difficult to state whether these examples

are truly examples of la£smo or whether some are typographical errors. Chapter III

Composite Statistics and Analyses

This chapter presents tabulations of pronouns, percentages of leismo and a discussion of the results for all the novels as a group and not individually.

The statistical data have been cetegorized and discussed under the following headings for the purpose of clarity:

Part A. Leismo in simple construction.

Part B. Leismo with verbs of perception

followed by the infinitive.

Part C. Leismo with causative verbs followed

by the infinitive.

Part D. Leismo in conjunction with the

impersonal s<5 construction.

Part A

The tabulation for the singly occurring direct object pronouns for all categories for both groups shows 7,522 occurrences of accusative forms and £27 occurrences of le / les as direct objects (leismo).

The overall percentage of leismo in the twenty-six 288 novels is 6.55#« The percentages for the combined categories for both groups are as follows: (usted, ustedes do not occur in Group B and are tabulated in

Group A only); persons not in direct address, 3,859 occurrences of the standard accusative forms and if92 occurrences of leismo, giving a percentage of 11. 30# of leismo referring to persons not in direct address.

For the category animals there are 98 occurrences of the standard accusative forms and if occurrences of leismo, showing the percentage of leismo for this category as 3 . 92 #. In the category things the accusative forms occur 3,333 times with 1 if occurrences o f g iv in g a percentage of O.ifO#. The following percentages are those found for the combination of all categories In each individual group.

In Group A the a ccu sa tiv e forms occur 2,695 tim es and leism o , 98 tim e s. The percentage o f leism o fo r Group A

Is 3*ifif#« In Group B there are if,827 occurrences of the accusative forms and lf31 occurrences of leismo, showing 8.20# of leismo.

It is noteworthy that there is a significantly higher in cid en ce o f leism o in Group B (8.20#) than in

Group A (3.ifif#). Sin ce Group B rep resen ts the auth ors’ concept of correct grammatical usage, the lower incidence of leis mo in Group A (characters' dialogues) could scarcely be interpreted as the purposeful giving of sub-standard speech to the characters without implying that the authors considered leismo as preferred usage.

In Group A the percentages for the individual categories are as follows: usted t ustedes , 232 occurrences of standard accusative and 1? occurrences of leismo. 6.83$ leismo; persons not in direct address,

1,005 occurrences of the accusative forms and 68 occurrences of leismo, 6.3l+$ leismo; animals, 38 occurrences of the accusative forms and 2 occurrences of leismo, 5$ leismo; things, 1,1+20 occurrences of the standard a ccu sa tiv e forms and 9 occurrences of le ism o » .63$ le ism o . In Group B the percentages fo r the in d iv id u a l groups are as follows; usted, ustedes, none; persons in direct address, 2,851+ accusative forms and 1+21+ occurrences of leismo, 1 2 . 90 $ leismo; animals, 60 accusative forms, and 2 occurrences of leismo, 3.22$ leismo; things, 1,913 standard accusative forms and 5 occurrences of leismo, . 26$ le ism o .

The occurrences of leismo referring to usted, ustedes, and to persons not in direct address may represent leismo, tratamlento, an Imperfect knowledge of correct syntax, a subconscious equation of the transitive verb with an expression requiring the dative, the repression of the direct object causing l£ or les to appear as a dative, or a typographical error. Consequently, it will be virtually impossible to explain precisely the reason for each occurrence of leismo.

For this reason, each verb should be judged according to the possibilities which it affords or the trend

it reflects in each individual novel. Often sound

attraction may be the only explanation for the

occurrence of leismo other than the preference for lefsmo itself as a more suitable form for literary

langu age• In Pedro Paramo, which of all the twenty-six novels

studied has the lowest incidence of leismo, l£ occurs

as the only masculine referent for persons with the verbs estorbar and preocupar: "Soy algo que no le 1 2 estorba a nadie."; "Le preocupaba la merma . .

and "No le preocupaba Fulgor . . Since the author

of this novel is least addicted to leismo, it is

d i f f i c u l t to understand why he used le and on ly 1<5 with these verbs. Possibly he was assigning a dative

function to the phrases such as ponerle estorbo a

algulen and causarle preocupacion a algulen.

In other novels there are cases of the use of le

and lo with the same verb. The verb ayudar, for

example, is found with the following pronoun objects:

■1-Juan Rulfo, Pedro Paramo, quinta edicion (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economic a, 1961 j.), p , 56.

2Ibid., p. 68.

3 ib id ., p. 9 8 ; ” . . . al que madruga Dios le ayuda . . . " M. . . les (fem.) ayudare a las cristianas para que . .

. . con t a l de ayudarlo and ". . . tratando de ayudarlos (ustedes) a salir. ”7 In the second example the pronoun appears as dative with the adverbial clause of purpose taking the function of direct object. There is lack of authoritative guidance with respect to the case of the pronoun when the verb ayudar a is followed by an infinitive or clause. The

tenor of the construction seems to indicate the omnipresent possibility of rendering a transitive verb in the guise of an unconscious mental equation, e.g., ayudarlas equated with darles ayuda. The same occurs with the verb encantar with which les is found to occur as a feminine referent: ”. . .a las mujeres . . .

les encantan todos esos lugares . . .

It Is Interesting to note that Agustin Y&frez uses las as the feminine plural accusative referent with all verbs except ayudar and encantar. A plausible explanation in two cases cited is that the use of the

^-Agustfn Ya&ez, La tlerra prodlga, primera edicion (Mexico: Fonda de Cultura Economica, i 960 ), P. 114-9. %bid., p. 273. 6I b ld . , p . 231.

7I b id . , p . 2^8 . ®Ibid., p. 166. redundant noun phrase (”• . .a las cristianas . . .,

. . . a las mujeres • . .), common with the dative pronoun but rare with the accusative, may have caused the author unconsciously to use the dative form of the pronoun.

It should be pointed out, too, that the author does not regulatly use le / les to indicate tratamlento.

For example, in the reference to God, the pronoun used

is lo: ”—Yo solo sirvo a Dios. Aquf lo llevo.

Guarden respeto*”^ Since these are the words spoken by

a priest who carries the Blessed Sacrament, one would expect tratamlento, If In any place at all, to occur here. The lack of tratamlento serves as an index, then, to demonstrate the lack of the concept of

tratamlento in this novel, at least.

The above examples serve to point out the variety of explanations to which each occurrence can be subjected

Hence, it will better serve the purpose of this work

to confine the analyses to an overall study of such verbs with which a variance in the pronoun object forms

occur. In some instances, those verbs which occur

more freq u en tly and which appear to o ffe r more possibilities of meaningful explanation w ill be discussed more in detail than those which occur only sporadically.

9lbid., p. 2 1 9 293 In any case, disregarding lapses into leismo, for whatever rea son , some verbs appear to v a c ila t e in some authors’ apparent classification between transitive and intransitive. These verbs are the ones of greatest interest to this study. However, it should be kept in mind that the fluctuation between the use of the standard accusative forms and leismo in a given novel or author is often inexplicable since a tabulation cannot account for such elements as whimsical spontaneity or personal preference. To be kept in mind also is the fact that the percentages presented for leis mo may represent a number of examples which the author of the novel never intended as accusative. The point to be clarified before proceeding, then, is whether the use of le as found in these twenty-six Mexican novels is truly a reflection of grammatically correct leismo or whether it is an erroneous interpretation of leismo as an accusative made by the present writer.

As has been noted in Chapter II, there are verbs with which the same author uses le as an accusative for "him” and la for ”hern: nA Hugo le divertia verla

. . . ”1® and M. . . una expresib n . . . que la d i v i r t i b . ”^

These two examples seem to indicate that the author

^Sergio Galindo, El bordo, segunda edicion (Mexico: Fonda de Cultura Economica, i 960 ), p . 62. H l b l d . , p . regards the verb as taking a direct object, shown by the use of la. However, with respect to the use of le it may be said, perhaps, that the position of the element ”A Hugo” since it precedes the verb may have caused the author to equate it with the redundant dative construction. The task which now lies ahead is to examine those verbs with which both 1<3 and the accusative forms occur. Attention is called to the fact that the only conclusion to be drawn from such a review is a numerical tabulation. For the use of le and les as feminine referents more must be said concerning the milieu o f the verb and i t s o b je c t.

The analysis has been restricted to those verbs which occur with le / les as direct object. Close attention is given in the following portion to verbs which take feminine le and les in order to determine more accurately if these verbs were regarded as

intransitive, and therefore used with a dative pronoun.

The list of verbs with which le_ / les occurred in one or more of the twenty-six novels studied is given here so as to present in a unit those verbs which, for

some reason or other, occur with le or les as a direct o b je ct: abandonar abatir abofetar

abrazar absolver aburrir

acometer acongojar acechar acomodar acorapanar acusar a d v e r tlr afectar afligir (to observe) agasajar aguardar alegrar a len ta r amargar amar amenazar amparar aplaudir arrancar arrojar asaltar atacar atender atorm entar atraer ayudar besar buscar calar cansar cegar comprender conducir conmover conocer convidar creer curar de jar desarmar desconcertar desesperar desnaturalizar despedir despertar desp reciar desterrar detener d is tr a e r divertir echar encarainar embargar encantar encontrar enojar entender entristecer entusiasmar enviar escuchar espantar esperar estorb ar e str u ja r fa sc in a r favorecer f e l i c i t a r flec h a r flanquear guiar halagar h e r ir impresionar incomodar increpar in ic ia r in q u ieta r in terrogar interrumpir in tr ig a r ir r it a r lnundar invadIr

juntar la cera r lib r a r

llam ar lle n a r lle v a r

mantener matar mirar

m olestar m o rtifica r mover

nombrar observar obsesion ar

obtener ocupar odiar

o ir oprim ir perdonar

p ersegu ir p icar poseer

preocupar querer reconfortar

reconocer r e c ib ir recrim inar

redim ir reganar r e p a tr ia r

repugnar r e s i s t i r rodear

sacar saludar sa lv a r

s a t is f a c e r sed u cir seg u ir

separar so la za r so lta r

someter soportar sorprender

subjugar sumergir tener

temer ten tar tocar

tomar tornar to rtu ra r

tranquilizar uniform ar unir

ver v ig ila r v i s i t a r

volver It should be pointed out that some of these verbs occur exclusively with l£ / 163, that some occur exclusively with le / les in one or more of the novels, but with standard accusative forms In others, and that some occur w ith l e / le s and the standard a ccu sa tiv e forms in the same n o v e l . 1 ^

The Incidence of leismo for verbs that occur with both types of object pronouns Is shown in the following l i s t :

amar 6 6 . 66$ acomodar $0 . 00$ acompaftar $0 . 00$ aguardar 6 6 . 66$ amenazar $0 . 00$ a s a lta r $0 . 00$ atacar $0 . 00$ a traer $0 . 00$ ayudar 3 7 .00$ buscar $0 . 00$ conducir $0 . 00$ conocer $0 . 00$

creer $0 . 00$ dejar 23 * 00$ despedir $0 . 00$ d esp ertar 37 *$0$ despreciar $0 . 00$ detener $0 . 00$

d iv e r tir $0 . 00$ encontrar $0 . 00$ escuchar $0 . 00$ esperar 1+6 . 66$ felicitar $0 . 00$ halagar $0 . 00$ llamar 14-2.1+3$ llevar 17.39$ matar $0 . 00$ mirar 1+0 . $1+$ m olestar 33* 33$ mortificar 6 6 . 63$ nombrar $0 . 00$ o ir 3$.7 0 $ querer 62 .1+1$ reconocer 3 3 . 33$ r e c ib ir 1+0 . 00$ redim ir $0 . 00$ rodear l+$.l+$$ sacar $0 . 00$ seg u ir 6l . $3$

sorprender $0 . 00$ ten er $0 . 00$ ver 23.73$ v i g ila r $0 . 00$

Prom the percentages shown, the ratio $0/$0

appears to be predominant; hence, the inference which

can be drawn from this ratio is that the vacilation between the different kinds of pronoun objects stems

l^See tabulations for individual novels in Chapter II. from leismo without any other reasonable explanation. In any case, it is difficult to determine how

many occurrences of le£smo result from: (1) the

authors’ linguistic habits, (2) a conscious attempt

to be "artifically literary”, (3) an imperfect knowledge

of proper grammatical usage, (ij.) an unconscious equation with a periphrastic construction, or (5) a typographical error and proofreader’s oversight. The discussion

of the possible reasons and causes of le£smo is divided

into the following sections: the use of le£smo when

the referent is femininej an analysis of verbs with which both dative and accusative forms are used;

and the study of those examples in which lefsmo is employed referring to things and animals• Included

in this section are verbs that require the accusative

of person in the absence of the accusative of thing.

The verbs llamar and nombrar are treated separately

and presented as a unit with the pronouns referring

to human beings, animals, and things.

In the examples,”. . . le sorprendio mirando la

lluvia . . ”Le sorprendi6 pensar que todos

esos ruldos . . • eran secretos.”;^ ”A ella no

■^Luis Spota, Murleron a mltad del r£o, tercera edicion (Mexico: Libro Mex Editores, i<562}, p. 83«

■^Carlos Fuentes, La muerte de Artemlo Cruz, primera edicion (Mexico: “Fonda de Culture Econdmica, 1962 ) , p . 26. le sorprendia lo infructuoso . . and ”... que a e l l a misma le sorprendi^." the pronoun l £ refers to persons of feminine gender and all of the examples use a dative form. The reason for this anomaly may lie in the possible intransitive orientation imposed upon the verb by the various authors• The pronoun le would hardly be indicative of a preference for leismo since the novels from which they come all show a rather low percentage of le£smo. There appear to be two plausible explanations for this usage in this construction: the equation of the prepositional phrase preceding the verb with the redundant dative construction or the equation of the verb sorprender with the periphrastic expression causarle sorpresa.

Encantar shows the same anomaly in the following exam ples: ”... que a su tJia le encantaba v e rlo

. . and La Malaguenita le encantaba el mar.n^®

Obviously these two occurrences of le referring to human beings show more than an attempt to be lit e r a r y ; it seems that the verb may have been equated with ofrecerle encanto or more likely that the prepositional

■^Fernando Robles, La estrella que no qulso vlvlr, primera edicion (Mexico: Fonda de Oultura Economica, 1957)> P» 27• ^Ibid., p. 186, l^G alindo, o£. c l t . , p . 73* ^■®Jose Mancisidor, Se llamaba Catalina (Mexico: Universidad Veracruzana, r§58), p. 66. phrase a plus the noun may have been equated with the redundant dative construction*

The verb ayudar may have been equated with darle ayudat Abuela, vengo a ayudarle a desgranar maiz.”1^

It is possible that l£ represents tratamlento in this case, however. Yet the same author, Juan Rulfo, uses le3 when he refers to persons of feminine gender: ”. . les ayudare a las cristianas para que . . • This example may corroborate the use of le with reference to abuela in the first example as a dative by virtue of the equation darle (s) ayuda, or les may be used tinder the Influence of the redundant prepositional phrase*

In another example afforded us by Urquizo, le occurs as a feminine referent in ”... alguna alma caritativa le ayudo seguro para escribir me . . . .i*21

Yet, in the same novel la also occurs with ayudar: 22 ’’iCuando podrfa yo verla y ayudarla?” The use of la as the standard form for the feminine object Indicates that he regards the verb as transitive, but the use of 1© brings us to believe that he may have regarded

”para escrib irm e” a3 an a ccu sa tiv e elem ent, thus

•^^Ruifo, op. c lt., p. 17.

2QIbld., p. 273. 2^FrancIsco L. Urquizo, ”Tropa vieja,” in La novela de la revoluclon mexlcana, ed. Antonio Castro Leal (Mexico: Aguilar, 19kO)» II, 3&1.

22Ibid., p. 362. rendering the pronoun in the dative.

Other examples of leismo used for feminine referents are found with verbs for which an equation could have been made, since all the verbs involved could be replaced by a verb plus noun object phrase, which would give a dative function to the pronoun object*

While this explanation is possible, even plausible, one can not state with any degree of assurance what was the rationale for the use with such verbs of dative forms with masculine or feminine persons as referents.

Another verb which shows this curious equation is solozar. The example, ”» . . le solozaba pensar que • . ." ,2^ demonstrates the possible equation of ofrecerle a ella solazo. Likewise, the example

A ella le halagaria saberlo . . offers the possibility of the same type of analogy, or even the redundant dative construction as the basis for equation.

Molestar, too, offers the possibility of an equation requiring the dative le^: ”. . . si aquello no le molestaba.”2^ and ”. . . lo cual le molesto a ella . . . . Fasclnar presents the same syntactical

^G-alindo, o£. c lt., p. lj.6.

^Rodolfo U sigli, Ensavo de un crimen (Mexico: Editorial America, 19i|-i+) ,~p7q2.

2^Ibid., p. 31. p/ Juan Novell Luna, La Plntura (Mexico: no publisher indicated, 19 i|8 ) , p . 7b, 302 orientation: ’’Carlota le contd que le fascinaban las nubes . . . Le_ referring to a person of feminine gender occurs also with the verb extranar: M. . . n O mas le extrano la manera analitica . . . .”

Again, the use of the plural les referring to persons of the feminine gender offers significant evidence that the verb seems to have been taken as requiring a dative: ”. . .no les asusta un divorciado ."^9

Almost any verb can be equated with a periphrastic construction in which a dative is required. The entire process seems to have its origin in a psychological orientation in which the mind is predisposed to one element but articulates another. Rodolfo Lenz;make3 the statement in which he explains how psychological force may induce "le golpeo" from the simultaneous 30 mental concomitant "le dio un golpe." Since it is an inadvertent process, there exists no means of a n tic ip a tin g the number o f tim es a speaker or w riter will succumb to it; its occurrence is based on pure chance. Hence, when le and les do occur with such

2 7 u s ig ll, o£. c l t . , p. 28Luna > op. c l t ., p. 7. ^^Rosa de Castano, La gavlota verde (Mexico: Ediciones Botas, 193^) > P*”1+0 • 30Lenz, o£. clt., p. 80. verbs which offer this mental conversion, it may seem

plausible to regard this facet of leismo as indicative

of the dative orientation, but it is beyond the scope

of this study to explain usage by reading the authors1

minds• The possibility of mental conversion is also

applicable to le and les as masculine referents, A

cogent argument in favor of the dative orientation

is seem in the example in which both l£ and l£ are

used as pronouns referring to the same person: . todos lo respetan y le temen.”^! A plausible

conclusion which can be drawn from such an example

is that the author was influenced by an unexpressed

equation with le tlenen mledo. However, todos le

tienen respeto would be just as plausible a periphrasis

for ’’todos le respetan.” Why in one case and not in

the other? Likewise, if the use of le is attributed

to an effort to use literary language, we should

expect to find l£ occurring twice. There exists, of

course, the possibility that vowel phoneme assM ilation

may account for the use of le and lo in the same

sentence and identical construction, since le occurs

following the high front vowel £ and Lo follows todos .

Another situation which may induce le^smo occurs

31Jo se Ruben Romero, Mi caballo, mi perro, mi rifle (Barcelona: Agustln Mfiez, 19357, p. 37. with verbs which take a dative object of person and an accusative object of thing when both are expressed, but take an accusative object of person when the object of thing is suppressed. It would be most natural to retain the dative relationship of the object of person even with ellipsis of the accusative object of thing: e.g., Le oigo (grltar). Creer, o£r, and escuchar are particularly susceptible to this elliptical construction.

The tendency to retain the object of person as dative is undoubtedly strengthened by analogy with decir, declarer, escrlblr and other verbs which do not change the object of person to accusative when the object of thing is not expressed.

For creer we find a dual orientation in one novel: ”... empleando una energfa de la que yo no le hubiera crel^do capaz . . . and ” . • . lo cre£a

O O realmente capaz de cometer ese delito . . * The second example shows that the author correctly views the verb as taking the accusative. The use of le, however, in the first example may represent the dative attitude found in una energia que yo no le hubiera c r e id o . In another novel the only example of a pronoun object occurring with creer is Le (”him”): ”--Asi

32pernando Benitez, El agua envenenada (Mexico: Fondo de Culture Economica, 1961)» p . lbf?'.

33Ibld., p. 126. no h ic ie r o n a t i y a mf—mas yo no le cref."3l+ i t seems that the author’s frame of reference in this example "A otro no le creerfa . . .”35 Luna may have been conscious of the construction se lo breerfa, but only expressing the articulated object in terms of the dative. This example could have occurred through an unconscious analogy with the redundant dative construction, however. pfr demonstrates a similar possibility in the example ". . . le ofamos como quien oye Hover . . •

Here the obvious implication is that the sounds emanate from a source (^e lo s ofam os) and w ith the repression of the direct object of thing (sollozos, perhaps) the source is represented by a dative as it would be if the entire expression were employed. In the example ”Si grltaba tambien, no le of.”^ the use of L®. is easily comprehensible through the equation no se lo tel grlto) of. In the example ’’Esparzo no le ofa . . .”38 pOSaible that the author was

34Mancisidor, 0 £ . c lt., p. 2£. 35Luna, op. c lt., p. £9*

3^U rquizo, I I , 3 8 l.

3?R afael Muftoz, ”Se llevaron el canon para Bachimba,” in La novela de la revoluclon mexlcana, ed Antonio Castro Leal" (Mexico: A g u ila r , 1986), II> 810

38 jjauricio Magdaleno, ME1 resplandor, ” in La novela de la revoluclon mexlcana, ed. Antonio CasTiro Leal (Mexico: Aguilar, l^bO), I I , 868. psychologically fixed on the unexpressed object of thing--sound—and consequently rendered the source of this sound as the indirect object.

With the verb escuchar the concept of suppressed object becomes more apparent. The nature of the verb presupposes a sound and its source. In "Archibaldo le escuchaba muy nervioso."-^ and ". . . y le escuchaban profundamente consternados . • . we must of necessity posit that which was being said as the direct object.

Therefore, the source is rendered as dative (le escuchaba lo que decia). Yet, in the same novel

Azuela uses lo and la with the verb escuchar: "... lo ("him") escuchabamos como al cielo . . . and

". . . interrupi^la . . . casi sin escucharla ("her")

. . . . "^ of course, Azuela may have used lalsmo in order to show the gender of the (dative) pronoun.

Six other examples of leismo with escuchar occur in four novels; of the six examples five show le referring to "him" and one uses les referring to

"them / human beings". It is the use of les which could serve to indicate that the object is datively

^Mariano Azuela, Las trlbulaclones de una famllla decent©, tercera edicion (M6xico: EcTi clones Botas, lw rrrr. 212 . ^°Ibid., p. 2^5.

^ Ibld., p. 37.

telbld., P* 11* disposed: ". . . encontrar alguno que les escuchara."^

However, since the writer, Teodoro Torres, from whose work the last example is taken, uses les as an accusative form for such verbs as acechar, acomodar, aguardar, arrancar, desnaturallzar, desterrar, detener, obse3lonar, and sorprender, it is not possible to state categorically that les is indicative of a dative orientation.

Segulr is a verb which seems to offer no possibility of equation with a verb plus object noun phrasewith a dative pronoun. With such verbs as divertir, molestar, reconfortar, reslstlr, saludar, and sorprender, the equations darle diversion, causarle molest la, ofrecerle consuelo, ofrecerle reslstencia, darle saludos, and darle sorpresa, respectively, offer the psychological basis for the use of the dative pronoun.

Segulr, on the other hand, does not readily fit this category, although segulrle la pista is a possible periphrasis even in this case.

In one novel it was found that seguir occurred three time3 with le_ and once with lo, with "him" as referent in all cases: "Yo le seguia . . ."j^-

". . . otros le siguieron a paso largo . . "... que no intentara seguirle . . . "j^ and "• . • para

^Teodoro Torres, La patria perdlda (Mexico: Ediciones Botas, 1935)» p. 202. - Wl-Munoz, I I , 761.

^Ibld., p. 813,

^Ibid., p. 837. ver a I era yo capaz de seguirlo . . . Since lo does occur with segulr in this novel, its appearance shows that the author is aware of the transitive nature of the verb. In the novel El Indio where the percentage of lefsmo is low, we find that le occurs twice with seguir: ". . . los que le segufan no pudieron . . and ”... los que le segufan se auxiliaban . . . ."^9

However, 3ja does occur as the standard feminine accusative form with this verb in the same novel: ✓ 50 "El forastero la siguio a todo correr."

The possibility of assimilation of sounds—either progressive or regressive—may be an important factor in the use of le: e.g., in the case where le is used, it occurs between two front vowels and in the one example where la occurs it is found when a back vowel precedes.

In the example "... les segul^an los armones cargados . . . les refers to los canones. However, the special usage found with segulr--the requirement

^ i b i d , , p . 779.

^Gregorio I»6pez y Puentes, El Indio (Mexico: E d ito r ia l Novaro Mexico, S. A ., 19£5T> p» 3i|-«

^Ibid., p. 37.

5°lbld., p. 26 .

^Puentes, 0£. clt., p. 71 • of a before the object for distinguishing purposes

(a los canones slguieron los armones cargados)-- may have caused the author to consider a los canones as a dative phrase and render the conversion of this objective phrase into the pronoun object as dative*

In the same novel los is employed referring to human beings where no redundant prepositional phrase is in v o lv ed . "... Los siguio a lo largo . . .

The use of los in the preceding example Indicates that the author is aware that segulr takes the accusative object. Another author, Jose Ruben Romero, uses le^ with segulr when referring to toro: ". . .e l toro se lntrodujo en una tienda del portal y todos nosotros le seguimos . . . jn other cases where animals are referents, Romero uses the standard accusative forms. Why le_ in this case?

Another verb used frequently with le / les is detener. The aspect under which this verb seems to function as an intransitive can be explained, although not verb plausibly, by the suppression of some element that may be intrinsically bound up in the idea. For example, cortarle el paso or detenerle el paso may serve to produce a dative orientation of the pronoun

52I b ld . , p . ]*1.

^^Romero, op. c it., p. l66. when used with detener.

Mariano Azuela uses both le_ and lo meaning ’'him” with detener. The circumstance for each example does

not show any need for distinction, except possibly the assimilation of sounds, since Le occurs between

front vowels and lo between back vowels: MAgustina

toma el brazo . . . y le detiene • . .M ^ and 11. . .

el trafico lo habria detenido,”^^ This possibility becomes a plausibility when one notes that Muftoz uses le referring to ed mezqulte. Detener is so

obviously transitive and le is so rare referring to a

thing that assimilation of sound seems the only

plausible explanation--other than a typographical

error: . . ni le detiene, como no posee nada . .

alia se va el mezquite correteando por el llano . . .

Two examples of le , one referring to a noun

clause object and the other referring to la muerte,

occur with the verb aplaudlr: ”... aplaudele a lo

que no te cuadre . . . ӣ>7 and M. . . y acabaras por

aplaudirle a la muerte.The author obviously

^Azuela, oj>. c lt., p. 2l\.2.

% bid., p. 5>8. ^Munoz, II, 796.

Luna, op. c lt. , p. llj.2.

*8Ib id . 311 considers the pronoun's relationship dative since he uses the redundant phrase in both cases, having a

noun clause and ”la muerte'’ as the objects of the

preposition a. Nowhere else in his work does this

author use le referring to things except in these

two examples. However, other authors do use Le referring

to thing, for example: M. . . no le temo a la vida.”^

Here again, the redundant prepositional phrase may be

the determining factor. With the verb ver, les is found referring to

avestruces. Since avestruces, however, is found

in comparison referring to human beings, this use of

les could possible reflect personification: "Nos

parecemos un poco a los avestruces que ocultan la

cabeza en la tierra para no ver al cazador, creyendo

que el cazador no les ve a ellos." In studying the occurrences of the pronoun objects with the verbs nombrar and llamar, it would be better,

perhaps, to begin with l£ and les referring to animals

and things, since this would eliminate tratamlento

and reduce the number of other fa c to r s th at might

explain the leismo with these verbs.

One occurrence of les as a referent for pajaros

can be construed to have occurred through the analogy

castano, o£. c lt ., p. 68.

60rporres, op. c lt ., p. 370. 312 of an equivalent expression. In nAs^ les nombran a esos pajaros. there is a possible equation with les ponen el nombre or les dleen. The phrase a esos pajaros may, through analogy with the redundant 4 indirect object phrase, account for the use of the dative form. In another example le is found referring to rancho: ” . . . que le nombran N a ca stlllo . . . . I|D<£ In the same novel the identical construction is found with the verb llam art "Aqui le s llamamos sablazos. ”63 However, by contrast, there occurs in the same novel an example of lo (’’him") with the verb nombrar: ”... por cierto que a tu Manos Largas lo nombraron interventor de los bienes . . . . ”6^ Also occurring in the same novel are la and los referring to human beings with the verb llamar: ”—Bien dijo su madre al llamarla giiila . . .”65 and ”. . .la gente dio en llamar los LL mancuerna. ” In Tlerra callente we find that the author employs le with llamar when the objective complement is present:

6^Rulfo, op. cit., p. 11* ^^Yanez, 0£ . clt., p. 8£. 63lbid., p. 111*. 61+lbld., p. 229 .

6 5 ib id ., p . 2 2 8 .

66ibld., p. 9 1 . "Si hasta 'taba yo tentada a llamale don Pancho."^?

Prom the context the use of le as reflecting tratamlento can be dismissed. In this same novel le is found referring to arbol when the verb nombrar and the objective complement are used: "Le nombran

Jazmfn I n d i o , and "Le nombran Mala Mujer. . . ."^9

Another example, showing a different syntactical relationship with an objective complement of sorts, presents l£ as the direct object: "... ’gran 70 ejercito', como comenzaban a llamarlo. • .

In Lira's novel La Escondlda, la occurs as a referent for "her" with nombrar when the objective complement is present: ". . . y la que la nombraba

'La Escondida', asociando su involuntario encierro y su misterioso retraimiento, con los de la selva. •

. . "7^ But by contrast we find that the object in similar syntactical surroundings is l£: "--Va uste a ver como esa selva que le nombran La Escondlda es

Igualita a uste."72

k7jorge Ferretis, Tierra callente (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, S. A., 1935)» P• 168.

68lbldo, p. 230.

69ibid., p. 231.

7°lbid., p. ll*.

73-Miguel N. Lira, "La Escondida," in La no vela de la revoluclon mexlcana, ed. Antonio Castro Leal TMexTco: Aguilar, I960), II, 1066.

?2Ibld., p. 1072. In Luna's novel La pintura we find le referring

una pintura with the verb llamar ■ "Le llamar^

'Aparicion'. . . ,"73 In llamaba Catalina, showing a relatively low percentage of le^smo, le occurs referring to "him" with the verb llamar plus the objective complement: "... pero la generalidad de gentes . . . le llamaba bio Vent a Ventura. "7^- This example is only part of an utterance in which both lo and l£ occur referring to the same person and with the same verb: "... unos lo llamaban tio Vento, otros tfo Ventura, pero la generalidad de las gentes . . . le llamaba tfo Vento Ventura."7^ Further variation within a given novel is demonstrated by the following examples in which le refers to huarache and lo to lnsecto, accompanied in both cases by the appositive noun object: "... al huarache le llama coturno y clamide al jorongo

. . ."76 qjqci "... por eso lo llaman tlazolmama. .

. ."77 These two examples offer a good basis for an

73Luna, o£. cit., p. 7^1-Mancisidor, o£. cit. , p. 89*

7% bid., p p . 8 8 - 9 . 76Q.reg0rio Lc>pe2 y Fuentes, Los peregrlnos lnmoviles (Mexico: Ediciones Botas, 19iji|.), p. i t . 77ibid., p. 36. analysis of the peculiar syntax found associated with

the verb llamar. The force of the redundant phrase

’’al huarache” in one example may have influenced the author in expressing this element in terms of a dative. The second example, devoid of any equivocal element, seems to be a clear case of an accusative construction. In yet another novel of low percentage of lefsmo, we find that les referring to human beings occurs in a grammatical milieu with llamar in which a type of objective complement is present: "El Rey de Oros, El Rey de Bastos y El Rey de Copas, como les llamaban el pueblo."?® This is the only use of les recorded as an accusative in Mi caballo, mi perro, y; mi rifle, but the same orientation is found for le referring to "him": "... obligara a sus familares a que le llamaran en el trato casero, Ilustrfsimo Senor."?^ In still another novel the only occurrences of llamar with the object pronoun show two d istin ct orientations of the pronoun form: when an objective complement is present, the pronoun object is le , but when there is no objective complement, the form lo is employed: "Cuando nadie nos ofa, me gustaba

?®Romero, 0£ . cit., p. 8l.

?9lbld., p. 2 16 . 316 llamarle Marcos. Cuando habia otros . . . le llamaba Oa ’general*.w and ”. . . lo llame aparte a decirle . . . ." 8l Lej!spio Is found in the same construction when the objective complement is present: "... oyo ,,8 ? repetidas veces a Natera llamarle 'mi general1." and ”Y ella con deleitosa emocion le llamo: Miguel.’*®^ No conclusive statement based on these varying occurrences alone can be made concerning the existence of a syntactical difference with the verbs llamar and nombrar, but it appears that these verbs are used with a dative pronoun object when the objective complement Is present. From the foregoing examples these verbs show a certain degree of irregularity as to case requirement and appear to vacilate between the requirement of accusative and dative (especially when the objective complement is present)* not only among different authors but also in a given author. Nevertheless, in spite of some exceptions, there appears to be su ffic ie n t consistency in modern Mexican usage of pronoun objects with these verbs to justify the statement that the use of le / les Is preferred

8°Munoz, I I , 775. ®^Ibid., p. 8l6. ^Mariano Azuela, Los de abajo (Mexico: Ediciones Botas, 1 9 6 1 ), p. 110.

^Luna, op. cit., p. 35. when an object complement is present; otherwise the accusative forms are preferred. This is in accord with Hans sen's statement regarding the historical aspect: "En antiguo castellan o, los verbos nombrar, llam ar, decir comblnados con un acusativo de predicado rigen amenudo el dativo: libra dizen en lat£n a este slgno (Alfonso X, Astronomfa I, 73)*”®^ Of a slightly different nature are the two examples in which llamar may have been equated with the verb g r ita r , consequently requiring a dative pronoun when its meaning is "to c a ll to*" The use of le referring to a bird, surely, establishes the verb in th is m ilieu as requiring the dative and from the context of the second example, it appears that the author wishes to express le_ habla or le_ grlta: '’Ella le llamaba carinosamente • • , and "... enfrentandos con quien le llamara. . . There are other verbs which occur sporadically and which show a dative orientation of the pronoun object. For example, the verb plcar invariably takes the dative pronoun form when it means "to vex".

8^-Hanssen, 0£ . cit., p. 177* ®^Romero, op. cit., p. £6. o/ x Lopez y Fuentes, Los peregrlnos inm ovlles, P. 230. Perhaps the basic concept plcarle alguna parte del cuerpo has influenced the use of the dative in this milieu. This concept is paralleled by the English expression '’What's eating on you?” One example used * * Q7 in th is environment shows: ”dQue le s pico?” as meaning ”What vexed them?” In Icaza's Dllema the verb interesar occurs with both le and lo for masculine person* but only la for feminine person: (masculine) ”... que solo le Q O interesaban los cuentistas franceses.” and ”Pero ella . . • escapaba a sus caricias interes^ndolo asi mas y mas . . .”j®9 (feminine) ”... fuera de los horabres nada era capaz de interesarla . . ."90 and ”. . . ansiosa de encontrar algo que . . . la pudiera interesar.”^ In another novel la ("her”) is employed also with this verb: ”. . .no consegufan interesarla.

h 92 • • • The verbs ensenar, preguntar, and robar, according

8?Magdaleno, II, 9£°* 88Xavier Icaza, Dllema, (Mexico: E d itorial Andres Botas e Hijo, no date), p. 13* 89ib ld ., p. 80. 9°lbld., p. 11+. 91lbid., p. 4l. 92(je Castaho, o£. cit., p. 319 to the Academy, take the accusative of person when the accusative of thing is suppressed.93 in one example in which le occurs as a referent for usted

(no apparent tratamiento) the use of le may be attributable to the suppression of the direct object:

"Pero voy a preguntarle• However, the three occurrences of robar in this environment show le used once and the accusative forms twice: . . y no nos veamos urgidos de robarle a nadie.";^ "Matan para robarlos.";^ 07 "No la (usted) voy a robar ni . • .

In the one occurrence of ensenar without an object o f th in g l e s ("them" / human b e in g s) i s u sed : "Les Qft ensenaremos si, sen o ra , mas nada de d in e r o . . .

In the "a plus infinitive" construction with ensenar, la occurs once and le, referring to "her", twice in the same novel: "Dofia Teresa querfa ensenar la a bordar.";99 "Dona Teresa queria ensenarle a tejer.";^^

93Real Academia Espanola, op. c it., p. 25>0.

9^-Usigli, op. c it ., p. 1 9 6 .

9^Rulfo, o£. cit,., p. 1 1 2 . ^Spota, op. cit., p. 25.

^Robles, o£. c i t ., p. I4.8.

9®Mancisidor, o £ . c it. , p. 11*

99(}alindo, op» c it ., p. 5>1.

1 0 0 Ibld., p. 6 8 . and ”E1 le habia ensefiado a sospechar de cada cosa

. . . . ”101 Since Galindo uses both dative and accusative pronouns with a feminine referent in identical constructions, it may be assumed that he is uncertain, indifferent or careless regarding dative-accusative distinction of pronouns.

In another novel in which ensenar is followed by a p lu s th e i n f i n i t i v e , l e s ( ’’them” / human b e in g s) is employed: ”... para que les ensene a leer. . . .”102 tkQ author intends les as a dative he abides by the rule of the Academy grammar. If, however, les is intended as an accusative form he does not follow the rule of the Academy. Since this novel shows a high percentage of le^smo one is unable to discern the author’s intent regarding the case of the pronoun object.

Part B

In order to learn the incidence of leJLsmo as regards the pronoun objects used with verbs of perception followed by an Infinitive, a statistical count was made of pronoun forms occurring in such a milieu based on the nature of the dependent infinitive. Thus,

1° 1 I b id . , p . 77.

l°2Magdaleno, II, 998. 321 It is possible to show the percentage of lefsmo for each of the categories in which the pronoun is involved.

Attention is called to the fact that the percentage of le^smo cannot logically indicate the regard for the case of the pronoun in this construction since examples are taken from novels where le / les occur as accusatives; nor can the incidence of the dative forms be taken as an accurate gauge of leismo (for direct objects), since there is disagreement among grammarians concerning case distinction in this construction. For example, the novel La patrla perdlda shows the highest percentage of leismo; yet in this particular grammatical construction with the verb ver the only pronoun used referring to "him” is le and la is the only one used when "her” is the referent.

The verbs of perception for which tabulations have been made are v e r , m lr a r, o i r , e sc u c h a r , and s e n t i r .

For pronouns used with ver followed by an intransitive infinitive there is 26.3>3$ lefsmo for pronouns with

”him” as the referent (36 occurrences of lo and 13 occurrences of le_). For masculine plural pronouns there is 15.78$ lefsmo (16 occurrences of los and 3 occurrences of le s ) . The fem in in e s in g u la r in th e same category shows 9*^2$ lefsmo (19 occurrences of la and 2 occurrences of le ). The feminine plural shows 322 2 o ccu rren ces o f la s and none o f le s .

One example worth noting is the use of as a

feminine referent in the construction having an

intransitive infinitive: ”. . . le vi salir apresuradamente

. . . ."103 Yet, in the same novel we find ”. . .la

v i s t e s a l i r apresuradam ente. . . The e ig h t pronouns occurring with animals or things as referents

are all standard accusative forms.

For the ta b u la tio n made with the transitive

infinitive, there are no occurrences of le^smo (5 occurrences of lo, 3 of la, and 2 of lo s).

In the tabulation made of occurrences with the reflexive infinitive there is 11.11$ lefsmo when the referent is ”him”, (8 occurrences of lo and 2 of l e ) , but no le£smo with masculine plural (2 occurrences of

lo s) nor feminine (5 occurrences of la) referents.

For oir followed by the intransitive infinitive

there is 73.67$ leifsmo for the object pronoun when

the referent is ’’him” (5 occurrences of lo and 1I4.

occurrences of le_). For the masculine plural pronoun

in the same category there are no occurrences of le^smo

(Lj. occurrences of la ). When the infinitive is transitive

and ’’him” the referent there is 70$ lejfsmo (7 occurrences

o f l e and 3 o f l o ) . For the masculine plural there is

103Luna, o p . c it., p. 58 . 1Q^Ib ld ., p. 59-» 323 1 occurrence of los, none of le s . With "her” as the referent, there is 1 2 . 50$ lelsmo (7 occurrences of la and 1 occurrence of le )• In the construction containing the reflexive infinitive lo ("him") occurs once, la

("her") twice, and las (las granadas) once.

With the verb ojfr followed by the infinitive it is found that some examples follow the precept of the

Academy by using the accusative forms, but in others there seems to be a definite dative orientation:

". . .la oir^s suspirar . . ". . . se asusto a l o ir la d e c ir que . . and "iQue le ("her") oiste decir?"10^ The last example Illustrates the ~ precept of Bello-Cuervo and Lenz, both of whom require the use of the dative when the infinitive has an object o f i t s own. Usigli, in Ensayo de un crimen, is reasonably consistent in the pronouns with "him as referent: le is employed if the infinitive is transitive and lo if intransitive: "Roberto . . . le oyo decir: . . .";

105Torres, o p . c it ., p. 171* ^■O^Castano, q£. c it . , p. 101.

^^Rulfo, ojo• c it. , p. 82.

10®Usigll, o£. cit., p. 267. ” . . . lo oyo subir . . and ” . . . o ir lo hablar de . . On the other hand, in the same novel we find that both la and los, referring to persons not in direct address, are used when the infinitives are transitive:”. . .la oyo repetir:

--/Q ue la stim a l" 1^ and ”... los oyeron discutir El

Ingeniero R ob les. . . , n^ 3

Thus it appears that usage varies from author to author as well as within a given literary work.

In certain occurrences it seems that the author is consciously showing a syntactical delineation, while in others it seems purely accidental. With the verb escuchar le ("him” ) and la (”h er”) both occur only once followed by a transitive infinitive.

With the verb sentir followed by an infinitive lo

(”him”) occurs twice when the infinitive is intransitive and once when the infinitive is transitive. The pronoun la, referring to <*1 agua, occurs in the construction when the infinitive is intransitive.

The pronoun los, referring to I03 motlvos, occurs when the construction contains a reflexive infinitive,

109Ibld., p. 93.

1 1 0 Ib id ., p . 117.

li:LIb id ., p. 217.

112Ibid., p. 37. 113Ibid., p. 262. 32£ Part C

The verbs of volition or causation which are studied in this particular section are obllgar (a), dejar, impulsar (a), and hacer. Again, the analysis of the pronoun object usage has been made according to three categories of the infinitive: transitive, intransitive and reflexive. Since it is obvious that almost all pronoun objects of these verbs will represent persons not in direct address, this is the only category of referent considered here.

It should be repeated here, as in Part B of this chapter, that there is no clear agreement among grammarians regarding the case relationship of the object pronouns in this type of construction. Therefore the use of le / les may indicate that the author considered the case relationship as dative, or it may mean that he uses le / les as direct objects. If it is found that an author is consistent in his use of the standard accusative forms in any of these constructions, we may assume that he regards the object as accusative, but the use of le_ or les does not necessarily indicate that the author considered the pronoun as dative.

With obllgar a followed by the transitive infinitive we find: le / 3* 1° / 3> los / 6 and la / 3. When the infinitive is intransitive the count is as follows: le_ / ij., lo / 8, los / 1 and la / 1. With the reflexive 326 infinitive the tabulation shows le / 1, 1

1, and la / 1 . The three occurrences o f L© w ith the transitive infinitive serve to indicate that the authors viewed the pronoun in these three instances as accusative.

The use of 1© the masculine may represent either le£smo with no grammatical justification or a dative orientation. Impulsar a followed by the transitive infinitive shows le / 2 and la / 1. With the intransitive infinitive we find only la / 1, and with the reflexive infinitive le / 1. With dejar followed by the transitive infinitive the tabulation shows le / 1, les / 3, lo / 9, lo s / 3 and la. / 2. With the intransitive infinitive the tabulations are le^ / 3 , lo / 27, los / 6 , la / 12 and las / 1. With the reflexive infinitive we find lo / S>« In another novel we fin d the examples tt. . . le s dejo d e str u ir la s ap arien cias . . , 1*^^ and M. . • hacerle creer que la habla amado. . . It appears that this author regards the pronoun in this construction with a transitive infinitive as dative.

However, we find that he employs l£ when the infinitive is transitive or intransitive.

H^Fuentes, o£. cit., p. 279*

i^Ibld., p. 101. In another novel both lea and loa are employed in the construction when the infinitive has an object o f i t s own: ”... que les dejaran hacer un tiro siquiera.”-*-^ and ”. . . los dejamos conocer estas veredas?”^"^

Since it is impossible to draw valid conclusions on tabulations alone it is necessary to study the environment in which these pronouns occur in order to show how they may have been regarded. For example, it was found that in one novel lo occurs three times^ in this construction when the infinitive is intransitive, leading us to believe that the author regarded the pronoun as accusative in this particular construction.

By comparison it is found in the same novel that with the verb hacer in the causative only le_ is used when the infinitive is intransitive or reflexive. The occurrence o f le s in the same m ilieu in the same novel helps to establish the pattern. The example 1 *i O is ” . . . l e s dejaba hacer lo que quisieran.”

With hacer in the causative construction the tabulations for persons not in direct address (unless otherwise indicated) are as follows: transitive infinitive le / les / 20, lo / 17, lQ3 / 8, la /

H ^A zuela, Los de aba jo , p . 21,

l^Ibid., p. 101.

ll8spota, o£. cit., p. 128. 328 6, le. (feminine) / 4, intransitive Infinitive le /

2 6 , le s / 3 , lo / 54, los / 16 , la / 45, las / 1, le (feminine) / 2, and les (feminine) / 1; reflexive infinitive le / 1, lo / 3 , lo s / 1, and la / 1 . In a given work it was found that the author uses la and le as feminine pronouns in the construction with no apparent pattern. The following examples indicate this erratic usage: ”... querla hacerla creer que . . . mj119 ”... trataban de hacerle descansar . . . ”120 . . , le hizo conocer el motivo de su viaje . • ."1^1 and ”... sentlmiento que le T 22 hacfa entrever las venturas sonadas. The one use of les as a feminine pronoun occurs in a novel in which the masculine los is used In the construction when the infinitive is transitive. The example using les for the feminine is ”. . . mejor que hacerles absorver la nicotina bajo los fresnos. . . . ”123

In Dllema the feminine le occurs when the Infinitive is transitive and la once when the infinitive is

H9castano, op. cit., p. 95* l20Ibid., p. 48* l21Ibid., p. 93. -*-22Ibld ., pp. 114-5. 3-23salvador Quevedo y Zubieta, La camada (Mexico: Librerfa de Ch. Bouret, 1 9 1 2 ), p. 187. intransitive: . . le hizo ver lo desanimados que todos se hallaban . . and ". . . que la hizo sonrefr. . « . 1^5 Le ("him”) occurs twice in this novel when the infinitive is transitive. It would appear that Icaza considers the pronoun as dative when the infinitive is transitive. However, there are too few examples of this construction in his novels on which to base a valid generalization. The novel

Murleron a mltad del r(o affords us sufficient examples and in it the author’s usage seems to follow a definite pattern. In the novel in question the three examples of the masculine le are found in situations in which the infinitive is transitive: "Le hice ver que no habia . . ." ;126 ’’Pavan le hizo saber que no tenjfan

• . and ". . . le hicieron suponer que lo eran."12® When the infinitive is intransitive we find lo (’’him") if. times, los ("them” / human beings) 2 tim es, and la ("her") 3 tim es.

The regularity of usage In this novel for this type of construction seems sufficient to constitute a definite pattern: the author regards the pronoun

l^ij-jcaza, oj3• c it., p. 11.

^•2^Ibld., p. 5 0 . 12^Spota, op.:c it., p. 56.

12?Ibld., p. 171. ^■2®Ibid., p. 23^. as accusative when the infinitive is intransitive and dative when the infinitive is transitive. The same trend was noted above with regard to usage with dejar. However, the consistency found in this novel is lacking in many of those under consideration.

Robles in La estrella que no qulso vlvlr. for example, uses both lo and les with hacer plus a dependent t r a n s it iv e i n f i n i t i v e , and Luna in La p in tu ra uses standard accusative forms consistently regardless of whether the dependent infinitive is transitive or intransitive. A good example of the inconsistencies of usage in this particular construction is the novel La tlerra prodiga by Yanez. Of 9 occurrences of lo_ ("him") in this construction 2 are found with the transitive infinitive: ”... haciendolo regarlas de sudor . . . ”129 an(j ”, . . lo hicieron olvidar . . . que

. . .”130 of the 6 occurrences of le_ (,!himn) 3 are used with an intransitive infinitive or transitive infinitive without an expressed object: ”... haciendole caer en un juego . . ”. . . le hizo

129yanez, op. cit., p. 105* 13°Ibld. , p . 259.

1 3 1 i b id . , p . 129. consentir en que . . •n;^-32 and , qUe le hace volver a empezar.”^33

That YAnez Is aware of some s y n ta c tic a l d is tin c t io n

is found in the fact that he uses los (’’them” / human

beings) ij. times in the construction when the infinitive

is in t r a n s itiv e and le s ("them" / human b ein gs) 3

times when the infinitive is transitive: ”... le s

har^a conocer e s te submundo . . ” . . . e l

intento de hacer les aceptar un programa . . .

and ”... haciendoles perder el miedo . . . .”136

While it appears that there is uncertainty in the mind

of the author when the pronouns are singular, there

seems to be no uncertainty concerning the case of the

pronouns when they are plural. In this novel, showing

an overall percentage of le^smo of less than 5$, Yanez

shows his preference for the standard accusative forms

to indicate the accusative case. In Azuela’s novel Las trlbulactones de una familia

decente, usage of the pronoun objects in this particular

construction is highly erratic, while in La sombra del

1 3 2 ib id .

13 3 jb id ., P- 315

13^ I b id ., P« 29.

13^ I b id ., P- 157

13 6 ib id ., P- 218 caudlllo by Guzman^3^ the distinction between l£ and le is maintained on the basis of the infinitive: the tabulation shows 3 occurrences of lo when the infinitive is intransitive, 6 of le when the infinitive is transitive, and 2 of l£ when the infinitive is intransitive. The 2 occurrences of le_ when the infinitive is intransitive appear to be the exception to the pattern. These two exceptions are in environments that offer an extenuating circumstance-- an equation of the intransitive infinitive with transitive infinitives that fit the context of the novel: ". . . le hicieron sonreir a la sola idea

. . .M-*-38 and ”. . . la operacion de hacer le beber degenero en. . . ,n139 The verbal expression sonre^r a has the effect here of a transitive verb equivalent to rldicullzar la sola idea. Eeber is normally a transitive verb, but is frequently used, as here, with ellipsis of the direct object*

Luna uses the standard accusative forms regardless of whether the infinitive is transitive or intransitive. Apparently he feels no need of a syntactical variation, for we find: 11. . .la hizo vlvir en el artificio del

^•37(}uzman, Luis, La aombra del caudlllo. Mexico: Compania General de Ediciones, S. A., 1^6J^•

138Ibid., p. 107.

139lbld., p. 133. color . .”. . . lo harfa levantar la diestra para darle muerte . . . . lo haria dormlr

. . pasar (Intransitive) . . .w;^-3 and ”. . . lo que la hizo creer que su novio. . . These examples show that the author views the case of the pronoun in this milieu as accusative without regard to the orientation of the infinitive. Although no exceptions to his accusative usage are found, the paucity of examples of this construction in his novel makes a g e n e r a liz a tio n le s s im p ressiv e.

The pattern noted above in the discussion of

Spotas’s Murleron a mltad del vio (dative when the infinitive is transitive; accusative when the infinitive is intransitive or reflexive) while fairly general throughout the twenty-six novels, is followed consistently in only seven; the other six being:

Dllema by Xavier Icaza; El bordo by Sergio Galindo;

Los de aba.jo by Mariano Azuela; Mi caballo, mi perro,

X mi rifle by Jose Ruben Romero; Sje llevaron el

l^OLuna, op. c i t

1^-1Ibdd. , p. 71*.

■ ^ •^ Ib id mt p . 93 o

^ i b i d . , p. 1 0 2

^-Mj-Ibid., p. 3 2 . canon para Bachimba by Rafel F. Munozj and Tropa vie ja by Francisco L. Urquizo.

P a r t D

For the purpose of analysis the impersonal construction with £e is studied under two main divisions: first, the simple construction, se plus

the pronoun object plus the third person singular of the verb in question; second, the more complex

construction, se_ plus the pronoun object plus the pronoun object plus the third person singular of the verbs hacer, o i v , mirar, ver plus the infinitive. The pronouns l£ and le s, according to tabulation,

appear to be the preferred forms, regardless of whether they refer to persons or things.

In the simple construction the pronoun le_ ("him”)

occurs 36 times, with no occurrence of lo: 100$

le lsm o . The pronoun les ("them" / human beings, masculine) occurs 20 times, with no occurrence of los: 100$.

The feminine singular Lg. ("her") occurs times

and la 3 times: 57.ll^$. The pronoun les (feminine plural) does not occur;

las, however, occurs once.

Le as a masculine pronoun referring to a thing

occurs 6 times: 100$. Les as a masculine pronoun referring to things occurs only once: 100$ .

Le as a feminine pronoun referring to a thing occurs i|. tim es and La only once: 80 $.

Les as a feminine pronoun referring to things occurs only once and las twice: 33*33$. In the more complex construction with hacer or one of the verbs of perception, the use of le / les is invariable. The tabulations are as follows: le

(’’him”) occurs 12 times; les (human beings, masculine), 9 times; le referring to an inanimate object (el arbol) occurs once; and les referring to animals (los gallos) once. In all categories of referents the incidence of dative forms is 100$. However, the use of i®. / 163 in this construction does not necessarily mean that the author considers the pronoun relationship as dative. It may be a result of linguistic expression that has become stereotyped through regularization of a sequence of sounds. The native user may not even be conscious of any particular case relationship and may be using what he has learned as a standard formula. The vacilation between le (feminine) and la in any given novel may show that the author is unaware of any syntactical difference and that he uses the two forms indiscriminately; or that he uses la when he wishes to make clear the gender of the referent.

In one novel we find both le and la as feminine pronouns: . . se 1© (la cludad) comparaba con las cludados . . . and n. . . se la (la relacion) sabJLa de memoria. . . In another novel the same vacilation occurs: 11. . . se le (la nlna) desteto . . . M ”... que se la (la nlna) bautizara en

Boston . * . and M. . . n o creo que a la s mujeres

se las pueda comprender jamas In one novel having an overall percentage of

lefsmo of less than 10% it was found that all masculine pronouns referring to human beings, in the simple as well as the more complex construction, occur exclusively as le_ and les llj. times. However, the only occurring feminine pronoun in this milieu is la : 150 ". . . desde el instante en que se la ve^a.” Had

the one example of the feminine la not occurred one might have deduced that the author regarded the pronoun in this milieu as dative. In another novel having an extremely low percentage

of lefsmo it was found that l£ referring to "him” occurs

twice; les, referring to "them” / human beings,

l^Torres, o£. c it . , p. 232.

^Ibid., p. 201.

^•^castano, o£. c it ., p. 6 3 .

^ I b ld . ^ibid., p. 108 .

^ L i r a , I I , 1021}. • occurs once; and le, referring to el mar occurs twice. The examples of le_ referring to el mar are

". . . no se le v e ia . . and "... pero se le sentfa cada vez mas cerca. . . .* ^ 2

In the more complex construction the only pronouns used are le or le s . However, It should be indicated that no feminine pronouns occur In this construction.

Le, referring to "him" occurs 8 times; les referring to "them" / human beings occurs 10 times; le, referring to el alamo occurs once; and les referring to los gallos occurs once. It should be pointed out also that the nature of the dependent infinitive has no effect on the form of the pronoun.

The occurrence of le referring to el alamo and les to los gallos is found in the same novel In which the percentage of le^smo Is extremely low. The examples are: ". . . se le veia jugar con los vientos

. . ."1^3 and . . no se les o^a cantar."^^

l^lYanez, oj>. c it., p. 1 6 9 . ^ 2 Ib id .

l53perretis, o£. cit., p. lij-5* ^Ibld., p. 6ij.. Chapter IV

Summary

In summarizing the statistics and the discussion of the occurrences of leismo based on the tabulation for both groups A and B of the individual analysis for each novel, it is found that twenty-four of these twenty-six novels do not exceed overall leismo. The remaining two novels have l8«5$ and 29»3$» respectively, of overall-leismo. One-half of the novels do not exceed i|$ overall leismo. These percentages are calculated for the total number of occurrences of dative forms used as direct objects in both Croup A and Group B and for all four categories of referents (1. usted, ustedes, 2* persons not in direct address, 3. animals, and If. things). There are relatively few occurrences In these novels of pronoun objects with usted/ustedes as referents; and leismo with animals or things as referents i s , as would be expected, quite rare. Therefore, the category of referents having the greatest incidence of leismo is persons not in direct address. It has been considered desirable, for the purpose of comparison, to present the incidence of leismo in this particular category as well as the overall percentages. The following list, then, shows the overall percentage of leismo and the percentage for the individual category of persons not in direct address for all twenty-six novels: Jfovel # Lefsmo for referents Lefsmo for category in all categories persons not in direct address

1 1 .1 # 0 . 8 #

2 1.3# 1 . 6# 3 1.4# 2.3# 4 1 . 6# 3.2# 5 2 .1# 2.7# 6 2.3# 4-1# 7 2.5# 4-3# 8 2 . 6# 3.9# 9 2.7# 5.8# 10 3.2# 6.9# 11 3.3# 4*9# 12 3.4# 8 .0# 13 4 . 0# 6 . 8 #

l4 4.5# 6.3# 15 4*6# 9-9# l 6 5.4# 12.7# 6 .1# 1 7 9-4# 18 6.5# 1 2 . 9 # 19 7.2# 7.9# 20 8.9# 14.1#

i 3 kO 21 9.2% 2 2 . 2%

22 1 1 *1% 1 2 . 9% 23 1 3 . 6$ 28 .\\% 13.6# 2 2 . 2% 25 1 8 .# 2\.$%

26 29 . 3% $o.k%

A comparison of these columns shows that the percentage of lejfsmo for the category of persons not in direct address is greater in all except one novel and significantly greater in approximately half of the novels. It is apparent that le£3mo in more prevalent in this single category than in any other category. Including all categories, fifteen of the novels show an incidence of le ismo of less than six have between %% and 10%>; four between 10% and 20%, and only one novel has more than 20%. In the single cSategory of referents (persons not in direct address), nine novels have an incidence of leismo of less than $%; eight between $% and 10%; four between 10% and 20%; and fiv e novels have more than 20% leism o. However, the figures given here should not be interpreted as the ratio of absolute preference by the authors of le/les as direct objects. It has been made clear in Chapter I of this study that there are a number of constructions concerning which grammarians do not agree as to whether the case, relationship of 3^1 the pronoun is dative or accusative. In Chapter II, in the discussion of individual novels, attention was called to a number of other factors which might plausibly have influenced the authors to consider the case relationship of the pronoun as dative. Equivocal case relationships could be produced by the following situations or constructions: a) The direct object pronoun accompanied by a redundant phrase (the preposition a plus the d irect noun object) may have been mistakenly equated with the redundant dative construction; b) A transitive verb may have been equated mentally with a verb phrase requiring the dative of person or thing; c) The dative of person might be retained notwithstanding the suppression, possibly unpremeditated, of the accusative of thing in such an expression as le pague (e l dinero)for lo pague; and d) The object pronoun might be construed as a dative with such verbs as llamar and nombrar when an objective complement is employed. Furthermore, the use of le/les for tratamlento or for affected ’’literary" style, where the case relationship is unequivocal, may not be indicative of leismo in the true sense, because of the influence of considerations other than normal employment of dative forms as d irect ob jects. In Interpreting the percentages of lei's mo in these novels, these factors should be taken into consideration, since all occurrences of 3^2 le/lea, other than unquestionably dative constructions, have been included in the tabulation. Compared with the other novels studied, Torres’

La patria perdida, shows a very high incidence of leismo:

29.3$ in all categories and 50.4$ in the category persons not in direct address. Since the next highest incidence is 18.5$ in all categories in Rosa de

Castano's novel La gaviota verde, the explanation for

Torres' lefsmo should be sought in factors or circumstances peculiar to him, and generalizations cannot be made on the basis of his usage. In the construction with a verb of perception followed by the infinitive, as already indicated in the discussion in Chapter III, these novels present Interesting percentages when considered according to whether the referent was masculine singular, masculine plural, feminine singular or feminine plural® The following tables show the incidence of the accusative and dative forms (persons not in direct address) in this milieu with two common verbs of perception: Verb Accusative Forms Dative Forms Infinitive ver m .s. (36) 7 3 .4 7 # (1 3 )2 6 .5 3 # intransitive

m.pl,► (16) 8 4 .2 2 $ (3) 1 5 .7 8 $

f . s . (19) 90 .1j.8 $ (2) 9 .5 2 $

f .p i,.(2) 100$ (0) 0$ ver m .s. (8) 88 . 89 $ (1) 1 1 .11$

m.pl,.(2) 100$ (0) 0$ 31+3 f . s . (5) 100$ (0) 0$

f .p i..(0) (0) ver m .s . (5) 100$ (0) 0$ tra n sitiv e

m.pl.. (0) (0)

f . s . (3) 100$ (0) 0$

f .p i.,(0) (0) ofr m .s. (5) 2 6 .3 3 $ ak)7 3 .6 7 $ intransitive o I— o

m.pl.,(3) I (0) 0$ f .3 . (k) 100$ (0) 0$

f .p i.. (0) (0) ofr m .s. (3) 30$ (7) 70$ tra n sitiv e o m.pl.,(1) H o (0) 0$

f .s . (7) 8 7 .5 0 $ (1) 12. 50$

f .p i..(0) (0)

The table shows that when ver Is followed by a transitive infinitive no dative forms occur at all, but when followed by an intransitive infinitive there appears a considerable percentage of dative forms. The Academy states that the pronoun is accusative in this construction with no regard for the nature of the in fin itiv e . Ramsey, on the other hand, recommends the use of the dative pronoun when the in fin itiv e has an object of Its own, otherwise the accusative. The usage as summarized in the above tabulation, then, shows no regular adherence to the Academy grammar nor to Ramsey. 3kk Likewise, the usage as Indicated with ofr In similar constructions Is at variance with recommendations of both authorities. What is found in the study of pronouns with verbs of perception plus infinitive indicates that there exists a lack of standard and regularized usage in regard to direct object pronominal forms, or a confusion regarding case relationship In these c ons true t i ons • However, there is con sisten t, almost invariable, use of accusative forms with verbs of impulse constructed with a followed by an infinitive. One exception occurs in Galindo’s El bordo, in which le (feminine) occurs as object of enseffar a followed by an infinitive. However, in an id en tica l construction elsewhere in the same novel, la is used. Pronominal usage with hacer and dejar followed by an infinitive has been analyzed to determine how the pronoun is regarded when the infinitive is intransitive, reflexive, and transitive. The following table indicates the forms employed with hacer: Verb Accusative, Forms Dative Forms Infinitive hacer m.s. (A) 6 7 .5 # (26) 3 2 .5 # intransitive

m.pl..(16) 8ij..i$ (3) 15«6$S f . s . (45) 9 5 .8 $ (2)

f .p i..(1) 50% (1) m.s. (10) 9 0 .9 $ (1) 9*1$ r e f l e x i v e

m .p l. (1) 100$ (0) 0$

f . s . (1) 100$ (0) 0$

f .pi. (0) (0)

m.s. (10) 1 8 .3 $ (W 8 1 .7 $ t r a n s i t i v e

m.pl. (8) 30.8$ (20) 69 .2$

f . s . (6) 60$ (4) w

f.pl.(O ) (0)

As shown in Chapter I, grammarians disagree as to what is correct usage in constructions of verbs of causation followed by an (active) infinitive. There is considerable variance, also, in the usage found in these novels. However, the follow ing pattern of usage, with exceptions, is discernible: dative forms if dependent infinitive is transitive; accusative forms if the dependent infinitive is intransitive or reflexive. There is a noticeably greater variation in the pattern where the masculine singular pronoun is involved. The occurrences of the pronominal forms with the verb de.jar are as fo llo w s: Verb Accusative Forms Dative Forma In fin itiv e de.jar m .s. (27) 90$ (3) 10$ intransitive m.pl. (6) 100$ (0) f.s. (12) 100$ (0) f.pl.(l) 100$ (0) m.s. (5) 100$ (0 ) 0$ reflex iv e

m .pl. (0 ) ( 0 )

f.s. (0 ) ( 0)

f.p i.(0 ) ( 0 )

m.s. (0) 0$ (1) 100$ tra n sitiv e

m.pl. (3) 50$ (3) 50$

f . s . (2) 100$ (0) 0$

There are insufficient occurrences of object pronouns with dejar followed by the transitive infinitive on which to base a discernible trend. However, when the infinitive is intransitive it appears that the accusative forms are preferred. Since the discussion of the impersonal active construction with s»e was divided into two sections (simple and more complex), the same division is maintained in the following tables: Construction with single verb: Persons not in direct address Accusative Forms Dative Forms

m.s. (0 ) 0$ (1 ) 100$ m.pl.(O) 0$ (2 0 ) 100$

f.s. (7) ^ 2 .9 $ (i+) 57.1$ Things

m.s. (0 ) 0$ (6 ) 100$ m .pl. (0 ) 0$ (1 ) 100$ f.s. (1) 20$ (1+) 80%

f.pi.(2) 66.6$ (l) 33.:/o

Construction with verb plus infinitive:

Persons not indirect address

m .s. (0) 0% (12) 100$

m.pl. (0) 0$ (9) 100$

f.s. (0) (0) f.pi.(o) (0)

Thlng3

m.s. (0) 0$ (1) 100$

(no other occurrences)

Animals m.pl.(0) 0$ (1) 100$

(no other occurrences)

In these constructions there seems to be a trend toward the use of the dative forms. However, the number of occurrences is in s u f f ic ie n t to v a lid a te the assertion that there is a definite trend with the dative forms.

In summary, the study of usage in the twenty-six

Mexican novels of objective pronouns results in the conclusion that there is no clearly apparent and universally applicable pattern of pronominal usage.

This lack of uniformity in usage parallels the lack of agreement among grammarians concerning grammatical rules of correctness. There is, however, a fairly consistent lofsmo in the simple construction with single verb and single pronoun, where case relationship is clearly accusative. There is an almost total lack of la^3mo in the novels studied. The greatest incidence of leismo occurs in more complex constructions (verb of perception, causation, etc., plus infinitive; impersonal active construction with se; and verbs where there is an objective complement where the case relationship is equivocal and where the grammarians do not agree as to preferred usage). In these complex constructions there seems to be a trend toward the use of the dative forms in the following situations %

A) when the verb has a pronoun object and a noun objective complement, e.g., "Asjf les nombran a esos p£jaros.M^; B) with causative verbs, especially hacer, followed by a transitive infinitive with object expressed; and C) the impersonal active construction with se in both simple and complex constructions.

^Rulfo, o p . eft., p. 11 3l+9

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

NOVELS STUDIED

Azuela, Mariano. Las trlbulaclones de una famllla decente. Tercera edicion. Mexico: Ediciones Botas, 1961• Azuela, Mariano. Los de aba .jo. Mdxico: Ediciones B otas, 1961 . Benftez, Fernando. El ague. envenenada. Mexico: Fondo de Culture Econ&aica, 1^6l.

Castano, Rosa de. La gavlota verde. Mexico: Ediciones B otas, 1931+* Ferretis, Jorge. Tlerra caliente. Madrid: Espasa- Calpe, S. A ., 1^35•

Fuentes, Carlos. La muerte de Artemlo Cruz. Primera edicion. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1962 .

Galindo, Sergio. El bordo. Segunda edicion. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Econ6m lca, i 960 . Guzman, L u is. La sombra d el c a u d lllo . Mexico: Companfa General de fidiciones, S. A., 19614-.

Icaza, Xavier. Dllema. Mexico: Editorial Andres Botas e H ijo s, n.d.

Lira, Miguel N. ^"La Escondida," II, in La novela de la revolution mexlcana, Antonio Casiro "Leal, e d it o r • 2 volumes• Mexico: Aguilar, i 960 .

Lopez y Fuentes, Gregorio. El Indio. Mexico: Ediciones B otas, 19^4- • Lopez y Fuentes, Gregorio. Los peregrlnos inmoviles. Mexico: Ediciones Botas, 19*44 •

Luna, Juan N. La pintura. Mexico: (no publisher), 1914-8. “ Magdaleno, Mauricio. "El resplandor," II, in La novela de la revolution mexicana, Antonio Castro Leal, editor"! 2 volumesT! Mexico: Aguilar, i 960 .

Mancisidor, Jose. Se_ llamaba Catalina. Mexico: Universidad Veracruzana, 1956.

Munoz, R afael F. nSe lle v a r o n e l canon para Bachimba," II, in La novela de la revoluclon mexicana, Antonio Castro Leal, editor. 2 volumes. Mexico: Aguilar, I9o0.

Quevedo y Zubieta, Salvador. La camada. .Mexico: L ib reria de Ch. Bouret, 1^12.

Robles, Fernando. La estrella que no qulso vlvlr. Primera edicion. MexicoFondo de Cultura Economica, 1957*

Romero, Jose R. La vlda lnutll de Plto Perez. Tercera edicion. Mexico: TallereslSrAficos de la Nacion, I 9 I+O. Romero, Jose R. Mi caballo, ml perro, y; mi r ifle . Barcelona: A gustin Riinez, 1$3&7

Rulfo, Juan. Pedro Paramo. Quinta edicion. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Eicondmica, I96 I4.

Spota, Luis. Murleron a mltad del rio. Tercera edicion. Mdxico: Libro Max Edltores, 1962 .

Torres, Teodoro. La patrla perdida. Mexico: Ediciones Botas, 1935* Urquizo, Francisco L. "Tropa vieja,” II, in La novela de la revolucl 6n mexicana, Antonio Castro Leal, editor"! 2 volumes. Mexico: Aguilar, I960.

Usigli, Rodolfo. Ensayo de un crimen. Mexico: Editorial America, l^Zflj-•

Yanez, Agustin. La tlerra prd>dlga. Primera edicion. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, i 960 . BIBLIOGRAPHY B

GRAMMAR REFERENCES

Bello, Andres and Cuervo, Rufino J. Gramatlca de la lengua castellana. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Anaconda, 19^1• Benot, Eduardo. Arte de hablar. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Anaconda, 1941.

Eoff, Sherman H. A Review of Spanish. New York: The MacMillan Company ,”"19°3".

Knapp, W illiam I . A Grammar o f Modern Spanish, 2nd ed . Boston: Ginn and Company, 1892.

Hanssen, Federico. Gramatlca hlstorlca castellana. Halle A. S.: Max Niemeyer, 1913* Lenz, Rodolfo. La oraclon jr sus partes. Segunda edicion. Madrid: Centro de Estudios Historicos, 1925. M artinez Amador, Em ilio M. D icclo n a rlo g ra m a tlca l. Barcelona: E d ito r ia l Ram6n £>opena, S. A ., l9£4*

Ramsey, Marathon M. A Text-Book of Modern Spanish, - 3rd ed . New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1929. Real Academia Espanola. Gramatlca de la lengua espanola Nueva Edicion, Reformada, d e l$ 3 l. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, S. A., 1962 . 352

VITA

Raymond Nichlos Sabatini was born December 5th,

1929, in Bunkie, Louisiana. He received his early

education in the public schools of Bunkie and was

graduated from Bunkie High School in 191+7. In June,

1957, he received his Bachelor of Arts degree from

the University of Southwestern Louisiana, following which he taught in the secondary school at Bunkie, Louisiana. At the present time he is employed at

the University of Virginia as an instructor in

Spanish, and is a candidate for the degree of Doctor

of Philosophy at Louisiana State University. EXAMINATION AND THESIS REPORT

Candidate: Raymond Nichlos Sabatini

Major Field: Romance Philology

Title of Thesis: Usage of the Third Person Object Pronoun in Representative Mexican Novels of the Twentieth Century - a Linguistic Study

Approved:

Major Professor and Cjjnairman

-r—*— —'— “------Dean of the Graduate School

EXAMINING COMMITTEE:

Date of Examination:

November 28, 1966