Handbook of the of Thomas Schramme • Steven Edwards Editors

Handbook of the

With 14 Figures and 8 Tables Editors Thomas Schramme Steven Edwards Department of Philosophy Philosophy, History and Law University of Liverpool Swansea University Liverpool, UK Swansea, UK

ISBN 978-94-017-8687-4 ISBN 978-94-017-8688-1 (eBook) ISBN 978-94-017-8689-8 (print and electronic bundle) DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8688-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016950589

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This Springer imprint is published by Springer The registered company is Springer Science+Business Media B.V. The registered company address is: Van Godewijckstraat 30, 3311 GX Dordrecht, The Netherlands Preface

Philosophy of medicine is a subject that has been around since the beginning of medicine but has only fairly recently, roughly in the last 40 years, been profession- ally developed into a discipline in its own right. It has gained a stronger status in relation to medical or , which focuses on moral issues in medicine, whereas philosophy of medicine has a broader and less applied remit, addressing metaphysical, epistemological, and other philosophical issues in medicine. There are now dedicated societies and academic centers dealing with different topics in philosophy of medicine. This interest is continuously increasing, not least because it has become obvious that several issues in bioethics are based on more theoretical problems of medicine. The Handbook of the Philosophy of Medicine is offered as an all-embracing reference work that analyzes and discusses philosophical issues in relation to medicine and . It does not directly focus on ethical issues in health care, which have been thoroughly discussed in the last few decades, but centers around the basic concepts and methodological problems in medicine, which often underlie the ethical debates in health care. This is the first wide-ranging, multiauthored handbook in the field. It introduces and develops dozens of topics, concepts, and issues and is written by distinguished specialists from multiple disciplines. The Handbook of the Philosophy of Medicine aims to be the most thorough book of its kind, covering all major topics that have been discussed in this vibrant area. It provides a single source of information for this far-ranging and still developing field. The chapters also advance these debates and aim at setting the agenda for years to come. The handbook provide essential reading for anyone who wishes to develop an in-depth understanding of the philos- ophy of medicine or any of its subfields. It will be an invaluable source for laypeople, academics with an interest in medicine, and health care specialists who want to be informed and up to date with the relevant discussions. A book project of this scale is very much a team effort. We are immensely grateful for the support of so many friends and colleagues. Most importantly, our authors have been fantastic to work with. Their enthusiasm for the project and their desire to advance the discipline, as well as their level of scholarship in the relevant areas, have made our task very easy. The members of the Advisory Board, Ruth Chadwick, Wim Dekkers, Martyn Evans, Elselijn Kingma, Lennart Nordenfelt, and Pekka Louhiala,

v vi Preface were extremely supportive and helped us enormously in identifying relevant topics and suitable authors. Finally, editorial staff at Springer, Alexa Singh, Navjeet Kaur, and Abhijit Baroi, were a pleasure to work with. They diligently and speedily produced the submitted chapters. In addition, Mike Hermann at the New York office supervised the project from beginning to end and provided invaluable advice.

Department of Philosophy, University of Thomas Schramme Liverpool, Liverpool, UK Philosophy, History and Law, Swansea Steven Edwards University, Swansea, UK Contents

Volume 1

Part I Core Concepts in Health Care ...... 1

1 Philosophy of Medicine and Bioethics ...... 3 Thomas Schramme

2 Normality as Convention and as Scientific Fact ...... 17 Ruth Chadwick

3 On Concepts of Positive Health ...... 29 Lennart Nordenfelt

4 Disease as Scientific and as Value-Laden Concept ...... 45 Elselijn Kingma

5 Mental Disorders as Genuine Medical Conditions ...... 65 Jerome C. Wakefield

6 Curing and Healing: Two Goals of Medicine ...... 83 Dorota Szawarska

7 Illness and Its : The Patient Perspective ...... 93 Havi Carel

8 as Caring ...... 109 Derek Sellman

9 Goals of Medicine ...... 121 Thomas Schramme

10 Suffering: Harm to Bodies, Minds, and Persons ...... 129 Bjørn Hofmann

vii viii Contents

11 Disability as Medical and as Social Category ...... 147 Steven Edwards 12 Subjective and Objective Accounts of Well- and Quality of Life ...... 159 Thomas Schramme 13 as a Subjective and Objective ...... 169 Wim Dekkers 14 Death as Biological Category ...... 189 Stephen Holland 15 Suicide ...... 207 Steven Edwards 16 Enhancing Human Abilities and Characteristics Beyond Normality ...... 223 Andrew Bloodworth 17 How Can Aging Be Thought of as Anything Other Than a Disease? ...... 233 Arthur Caplan

Part II Organisms ...... 241

18 Human Organisms from an Evolutionary Perspective: Its Significance for Medicine ...... 243 Mahesh Ananth 19 Human Nature as Normative Concept: Relevance for Health Care ...... 273 Nicanor Pier Giorgio Austriaco O.P. 20 Conceptions of Health and Disease in Plants and Animals ...... 287 Henrik Lerner 21 Genetic Information in Medicine: Its Generation, Significance, and Use ...... 303 Angus Clarke 22 Conceptualization of Genetic Disease ...... 325 Catherine Dekeuwer 23 Mind-Brain Dualism and Its Place in Mental Health Care ...... 345 Eric Matthews 24 Memory, Identity and Dementia ...... 359 Simon and John McMillan Contents ix

25 Children Are Not Small Adults: Significance of Biological and Cognitive Development in Medical Practice ...... 371 Vic Larcher

26 Extending Human Life as an Aim of Medicine ...... 395 Søren Holm

Part III Patients ...... 409

27 in Health Care: Patient as Person ...... 411 Simon Woods

28 Hope, Despair, and Other Strategies of Patients ...... 429 Kenneth Boyd

29 Dignity of the Patient ...... 441 Andrew Edgar and Lennart Nordenfelt

30 The Living Body and the Lived Body in the Clinical Encounter: How Does the Body Shape Ethical Practice ...... 463 Dorothée Legrand

31 Trust and Mistrust Between Patients and Doctors ...... 487 John Saunders

32 Spirituality in Health Care ...... 503 John Paley

33 Dying and the End of Life ...... 529 James Stacey Taylor

34 “Lives at Risk” Study: Philosophical and Ethical Implications of Using Narrative Inquiry in Health Services Research ...... 539 Ashrafunnesa Khanom, Sarah Wright, Marcus Doel, Melanie Storey, Clare Clement, and Frances Rapport

35 Delusions: A Project in Understanding ...... 557 KWM Fulford and Tim Thornton

36 Impairments of Personal Freedom in Mental Disorders ...... 577 Jann E. Schlimme

37 Mental Capacity of Adult Patients in Health Care ...... 597 Jeanette Hewitt

38 Patients’ Responsibility for Their Health ...... 619 Martin Langanke, Wenke Liedtke, and Alena Buyx x Contents

Volume 2

Part IV Clinical Settings and Healthcare Personnel ...... 641

39 Applying Medical : Diagnosing Disease ...... 643 William E. Stempsey

40 Technology and Dehumanization of Medicine ...... 661 Keekok Lee

41 Professionalism in Health Care ...... 677 Andrew Edgar

42 Skilled Know-How, Virtuosity, and Expertise in Clinical Practice ...... 699 Hillel D. Braude

43 Meaning and Use of Placebo: Philosophical Considerations ..... 717 Pekka Louhiala and Raimo Puustinen

44 Philosophical Issues in Nanomedicine ...... 729 Christian Lenk

45 Philosophy of Sports Medicine ...... 741 Silvia Camporesi and Mike McNamee

Part V Medical Knowledge ...... 757

46 Medicine as Art and Science ...... 759 Kristine Bærøe

47 Biomedical Reductionist, Humanist, and Biopsychosocial Models in Medicine ...... 773 S. Nassir Ghaemi

48 Medical and Its Notions of Definition and Explanation . . . 793 Peter Hucklenbroich

49 Cultural Influences on Medical Knowledge ...... 803 David Hughes

50 and the Hippocratic Tradition: Impact on Development of Medical Knowledge and Practice? ...... 821 James A. Marcum

51 Causation and Correlation in Medical Science: Theoretical Problems ...... 839 Federica Russo Contents xi

52 Evidence-Based Medicine in Theory and Practice: Epistemological and Normative Issues ...... 851 Wendy Rogers and Katrina Hutchison 53 Randomized Trials and Observational Studies: The Current Philosophical Controversy ...... 873 Jeremy Howick and Alexander Mebius 54 Statistical Generalizations in Epidemiology: Philosophical Analysis ...... 887 Federica Russo 55 Personalized Medicine: Conceptual, Ethical, and Empirical Challenges ...... 903 Jan Schildmann and Jochen Vollmann 56 Synthetic Biology and Its Envisioned Significance for Modern Medicine ...... 915 Matthias Braun, Jens Ried, and Peter Dabrock 57 Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) and Its Relationship to Western Medicine ...... 927 Pekka Louhiala 58 Psychoanalysis as Science ...... 937 Martin Hoffmann

Part VI Nosology ...... 959

59 WHO’sDefinition of Health: Philosophical Analysis ...... 961 Jerome Bickenbach 60 Health as Notion in Public Health ...... 975 Thomas Schramme 61 Identity Disorders: Philosophical Problems ...... 985 Hugh Upton 62 Personality Disorder: Philosophical Problems ...... 1005 Peter Zachar 63 Philosophical Implications of Changes in the Classification of Mental Disorders in DSM-5 ...... 1025 Andreas Heinz, Eva Friedel, Hans-Peter Krüger, and Carolin Wackerhagen

Part VII Health as a Social and Political Issue ...... 1041

64 Medicalization of Social Problems ...... 1043 Ashley Frawley xii Contents

65 Changing Human Nature: The Ethical Challenge of Biotechnological Interventions on Humans ...... 1061 Jan-Christoph Heilinger, Oliver Müller, and Matthew Sample 66 Social Determinants of Health ...... 1077 Sridhar Venkatapuram 67 Health Promotion in Public Health: Philosophical Analysis ..... 1089 Peter Allmark 68 Psychopathy: Morally Incapacitated Persons ...... 1109 Heidi Maibom Index ...... 1131 About the Editors

Thomas Schramme is Chair in Philosophy at the Uni- versity of Liverpool. He was Professor of Philosophy at the University of Hamburg from 2009 to 2016. He had affiliations with Swansea University (2005–2009) and the University of Mannheim (1998–2004). He earned his Ph.D. at Free University Berlin with a thesis on the concept of mental illness. His main research interests are in philosophy of medicine, , and moral philosophy. He has published in journals such as Bioethics, Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, Interna- tional Journal of Law and Psychiatry, and Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics.He edited several special issues and sections: “Expanding the normative framework of public health ethics: Some results from an interdisciplinary research group,” Public Health Ethics 1/2015 (with Stefan Huster); “Christopher Boorse and the Philosophy of Medicine,” Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 39 (6), 2014; “New Trends in ,” Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 31 (1), 2010; “Lennart Nordenfelt’s theory of health,” Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy: A European Journal 10 (1), 2007. In addition, Schramme published several edited collections: New Perspectives on Paternalism and Health Care (Springer 2015), Being Amoral: Psychopathy and Moral Incapacity (MIT Press), and Philosophy and Psychiatry (de Gruyter Verlag 2004; with Johannes Thome).

Prof. Steven D. Edwards After working in the fields of intellectual disability and psychiatric nursing in the 1970s and 1980s, Prof. Edwards left nursing to study philosophy at the University of Manchester, UK. From there he obtained degrees in philosophy at the levels of undergraduate, masters (M.Phil.) (), and Ph.D. (). After studying and teach- ing in the Department of Philosophy at the University of Manchester, he worked as a Senior Lecturer in Philosophy at Buckinghamshire Chilterns University,

xiii xiv About the Editors before moving to join the Centre for Philosophy and Healthcare at University of Wales, Swansea, in 1995. He obtained a University of Wales Personal Chair in Philosophy of Healthcare in 2004. His academic interests are varied and he has published in a wide range of areas of philosophy, but over the past 20 years he has specialized in ethics and philosophy in the context of healthcare. He was founding coeditor of the journal Nursing Philosophy and has published books in philosophy of nursing, , philosophy of disability, philosophy of mind, and relativism. In addition to these books, he has published approximately 70 academic papers in scholarly journals. With respect to course leadership, for several years he was Director of Swansea University’s MA Ethics of Health Care, and also Program Director of the BSc Medical Science and Humanities. He has been actively involved in the establishment of Clinical Ethics Committees in South Wales and is currently Chair of ABMU Health Board Clinical Ethics Committee. His current research is focussed on linguistic rights in healthcare, as well as ethical issues regarding the treatment of extremely premature neonates. Contributors

Peter Allmark Centre for Health and Social Care Research, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK

Mahesh Ananth Department of Philosophy, Indiana University South Bend, South Bend, IN, USA Nicanor Pier Giorgio Austriaco O.P. Department of Biology, Providence College, Providence, RI, USA

Kristine Bærøe University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway Jerome Bickenbach Human Functioning Sciences, Swiss Paraplegic Research, Nottwil, Switzerland Andrew Bloodworth Department of Inter-Professional Studies, College of Human and Health Sciences, Swansea University, Swansea, UK

Kenneth Boyd Biomedical Teaching Organisation, Edinburgh University , Edinburgh, Scotland, UK Hillel D. Braude The Mifne Center, Rosh Pinna, Israel Matthias Braun Department of Theology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany

Alena Buyx Institute of Experimental Medicine, Christian Albrechts University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany Silvia Camporesi Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK

Arthur Caplan NYU Langone Medical Center and School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA

Havi Carel Department of Philosophy, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK Ruth Chadwick University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

xv xvi Contributors

Angus Clarke Institute of Medical Genetics Building, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK Clare Clement College of Medicine, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, UK Peter Dabrock Department of Theology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen- Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany Catherine Dekeuwer Jean Moulin University Lyon III, Lyon, France Wim Dekkers IQ Healthcare, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Marcus Doel College of Science, Department of Geography, Wallace Building, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, UK Andrew Edgar Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK Steven Edwards Philosophy, History and Law, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, UK Ashley Frawley Department of Public Health, Policy and Social Sciences, Swansea University, Swansea, UK Eva Friedel Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie Campus Charité Mitte, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany KWM Fulford Faculty of Philosophy, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK S. Nassir Ghaemi Department of Psychiatry, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA Mood Disorders Program, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, USA Cambridge Health Alliance, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA Jan-Christoph Heilinger University of Munich, Munich Center for Ethics, Munich, Germany Andreas Heinz Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie Campus Charité Mitte, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany Jeanette Hewitt Centre for Philosophy, History, and Law, Swansea University, Swansea, UK Martin Hoffmann Philosophisches Seminar, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany Bjørn Hofmann The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Gjøvik, Norway Centre for , University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Contributors xvii

Stephen Holland Departments of Philosophy and Health Sciences, University of York, Heslington, York, UK Søren Holm School of Law, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Center for Medical Ethics, HELSAM, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark Jeremy Howick Nuffield Department of Health Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Peter Hucklenbroich Institut für Ethik, Geschichte und Theorie der Medizin, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Münster, Germany David Hughes Department of Public Health and Policy Studies, Swansea Univer- sity, Swansea, UK Katrina Hutchison Department of Philosophy, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Ashrafunnesa Khanom College of Medicine, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, UK Elselijn Kingma University of Southampton, Southampton, UK Hans-Peter Krüger Institut für Politische Philosophie und Philosophische Anthropologie, Universität Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany Martin Langanke Faculty of Theology, Systematic Theology, Ernst Moritz Arndt University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany Institute for Ethics and History of Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany Vic Larcher Honorary Consultant in Paediatrics and Ethics, Great Ormond Street , London, UK Keekok Lee Faculty of Humanities, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Dorothée Legrand Archives Husserl, CNRS, Ecole normale supérieure, Paris Sciences et Lettres Research University, Paris, France Christian Lenk Ulm University, Institute for History, Theory and Ethics of Medicine, Ulm, Germany Henrik Lerner Department of Health Care Sciences, Ersta Sköndal University College, Stockholm, Sweden Wenke Liedtke Faculty of Theology, Systematic Theology, Ernst Moritz Arndt University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany Pekka Louhiala Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Finland xviii Contributors

Heidi Maibom University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA James A. Marcum Department of Philosophy, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA Eric Matthews The School of Divinity, History and Philosophy, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK John McMillan Bioethics Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand Mike McNamee College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, UK Alexander Mebius Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Oliver Müller University of Freiburg, Department of Philosophy and BrainLinks- BrainTools, Freiburg, Germany Lennart Nordenfelt Ersta Sköndal University College, Stockholm, Sweden John Paley Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK Raimo Puustinen Medical School, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland Frances Rapport Centre for Healthcare Resilience and Implementation Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia Jens Ried Department of Theology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen- Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany Wendy Rogers Department of Philosophy and Department of Clinical Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia Federica Russo Department of Philosophy, Faculty of Humanities, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Matthew Sample University of Washington, Department of Philosophy, Seattle, WA, USA John Saunders College of Human and Health Sciences, Swansea University, Swansea, UK Jan Schildmann Faculty of Medicine, Institute for Medical Ethics and History of Medicine, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany Jann E. Schlimme Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité Univer- sity Medicine, Berlin, Germany Thomas Schramme Department of Philosophy, University of Liverpool, Liver- pool, UK Derek Sellman Faculty of Nursing, Edmonton Health Academy, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada Contributors xix

James Stacey Taylor Philosophy, , and Classical Studies, The College of New Jersey, Ewing, NJ, USA William E. Stempsey Department of Philosophy, College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, MA, USA Melanie Storey College of Medicine, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, UK Dorota Szawarska Warsaw, Poland Tim Thornton College of Health and Wellbeing, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, Lancashire, UK Hugh Upton College of Human and Health Sciences, Swansea University, Swan- sea, Wales, UK Sridhar Venkatapuram Global Health and Social Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK Jochen Vollmann Faculty of Medicine, Institute for Medical Ethics and History of Medicine, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany Carolin Wackerhagen Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie Campus Charité Mitte, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany Jerome C. Wakefield Silver School of Social Work and Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, USA Simon Walker Bioethics Centre/Te Pokapū Matatika Koiora, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand Simon Woods PEALS (Policy, Ethics and Life Sciences) Research Centre, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK Sarah Wright College of Medicine, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, UK Peter Zachar Department of Psychology, Auburn University Montgomery, Montgomery, AL, USA