Time Perspective Theory; Review, Research and Application

Maciej Stolarski • Nicolas Fieulaine Wessel van Beek Editors

Essays in Honor of Philip G. Zimbardo Editors Maciej Stolarski Nicolas Fieulaine Faculty of Psychology Groupe de Recherche en Psychologie University of Warsaw Sociale, Institut de Psychologie Warsaw , Poland Université de Lyon Bron , France Wessel van Beek GGZ Veenendaal Veenendaal , The Netherlands

ISBN 978-3-319-07367-5 ISBN 978-3-319-07368-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-07368-2 Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014942519

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifi cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfi lms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifi cally for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

Photo Credit goes to Linda A. Cicero/Stanford News Service, who kindly granted us the use of her picture on our cover.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) To Phil Zimbardo, our Teacher, our Mentor, our Friend

To all authors, who promptly replied to our many requests and patiently waited for ours

To our families and friends, who supported and encouraged us during this huge but exciting project

To our colleagues from the TP international network and beyond

May the time be on your side!

Maciej, Nicolas, & Wessel

Philip Zimbardo is internationally recognized as the “voice and face of contemporary psychology” through his widely viewed PBS-TV series, Discovering Psychology , his media appearances, best- selling trade books, and his classic research, The Stanford Prison Experiment. Zimbardo has been a Stanford University professor since 1968 (now emeritus), having taught previously at Yale, NYU, and Columbia University. He also continues to teach at the Naval Post Graduate School in Monterey (courses on the psychology of terrorism), and is professor at the Palo Alto University (teaching social psychology to clinical graduate students). Zimbardo has been given numerous awards and honors as an educator, researcher, writer, media contributor, and for service to the profession of psychology. He has been awarded the Vaclav Havel Foundation Prize for his lifetime of research on the human condition. Among his more than 400 professional publications, including 50 trade and textbooks, is the oldest current textbook in psychology, Psychology and Life, and Core Concepts in Psychology in its seventh

edition. His popular book on shyness in adults was the ﬁ rst of its kind, as was the shyness clinic that he started in the community and continues as a treatment- research clinic at the Palo Alto University in Palo Alto. His current research interests are in the domain of experimental social psychology, with a scattered emphasis on everything interesting to study from: time perspective, persuasion, madness, violence, political psychology, and terrorism. His current passion is The Heroic Imagination Project, exploring and encouraging the psychology of everyday heroes. Noted for his personal and professional efforts to actually ‘give psychology away to the public’, Zimbardo has also been a social- political activist, challenging the Government’s wars in Vietnam and Iraq, as well as the American Correctional System. Zimbardo has been President of the American Psychological Association (2002), President of the Western Psychological Association (twice), Chair of the Council of Scientiﬁ c Society Presidents (CSSP), and now Chair of the Western Psychological Foundation, as well as the Director of the Center for Interdisciplinary Policy, Education, and Research on Terrorism (CIPERT). He is excited about his recent trade books, including: The Lucifer Effect (Random House, 2007, paperback, 2008), The Time Paradox (with John Boyd, Free Press, 2008), The Demise of Guys (with Nikita Duncan, TED books, 2012), and Time Cure (with Richard and Rosemary Sword, Wiley, 2012).

Foreword

R e ﬂ ections on the Beginning of Time… Perspective

When Phil Zimbardo joined the Stanford faculty in the late 1960s, he came with prior training in hypnosis and experience in using it as a methodological tool (Zimbardo 1969). However, at Stanford he developed a new working relationship with the hypnosis laboratory run by his colleague, Jack Hilgard. Phil then organized a research team to use hypnosis methodology to study various cognitive and emotional processes. I was one of the members of that team, along with Gary Marshall and Greg White, and we conducted a number of different studies on such phenom- ena as unexplained arousal and control of physiological processes (see Maslach et al. 1979). The results of the unexplained arousal studies led Phil to do his later, innovative research on discontinuity theory and madness (Zimbardo 1999). But the most exciting studies that our team conducted were those having to do with people’s personal sense of time. Phil used both his own experiences and those of others to begin developing an idea that the way in which people understand and experience the fl ow of time as well as perceive distinctions between past, present, and future might provide great insights into various patterns of human behavior. He read all kinds of source materials with relevance to time, including historical, religious, economic, literary, and cross-cultural ones, and took his inspiration from these as well as from psychology, sociology, and anthropology. The discussions that we had about these new ideas, and about possible hypotheses, were truly fascinating. Our fi rst study focused on the notion of an expanded present, and we devised several behavioral measures to assess both the effectiveness of our hypnotic induction and of the hypothesized outcomes (Zimbardo et al. 1971). The research design compared the responses of twelve trained hypnotic subjects given the suggestion to “allow the present to expand and the past and future to become distant and insignifi - cant” with those of eighteen other subjects distributed across three control conditions. In two of these conditions, the same expanded present time distortion instruction was given: half of these subjects were simulators, told to imagine how

ix x Foreword hypnotized subjects would respond and then to act in that way, while the other half were waking controls who merely received the expanded present instruction without any mention of hypnosis. The fourth group was a normal-time control, who did not receive any time distortion instructions (although they were asked to think about their own conception of time instead). All of the subjects engaged in three tasks. The fi rst involved writing projective stories in response to two TAT pictures, one before and one after the time distortion manipulation. As predicted, the hypnotic subjects shifted to using more present tense verbs and making more references to present events and fewer to future ones. However, the simulators were able to fi gure out this response and did the same thing to an even greater degree. On the second task, the subjects were asked to listen to a tape recording of two comedians trying to make a radio commercial for their new fi lm, and as these two made mistakes, they began to criticize and curse each other in increasingly obscene ways. While listen- ing to this unexpected and socially inappropriate tape, subjects in the three control conditions were more restrained in their behavior and only smiled occasionally. But as predicted, the hypnotic “expanded present” subjects got totally caught up in the experience, laughed loudly, and expressed their comments in similarly humorous and obscene terms. The third task was designed to get the subjects involved in a sensory experience through the physical action of making something out of a large mound of sticky clay. All of the control subjects were upset about getting so messy and dirty while working with the clay, and they stopped the task as soon as they were told to. In vivid contrast, the hypnotic “expanded present” subjects were not at all concerned about the clay’s messiness, but had more fun with it. Even more strik- ing, when they were told to stop, they were so involved in the process that they just kept on playing with the clay for another fi ve minutes (until the experimenter insisted that they stop and leave the room). In addition to a subjective conceptualization of past, present, and future, people also develop a time sense of personal tempo. This involves both the estimation of the rate at which events are occurring and affective reactions to different rates of stimulus input. We designed a study in which this experienced tempo was altered through a hypnotic induction (Zimbardo et al. 1973). We assumed that if time is perceived as existing in a new relationship to the occurrence of certain events, then behavioral measures that are sensitive to the rate of responding should reveal this altered perception. All subjects in the study were taught to press a telegraph key at different rates in order to illuminate various target lights in an array of ten colored lights. They then participated in four trials, in which the fi rst and third were baseline and the second and fourth were experimental. On one baseline trial, each subject was instructed to keep the red light illuminated (three presses per second), and on the other baseline trial, the subject was instructed to keep the blue light illuminated (six presses per second). Interspersed between these baseline trials were the instructions to modify personal tempo; on one trial, subjects were told to experience time as slowing down (“so that a second will seem like a minute, and a minute will seem like an hour”), while on the other trial, subjects were told to experience time as Foreword xi speeding up. Between these two tempo modifi cation instructions (which were coun- terbalanced), subjects were told to normalize their experience of time. The 36 subjects were randomly assigned to one of three treatments: hypnosis, hypnotic simulation, and waking non-hypnotized control. Only the hypnotic subjects were reliably able to translate the verbal suggestion of asynchronicity between clock time and personal time into behavioral reality. This was shown in comparisons of mean rates of response, percentage of total time on and off target, mean deviation in individual response rates from baseline to experimental response levels, and even in the more subtle measure of displacement of the response distribution. Although we were excited by these initial empirical fi ndings on time, we did not follow up on them for quite a while, mainly for two reasons: in 1971 Phil conducted the Stanford Prison Experiment (which subsequently consumed a lot of his professional life), and I became an assistant professor at the University of California, Berkeley (where I had to start my own line of independent research). In addition, to be frank, there was not a lot of external interest in our time research at that point— the reactions were either dismissive of the hypnosis methodology or of the particu- lar ideas. Fortunately, many years later, Phil did return to his original fascination with time. With the collaboration of some graduate students, most notably John Boyd, Kelli Keough, Kent Harber, Alison Holman, and Alex Gonzalez, he did some new studies and developed a measure of time perspective, the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI). And then, to his great surprise and gratitude, the phenomenon of time perspective began to attract the attention of many researchers around the world. This global team of colleagues, many of whom have contributed to this volume, has done extraordinary work on time, with a remarkable level of collaboration and friendship. All of this new work has brought great joy to Phil, and he continues to be in touch with this global team and to join them at various conferences. The fact that all of these colleagues have contributed their research to this book, in honor of Phil’s 80th birthday, is absolutely the most wonderful gift they could give him, and I thank them all from the bottom of my heart!

References

Maslach, C., Zimbardo, P. G., & Marshall, G. (1979). Hypnosis as a means of studying cognitive and behavioral control. In E. Fromm, & R. Shor (Eds.), Hypnosis: Developments in research and new perspectives (2nd ed., pp. 649–683) Hawthorne: Aldine. Zimbardo, P. G. (1969). The cognitive control of motivation: The consequences of choice and dissonance. Glenview: Scott Foresman. xii Foreword

Zimbardo, P. G. (1999). Discontinuity theory: Cognitive and social searches for rationality and normality – May lead to madness. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 31, 345–486. Zimbardo, P. G., Marshall, G., & Maslach, C. (1971). Liberating behavior from time-bound control: Expanding the present through hypnosis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1, 305–323. Zimbardo, P. G., Marshall, G., White, G., & Maslach, C. (1973). Objective assessment of hypnotically induced time distortion. Science, 181, 282 – 284.

University of California Christina Maslach Berkeley , CA , USA Laudation

The Life and Time of Philip Zimbardo

A Man of Consistent Extremes

I fi rst met Phil in the spring of 1994. I had been admitted to Stanford for the fall term, and we were both excited to get to work early on time-related research. I had previously known him only through his publications and through Discovering Psychology , his PBS television series. I vividly remember being struck by contrasts as I walked into his offi ce that beautiful spring Stanford day. My immediate sense was that Phil’s public persona was inconsistent—some might say dissonant—with his true self. His offi ce looked nothing like the staid, professional offi ce that I had seen on TV. It instead looked like he had recently downsized from a much larger offi ce and was still in the process of unpacking. Piles of papers, boxes of lecture material, and mail were strewn about. I was shocked. Over the years, however, I learned that Phil is not a man of inconsistencies, but a man of consistent extremes. His high future orientation does not confl ict with his high present-hedonism. Phil is simply very high or very low on every dimension of time perspective, and most other individual difference measures as well. Back in 1994, I didn’t realize this, and I remember thinking, just momentarily, “What have I gotten myself into?” What I had gotten myself into, of course, was the adventure of a lifetime. I worked very closely with Phil over the next 5 years, and we continue to collaborate today. In the next few pages, I hope to provide some insight into what it was like to work closely with a man that is exceptional in more ways that anyone else that I’ve ever met. If you fail to be impressed, it’s due to the limitation of my writing ability, not to my subject matter.

xiii xiv Laudation

His Escape from Present-Fatalistic and Past-Negative Time Perspectives

Time had begun to shape Phil’s life long before I showed up at his offi ce door. In fact, it’s no surprise that Phil ultimately studied time given the profound role that time—and his attitudes toward it—played in his life. Phil grew up in the Bronx, New York, which, like most of our hometowns, is a source both of great pride and modest insecurity. In Phil’s eyes, the Bronx was a great place to be from . When he talks about it, he describes the neighborhood as a sea of poverty, ignorance, and hopelessness, which it undoubtedly was. Yet somehow the negativity and pessimism that permeated his youth never managed to stain Phil. His Present-Fatalism score is a remarkably low 1.1, and his Past-Negative score is an equally surprising 1.9. Through a combination of Past-Positive and a nascent Future time perspective, Phil was able to transcend the Present-Fatalism that could have defi ned his life. His family—and his thick Sicilian blood, as he would say—was clearly a source of strength. Phil’s father, the family bread winner, was relatively uneducated by current standards—he fi nished 8th grade—but he was extremely bright. He built the fi rst TV in their neighborhood by hand, which would be quite an accomplishment even today. Phil’s mother held the family together and insisted that Phil take care of his younger siblings. She was a saint, and she died in Phil’s arms. Phil’s brothers and sister were a constant source of playmates and support. Don, one of Phil’s younger brothers, describes Phil alternately as a loving brother, the ring leader, the person that could hit the softball the farthest, the brother that could have played AAA baseball, and the brother that was blessed with a 160 IQ. Phil was obviously blessed in many ways: with great intellect, with great athletic skill, with great inter- personal skills, and with great drive. Perhaps his greatest gift, however, was his loving family that sheltered and protected him from the life that he could have had. Phil’s Past-Positive time perspective is a remarkable 5.0.

An Education in Future Time Perspective

While Phil learned to embrace a Past-Positive and to ward off a Present-Fatalistic time perspective from his family, he began to learn a Future orientation from his teachers. He was very smart, and he quickly learned that, if he listen to what his teachers said now and did what they said later, he was rewarded. He passionately embraced a Future time perspective, and he never looked back. He worked extremely hard at whatever he did, and he was soon a track star and stellar student at James Monroe High School in the Bronx. In retrospect, the social science curriculum at James Monroe is somewhat sus- pect. It seems highly coincidental that the two people most responsible for the cre- ation of the morally responsible but occasionally bureaucratically impenetrable organization known as a Human Subject Committee would, by chance, be high Laudation xv school classmates. That’s right. Phil Zimbardo and “little” Stanley Milgram were high school classmates. (Stan Getz, the famous jazz musician, whom Phil would befriend after moving to San Francisco, is also a James Monroe alumnus). By Phil’s account, Stanley was the smartest guy in his high school class, and Phil was the most popular. I’m not sure about the fi rst point, but I have no doubts about the second. At some point during high school, Phil’s family moved to Los Angeles. A rela- tive had lined up a good job for Phil’s dad. The time that Phil’s family spent in LA was mostly unremarkable. The job was not as good as promised, and the family missed the Bronx. Phil felt stigmatized as a mafi a family without the advantages of actually being a member. For the fi rst time in his life, he developed asthma. After less than a year, they moved home. What was remarkable about this episode was the journal that Phil kept during his family’s road trip from New York to California. He found it while I was a graduate student with him. He showed it to me, because he was amazed by the younger version of himself. He was right to be impressed. It was, in essence, the most detailed lab journal that I have ever read. Each day started with the precise time that the family woke up, which was followed by what they had for breakfast, how much it cost, and the exact time that they began their journey. He covered the price of gas, the number of gallons purchased at each stop, and the number of miles driven. He then calculated the average miles per gallon. He noted the sights and scenes in such detail that his description could be used to rebuild the original Route 66. The journal impressed me in multiple ways. First, and most personally, it was something that I would not have done. As much as I wanted to be like Phil, he is different than me, and, dare I say, he is likely different than you. Second, it refl ected an attention to detail that I had not previously experienced. I have never met anyone else that would strive to capture life in such excruciating detail. It was a Jan Van Eyck painting in words. Finally, it refl ected a future orientation that was clearly foreign to me when I was in high school. Who would read his treatise? It was either a future version of himself, which actually happened, or someone else. You might say that keeping a journal was a present-oriented way to pass the time. I would agree, if he only did it for a day or two. Phil kept it for the entire week-long journey. As Phil would later document, future orientation is associated with academic success. He had to look no farther than his own life. His future orientation in high school led to academic success that led him to Brooklyn College, where he was the fi rst person in his family to graduate from college. His future orientation at Brooklyn College led him to Yale, where he began his career as a behaviorist. That’s right. The world’s most famous social psychologist began his career running rats. His advisor suffered from depression and tragically committed suicide early during Phil’s graduate career. Phil did what you would expect a brilliant, future-oriented grad student to do. He analyzed the remaining data, wrote the resulting papers, and got his advisor publications posthumously. After the unfortunate death of his advisor, Phil gravitated to the work of Carl Hovland, whom Phil greatly admired. Phil recounted how Carl had acted at xvi Laudation a multiday conference years before. Carl was the conference organizer, and, after the fi nal presentation, Carl said that he thought that all of the presentations had been outstanding. Carl proceeded to summarize the best parts of each conference presentation without the benefi t of notes so brilliantly that even if the original presentation was not outstanding, what Carl took from it was. According to Phil, Hovland was a brilliant, organized thinker, and from “good Midwestern stock,” as was Ernest Hilgard with whom Phil would later collaborate on hypnosis research. For Phil, the term “good Midwestern stock” was a high compliment that signifi ed the ability to work grueling hours in the pursuit of knowledge without showing visible signs of stress. Phil doesn’t have the Midwestern genes, but he certainly has the trait, which is yet another case study suggesting that the situation matters.

A “Quantum Leap” in Future Orientation

In 1960, Phil moved to NYU in the Bronx, where he was an assistant professor. This was the most diffi cult stretch in Phil’s professional career. He taught fi ve courses each semester and was still expected to publish, which was a lot to ask even of Phil. He did manage to have some fun, such as the time he invited a young Muslim minister to speak to a largely Jewish class. The minister walked softly to the podium and quietly placed a Koran on it. He then humbly asked for the class’s permission to begin with a prayer, which they of course granted. The lecture then began with a whisper. The tone of the minister’s voice and the power of his words then grew to an impassioned crescendo. By the end, the entire class had joined the crusade for African American equality. Malcolm X was an even better speaker than you’ve been led to believe in movies. During his seven years at NYU, Phil was invited to fi ll in for a year at Columbia University while Stanley Schachter was on sabbatical. Part of his responsibilities as an invited visitor was to act as host and tour guide for candidates for tenured posi- tions that Phil coveted. This was an understandably awkward and embarrassing position for Phil, because he himself was obviously being overlooked in their search. At one point, an exasperated Phil asked the department chair what he needed to do to secure a tenured position. The department chair responded that Phil needed a “quantum leap in visibility,” which only strengthened Phil’s future orientation. As a result, hardworking Phil began to work even harder. As evidence of his hard work, there is a ten-year stretch from which Phil does not recognize any popular songs. Unfortunately for Phil, he picked a bad decade to miss, the 1960s . Before you feel too sorry for future-oriented Phil, you should know how the NYU chapter ended. As Phil was toiling away for the benefi t of NYU, he received an unexpected phone call. On the other end of the call was Albert Hastorf, chair of the Stanford Department of Psychology. Completely out of the blue, Al asked Phil what it would take for him to give up everything that he had going for him at NYU and to accept a position as a full, tenured professor at Stanford. Phil’s answer: A bus ticket. Thus, Phil went from an assistant professorship at NYU to a full professorship at Stanford. There is some justice in this world. Laudation xvii

Present-Hedonism Tempered by Future Time Perspective

It hasn’t been all-work-and-no-play for Phil. While a Future time perspective has dominated his life, Phil, unlike many very successful people, has managed to main- tain a healthy present-hedonism. He is a sucker for sweets and Macadamia nuts, and his 30-min meetings have been known to last hours. He loves physical contact, and he has the ability to be completely in the moment when he interacts, which is a trait that he greatly admires in others such as Bill Clinton. He loves parties, and he’s a wonderful, gracious host. He likes to laugh. Phil’s Present-Hedonistic time perspective is a high 3.5. Despite his passion for life, Phil has managed to avoid the negative aspects of Present-Hedonism. He drinks alcohol, but I’ve never seen him drunk. He lived through the 1960s on college campuses, but, unlike Clinton, he didn’t do drugs. You might ﬁ nd this somewhat surprising, given the enthusiasm with which he embraces deviance, but it makes perfect sense from the perspective of future orientation. The fact that Phil didn’t try drugs wasn’t a moral position. He just didn’t have time. His Future time perspective interfered with his enjoyment of the music of the 1960s, but it also inoculated him against an aspect of the 1960s that, for many, was destructive.

Future Orientation as a Way of Life

Phil arrived at Stanford in 1968 feeling like his future orientation and hard work had fi nally paid off. They had. He had reached the top of the pyramid. He could now relax, kick back, and indulge his latent present-hedonism. But then he noticed something remarkable. Everyone else had gotten to Stanford because of their extreme Future time perspectives, too.1 There was a new norm with which to com- pare himself, and, instead of changing, Phil became more of who he already was. Phil’s Future time perspective is a very high 4.5. He doubled down on Future time perspective and soon produced what is undoubtedly his most important work, the Stanford Prison Experiment. He also wrote a book on shyness, conducted research on hypnosis with Hilgard, and became author of the longest continuously published introductory psychology textbook, Psychology and Life. He didn’t let up. Over the next 40+ years, Phil became one of the most prolifi c, most infl uential, and most well-known psychologists of all time. Along the way, he produced the widely acclaimed Discovering Psychology series for public television, began work on his Discontinuity Theory of Madness, inspired heroes great and small, and, in the 1980s, turned his attention back to his roots with a renewed interest in time.

1 The one bastion of present orientation at Stanford is the iconoclastic marching band. Somewhat ironically, the song that the band plays after the Stanford football team scores is Free’s “All Right Now.” xviii Laudation

The Beginning of the Quantitative Investigation of Time

In 1985, Phil, Alex Gonzalez, and Robert Levine published articles in Psychology Today on how people’s attitudes toward time affect their lives and how these attitudes differ across culture. Other brilliant thinkers had talked about time and its inﬂ uence on our lives before them. Among them were such intellectual heavy hitters as Heraclitus and William James. These authors, however, had approached time from a philosophical and qualitative perspective that was largely foreign to American empirical psychology. Phil and Bob’s work showed how attitudes toward time could be investigated using more rigorous and more modern quantitative methodologies. The 1985 Psychology Today publication marks the beginning of quantitative research on time perspective. I read their work in the early 1990s and began to think about how their approach to studying time might be extended to explain what continues to be one of the most extreme human behaviors, suicide bombing. I added items to what was then the Stanford Time Perspective Inventory that I felt captured attitudes toward time after the imagined death of a person’s physical body. I then administered the combined scale to several hundred people and factor analyzed the results. The items that I had added did indeed hold together as a distinct factor, which I called the post-Future time perspective. I wrote Phil a letter explaining my results, and, to my astonish- ment, I got a long letter in return. I was thrilled! I found the letter a couple of years into my graduate work at Stanford, and I showed it to Phil. His response was, “I should have been publishing.” His extreme present orientation motivated him to write the letter. His extreme future orientation felt guilty for doing so. It was about this time that Phil renamed the “post-Future time perspective” the “transcendental- Future time perspective.” Phil’s score on the transcendental-future time perspective is a low 1.5.

What’s Taken So Long?

It’s been nearly 30 years since the publication of Phil’s seminal article on time perspective and the publication of this work. A reasonable person might ask, “What’s taken so long?” It’s a good question, and there are a couple of reasonable answers. One answer rests on the ephemeral, elusive nature of time itself. Much like grav- ity, which is not completely understood either, the fact that we live within time every second, minute, and hour of our lives makes research on time extremely challenging. Time controls us; we can’t conduct controlled experiments on time. A second answer relates to how completely our attitudes toward time color the way that we see the world. Our attitudes toward time shape our lives so that we are likely to be surrounded by others that share our time perspective. Phil’s arrival at Stanford is a powerful example. He had indeed reached the top of the pyramid, but he found it populated only by other future-oriented people. All others had been left Laudation xix behind. In this world in which future orientation reigns supreme, it’s taken people with unique experience and perspicacity to recognize the value and validity of com- peting time perspectives. Time is central to the human experience of the physical world, much like width, height, and depth. It is therefore not a stretch to claim that each individual’s time perspective profi le refl ects an equally valid alternate conception of reality. The future-dominated world of academia has been slow to recognize this, and it’s thus taken luminaries like Phil that possess experience with a diverse range of time perspectives to move the fi eld forward. The fact that many of the chapters in this collected work are authored by people that have experience with more than just Future time perspective by virtue of culture and geography also sup- ports this assertion. When we fi rst submitted our “Putting Time in Perspective” article to JPSP, the feedback was substantially less enthusiastic than we had hoped. It was as if a fi sh had proposed the study of water to a group of fi sh that didn’t recognize the medium in which they lived. We persevered, as future-oriented people will, and the result is an article that has, in many ways, stood the test of time.

Thank You for the Time

I still have a key to Phil’s psychology department offi ce on my key chain. It is one of only fi ve keys that I carry. I haven’t used it in years, and I’m not sure that it would still work. Nonetheless, it’s a way that I keep a part of him with me always, and it’s a symbol of the doors that he unlocked for me. The time that Phil unselfi shly gave to me changed the course of my life, and, if you’re reading this, there’s a good chance that he changed the course of yours as well. Phil, from all of us that you’ve touched over the years, thank you for the time.

Google Inc. John N. Boyd San Francisco , CA , USA

Contents

Time Perspective Theory: The Introduction ...... 1 Maciej Stolarski , Nicolas Fieulaine , and Wessel van Beek

Part I Theory, Measurement, and Development of Time Perspective

Putting Time in Perspective: A Valid, Reliable Individual-Differences Metric ...... 17 Philip G. Zimbardo and John N. Boyd Assessing Temporal Harmony: The Issue of a Balanced Time Perspective ...... 57 Maciej Stolarski , Britt Wiberg , and Evgeny Osin Time Perspective and Transcendental Future Thinking ...... 73 Wessel van Beek and Antanas Kairys Broadening the TP Proﬁ le: Future Negative Time Perspective ...... 87 Maria Grazia Carelli , Britt Wiberg , and Elisabeth Åström Time Perspective and Personality ...... 99 Antanas Kairys and Audrone Liniauskaite The Past, the Present, and the Future: A Conceptual Model of Time Perspective in Adolescence ...... 115 Zena R. Mello and Frank C. Worrell Learning and Future Time Perspective: The Promise of the Future – Rewarding in the Present ...... 131 Jenefer Husman , Sarah K. Brem , Sara Banegas , Daniel W. Duchrow , and Shanjeedul Haque From Time Perspective to Psychological Distance (and Back) ...... 143 Sam J. Maglio , Yaacov Trope , and Nira Liberman

xxi xxii Contents

Part II Evolutionary, Cultural, and Social Context of Time Perspective

The Evolved Psychology of Time Perspective ...... 157 Curtis S. Dunkel and Daniel J. Kruger Time Perspective Proﬁ les of Cultures ...... 169 Anna Sircova, Fons J.R. van de Vijver, Evgeny Osin, Taciano L. Milfont, Nicolas Fieulaine, Altinay Kislali-Erginbilgic, and Philip G. Zimbardo and 54 members of the International Time Perspective Research Project Keeping Time ...... 189 Robert V. Levine The Sankofa Effect: Divergent Effects of Thinking About the Past for Blacks and Whites ...... 197 James M. Jones and Jordan B. Leitner Precariousness as a Time Horizon: How Poverty and Social Insecurity Shape Individuals’ Time Perspectives ...... 213 Nicolas Fieulaine and Thémis Apostolidis

Part III Cognitive, Emotional, and Motivational Processes in Time Perspective

Neural Correlates of Time Perspective ...... 231 Maria Grazia Carelli and Carl-Johan Olsson Cognitive Processes in Time Perspective ...... 243 Marcin Zajenkowski , Maria Grazia Carelli , and Maria Ledzińska Differences in Time Perspective Predict Differences in Future Simulations ...... 257 Kathleen M. Arnold and Karl K. Szpunar Emotional Processes in Development and Dynamics of Individual Time Perspective ...... 269 Gerald Matthews and Maciej Stolarski The Motivational Properties of Future Time Perspective Future Orientation: Different Approaches, Different Cultures ...... 287 Rachel Seginer and Willy Lens More Time to Procrastinators: The Role of Time Perspective ...... 305 Juan Francisco Díaz-Morales and Joseph R. Ferrari Goals Need Time Perspective to Be Achieved ...... 323 Zbigniew Zaleski and Aneta Przepiórka Contents xxiii

Part IV Non-clinical Applications of Time Perspective

Time Perspective as a Predictor of Healthy Behaviors and Disease-Mediating States ...... 339 Peter A. Hall , Geoffrey T. Fong , and Genevieve Sansone Time Perspective in Consumer Behavior ...... 353 Martina Klicperová-Baker , Jaroslav Košťál , and Jiří Vinopal Understanding Environmental Issues with Temporal Lenses: Issues of Temporality and Individual Differences ...... 371 Taciano L. Milfont and Christophe Demarque Time and the Misﬁ ts: Temporal Framing and Priming in Persuasive Communication ...... 385 Frédéric Martinez and Nicolas Fieulaine Time Perspectives and Subjective Well-Being: A Dual-Pathway Framework ...... 403 Kerry F. Cunningham , Jia Wei Zhang , and Ryan T. Howell

Part V Clinical Applications of Time Perspective

Time Perspective and Social Relations: A Stress and Coping Perspective ...... 419 E. Alison Holman Time Perspective and Positive Aging ...... 437 Pio Enrico Ricci Bitti , Manuela Zambianchi , and Joanna Bitner Time Perspective Coaching ...... 451 Ilona Boniwell and Evgeny Osin Friend or Foe? Escape from Death, or Death as an Escape? ...... 471 Wessel van Beek and Ksenia Chistopolskaya Time Perspective Therapy: Transforming Zimbardo’s Temporal Theory into Clinical Practice ...... 481 Richard M. Sword , Rosemary K. M. Sword , and Sarah R. Brunskill The Uncharted Territory: Time Perspective Research Meets Clinical Practice. Temporal Focus in Psychotherapy Across Adulthood and Old Age ...... 499 Elena Kazakina

Afterword ...... 517

Appendix ...... 521

Index ...... 545

Editors

Maciej Stolarski is currently an Assistant Professor at Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, Poland, where he earned his MA and PhD degrees, both awarded with summa cum laude distinction. His scientifi c interests are very broad, including mutual infl uences between cognition and emotion, individual differences in temperament, IQ, and emotional intelligence, as well as analyses of aggregate psychological features of nations. He published in renowned peer-reviewed journals, including Intelligence , Personality and Individual Differences, Journal of Happiness Studies, and PLOS One, among others. His interest in Time Perspective phenomenon, as well as his collaboration with Phil Zimbardo began in 2010, after Phil’s visit at University of Warsaw. Since that time Maciej conducted numerous studies investigating TP, mainly in its relation to emotional processes. He developed and validated the DBTP, an indicator of temporal balance, increasingly used in empirical research. Currently he conducts a research program investigating genetic, familial, and cultural bases of TP. Nicolas Fieulaine is an Associate Professor of Social Psychology at the Institute of Psychology at the University of Lyon, France. He earned his BA, MA, and PhD from Provence University and works with Phil Zimbardo since 7 years to develop and structure time perspective research worldwide. He was awarded with several research grants for applied studies, and is the program director of the Master of Applied Social Psychology at the University of Lyon. His earliest research interests dealt with psychological correlates of socioeconomic precariousness which he studied using quantitative and qualitative methods. His fi ndings rapidly bring him to be interested in the social roots and psychological implications of time perspective, mainly in the fi elds of inequalities related to health and access to rights. He is also interested in applying psychology to social issues through action-research, fi eld experiments, or professional training. He is currently studying the role of psychological fi eld properties on people’s experiences, decisions, and behaviors.

xxv xxvi Editors

Wessel van Beek studied clinical psychology at the University of Utrecht, the Netherlands, and earned his PhD from the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam. He has been working in clinical psychology and psychiatry for 20 years. Beside his work as a psychotherapist Wessel did research on the role of time perspective and Future thinking in suicidality, and he developed the Future Oriented Group Training for suicidal patients. As a clinician Wessel has special interest in how past, present, and future thinking are related and how they inﬂ uence psychopathology. Wessel has been part of a core group of researchers working with Phil Zimbardo. He currently focuses on Prenatal Past, as a complementary time perspective, and is preparing a book on Time in Psychotherapy. Wessel is director of a small mental health care institute in The Netherlands.