Brokers of Modernity Berliner Beiträge Zur Ethnologie Band 30 Tina Heinze
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Tina Heinze • Brokers of Modernity Berliner Beiträge zur Ethnologie Band 30 Tina Heinze BROKERS OF MODERNITY Life Stories of Educated Muslims in Ghana, 1935–2005 Bibliografische Information Der Deutschen Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über www.d-nb.de abruf bar. Als Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung des Akademischen Grades eines Dr. Phil., vorgelegt dem Fachbereich 07 Geschichts- und Kulturwissenschaften der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz von Tina Heinze aus Berlin, Mainz 2010 Referent: Prof. Dr. Thomas Bierschenk Korreferentin: Prof. Dr. Carola Lentz Gedruckt auf holz- und säurefreiem Papier, 100 % chlorfrei gebleicht. ©Weißensee Verlag, Berlin 2013 www.weissensee-verlag.de Alle Rechte vorbehalten Printed in Germany ISSN 1610-6768 ISBN 978-3-89998-207-7 Contents Map of Ghana ....................................................... 7 Introduction ........................................................ 9 Muslims in Ghana .................................................... 13 Chapter One: Methodological and Theoretical Reflections .......... 17 Change of Discipline: From History to Anthropology ...................... 17 Modification of Topic: From Institution to Generation .................... 21 Adjustment of Method: From Participant Observation to Biographical Interview .............................................. 22 Chapter Two: Historical Overview on Muslims and Education in West Africa ....................................... 27 Colonial Period ....................................................... 27 Post-Colonial Times .................................................. 34 After Democratic Transitions ........................................... 39 Chapter Three: Facing Colonialism, Control and Conversion ....................... 45 Muslims and Education in the Gold Coast ............................... 46 ‘The Pioneers’ ........................................................ 56 Portrait of the First Generation ......................................... 65 Chapter Four: ‘Imagining’ Islamic and National Communities ...... 83 Muslims and Education after Ghana’s Independence ...................... 85 ‘We are still a few’ ..................................................... 92 Portrait of the Second Generation ....................................... 99 Chapter Five: Dealing with ‘Dual Citizenship’ ..................... 115 Muslims and Education in Ghana Today ................................ 117 ‘Ambassadors to our Communities’ .................................... 124 Portrait of the Third Generation ....................................... 132 Conclusion ........................................................ 151 5 CONTENTS List of Plates ....................................................... 156 List of Interviews .................................................. 157 Abbreviations ..................................................... 158 Glossary ........................................................... 159 References ......................................................... 161 6 Map of Ghana Source: Raymond B. Bening, Ghana, Accra, 1999 7 Introduction Min Ghana ila Afghanistan … This is the beginning of an old Arabic poem, which originated in the medieval period.1 It states that during this time Islam had spread from Ghana in Africa to Afghanistan in Asia. Ghana was a famous empire in West Africa that existed between the 9th and 12th century. It was situated in the vast territory between the Senegal and Niger rivers. Then, a millennium later in 1957, the British Colony Gold Coast (situated further to the South than medieval Ghana) gained independence. The new government under Kwame Nkrumah named the young republic after the old empire, Ghana. For several centuries Muslims have played important roles on the African continent. They acted in higher positions such as political advisors to kings. Beyond spreading a new religion, Muslims became brokers in the eco- nomic, political and educational fields. Many of them exchanged goods as traders, served as soldiers, and transmitted knowledge as scholars. In West Africa Muslims set up a two-stage educational system with basic and advanced education. Arabic was the main written language in these pre- dominantly oral societies. Muslim schools combined religious with secular education and offered subjects such as mathematics, medicine, geography and philosophy (Reichmuth 2000). However, Muslims lost their status as brokers during the colonial period in West Africa, although to various degrees. Since the 15th century, different European rulers had taken over power and established new administra- tions on the coast in West Africa. As one result of this, the trans- Saharan trade road was replaced with newly built railroads to the coastal areas. Europeans introduced their own system of education in order to control the colonies efficiently. Christian Missions often ran these schools with French or English as the medium of instruction. Depending on the political 1 An Egyptian Imam in Berlin quoted this poem first to me in 2003. Despite intensive in- vestigation, I could not find the author and the date of this Arabic poem. 9 INTRODUCTION and numerical weight of the local Muslim population, the existing Islamic schools were integrated, reformed or ignored by the colonial administra- tion. In the Gold Coast as well, Muslims lost their status as brokers. Before and at the beginning of British colonisation, Muslims worked as accountants and advisors of kings and chiefs. But the British officials overlooked the Islamic schools. At the same time, Muslim communities were reluctant to send their children to schools that were managed by Christians and re- sponded with a retreat into the religious field of education. Consequently, the majority of Muslim men were educated in a makaranta (Quran school). They studied religious subjects such as prayers or reciting the Quran. Most Muslim women had no access to education. These conditions did not change notably after the independence of Ghana. Thus, many Muslims were not adequately educated to work in the modern sector. To this day they often do menial work. This contributed to a situation whereby many Muslims feel marginalized in Ghanaian society; they feel like second-class citizens. However, a small number of Muslims in Ghana regained their status as brokers.2 They had access to secular education and a few of them held higher positions in public service. By chance, by force or by personal in- terest these Muslims enrolled in governmental or mission schools.3 This group is literate in English, which is the official language in Ghana. Thus, Muslim brokers became not only translators for their fellow believers; they mediated between Muslims and non-Muslims as well. This study, which is mainly based on 30 life stories, seeks to tell the story of these secular educated Muslims. I investigate how they Islamize Ghanaian society and at the same time modernize Muslim communities. In short, I show how they became brokers of modernity. 2 In this study a broker is a mediator, who negotiates between minority and majority groups. 3 The term secular education means education, which is approved by the government. See also Charles Taylor’s concept on secularity (2007). In his important book A Secular Age, secularity guarantees the freedom of religious, non-religious and areligious convictions. 10 INTRODUCTION There are different notions of modernity. The dictionary of sociology offers one definition. It describes modernity as a ‘unique peculiarity of the oc- cidental culture area’ (Hillmann 1994: 569). This view is obviously rather Eurocentric as it considers modernity only in a singular form as if it be- longs exclusively to western culture. Modernity, the definition continues, is grounded on rationality and secularity, scientific and technical progress, democratisation and individualisation (1994: 571). Dale Eickelman and Georg Stauth criticize this concept. Eickelman points to the ‘secular bias’ of such modernization theory (2000: 119). He doubts whether modern societies are mainly secular and that religious activi- ties only take place in the private sphere. Likewise, Georg Stauth argues (1998: 172): While the West shows its secular face to the world, the religious nature of Occidentalism remains disguised, and only reappears in the intellec- tualized and instrumentalist form of a ‘higher’ cultural commit ment. Therefore, Stauth makes clear that modernity in Europe has a hidden reli- gious side as well. It seems paradoxical, Stauth continues, that religious fundamentalist movements with a Calvinist and Puritan ethic initiated modernization in Europe. Up to today most modern European societies refer to Christian values and virtues. I agree with Stauth that there are dif- ferent forms of modernity and that Islamic modernity is one of them. The modernization of Muslim societies in Asia, Africa and the Middle East does not only consist in the secularisation of institutions. In this process Islamic religious concepts, individualization, autonomy and education play an important role as well. Modernities in non-western societies emerge through ‘very complex negotiations’ (Stauth 1998: 170). These negotiations also take place in Ghana and are carried out by Muslim brokers. Thus, the first main question of this study is: In which way did Muslim brokers in Ghana negotiate Islam in the public space?4 4 In The Human Condition Hannah