DOCSLIB.ORG

Terrorism, Intelligence Sharing and Cooperation in the European Union 2016

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Terrorism, Intelligence Sharing and Cooperation in the European Union 2016 Terrorism, Intelligence sharing and Cooperation in the European Union 2016 Abstract The context in which this paper is written relates to an international threat which in the recent years grew in amplitude and received more and more attention from the political elites, namely the concept of terrorism. This paper puts the concept in the territory of the European Union likewise establishing the boundaries of the research. In completion of the context, the internal security dimension of the European Union will be focused on along with terrorism, which will be referred throughout the paper, while other threats such as cross-border crime will be briefly mentioned. The phenomenon of terrorist attacks grew in density within the European Union in the last two years. Thus, the objective of this paper is to identify some of the gaps in the internal security of the Union which cumbersome the implementation of countering measures. In doing so, the research will start from the premise that more focus should be given to information sharing and cooperation between national security services of the member states and the Union’s security related agencies (e.g. Europol, INTCEN) in order to manage the internal security and tackle terrorism. The base of the latter is rooted in official documents or pieces of communication released by European Union bodies, such as The European Agenda on Security or The Renewed European Union Internal Security Strategy 2015-2020. Then, to contrast, the paper will also bring into discussion an alternative for managing the information flow and internal security by presenting and analyzing some of the proposals for a supranational security body, a European secret service. This idea is rooted in a few statements given by figures part of Union’s political elite. All the above have to be viewed in the bigger picture of a healthy European security environment with the main task of tackling terrorism. For accomplishing a thorough research various academic sources were used but also first-hand data released by EU bodies. After building the theoretical framework the analysis will make use of two theories of European integration, namely Intergovernmentalism and Neo-functionalism in trying to answer the problem statement. One result of the analysis identified as main issue for the current level of information sharing and cooperation the element of trust between the actors involved. As for the alternative of having a European secret service, based on the proposals analyzed the paper managed to build a criteria pattern revealing an ideal form of the service. 1 Terrorism, Intelligence sharing and Cooperation in the European Union 2016 In conclusion the findings of this research embody firstly an assumption or a hypothesis revealing that the level of information sharing and cooperation is influenced by trust relationships between the actors and by the element of national sovereignty. Secondly, the criteria pattern emerged can be used as an assessment tool to determine how realistic the idea of a European secret service is. By pointing out to the attributes and capabilities of such an organization, whoever might initiate such a project can realise which capabilities are achievable at the given time and which not, likewise influencing if the establishing is possible or not. 2 Terrorism, Intelligence sharing and Cooperation in the European Union 2016 Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 5 Problem formulation ............................................................................................................................. 6 Methodological considerations ........................................................................... 7 Ontology-Epistemology ......................................................................................................................... 7 Research design, strategy and data ...................................................................................................... 7 Choice of theory .................................................................................................................................... 9 Limitations........................................................................................................................................... 11 Theory and theoretical framework ................................................................... 12 Intergovernmentalism ........................................................................................................................ 12 Neo-functionalism ............................................................................................................................... 17 What is Terrorism and Counter-terrorism? ........................................................................................ 21 Historical considerations on cooperation in the European Union ......................................................... 27 Building the political framework for cooperation, integration and security ...................................... 27 Establishing the European Union ........................................................................................................ 29 Creation of the Area of Freedom Security and Justice (AFSJ) ............................................................. 32 Developing the EU Counter-Terrorism legal framework ........................................................................ 35 The Lisbon Treaty ................................................................................................................................ 35 European Council’s Programmes – directions for cooperation 1999-2014 ........................................ 36 Developments in the field of police and judicial cooperation ............................................................ 37 Catalyst events and initiatives ............................................................................................................ 40 European bodies tasked with security matters ...................................................................................... 46 The Trevi Group - TREVI ...................................................................................................................... 46 The European Police Office - Europol ................................................................................................. 47 Eurojust ............................................................................................................................................... 49 The EU Intelligence Analysis Centre – INTCEN (former SITCEN) ......................................................... 50 COSI – Standing Committee on Operational Cooperation on Internal Security ................................. 52 Club de Berne – operating outside EU legal framework ..................................................................... 54 How does the fight against terrorism looking in the recent past? Summary and conclusions .......... 55 Information, intelligence sharing and cooperation ................................................................................ 59 So what is Intelligence? ....................................................................................................................... 59 3 Terrorism, Intelligence sharing and Cooperation in the European Union 2016 What is intelligence liaison then? ....................................................................................................... 61 Witnessing the globalization of intelligence ....................................................................................... 62 Categorizing functions, sources and levels of the intelligence field ................................................... 64 Analysis ............................................................................................................ 69 Part I - What is the current state of EU intelligence sharing and cooperation? ..................................... 69 Other arguments for poor information sharing and cooperation ...................................................... 73 Part II - Alternatives to manage EU’s internal security? ......................................................................... 76 A historical incentive – The European Bureau of Investigation .......................................................... 77 A European Secret Service - Analysis .................................................................................................. 78 The attacks in Europe – an old idea but a different context .............................................................. 80 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 83 Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 86 Academic literature – Books and scholarly articles/journals .............................................................. 86 Online sources and official documents ............................................................................................... 88 Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... 93 Annexes ...........................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Surveillance by Intelligence Services: Fundamental Rights Safeguards And
    FREEDOMS FRA Surveillance by intelligence services: fundamental rights safeguards and remedies in the EU and remedies safeguards rights fundamental services: intelligence by Surveillance Surveillance by intelligence services: fundamental rights safeguards and remedies in the EU Mapping Member States’ legal frameworks This report addresses matters related to the respect for private and family life (Article 7), the protection of personal data (Article 8) and the right to an effective remedy and a fair trial (Article 47) falling under Titles II ‘Freedoms’ and VI ‘Justice’ of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers to your questions about the European Union. Freephone number (*): 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (*) The information given is free, as are most calls (though some operators, phone boxes or hotels may charge you). Photo (cover & inside): © Shutterstock More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (http://europa.eu). FRA – European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights Schwarzenbergplatz 11 – 1040 Vienna – Austria Tel. +43 158030-0 – Fax +43 158030-699 fra.europa.eu – [email protected] Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2015 Paper: 978-92-9239-944-3 10.2811/678798 TK-04-15-577-EN-C PDF: 978-92-9239-943-6 10.2811/40181 TK-04-15-577-EN-N © European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2015 Reproduction is authorised, provided the source is acknowledged. Printed in Luxembourg Printed on process chlorine-free recycled paper (PCF) Surveillance by intelligence services: fundamental rights safeguards and remedies in the EU Mapping Member States’ legal frameworks Foreword Protecting the public from genuine threats to security and safeguarding fundamental rights involves a delicate bal- ance, and has become a particularly complex challenge in recent years.
    [Show full text]
  • Fractured Europe: the Schengen Area and European Border Security
    SPECIAL REPORT Fractured Europe The Schengen Area and European border security Calum Jeffray May 2017 Calum Jeffray Calum Jeffray is a Research Fellow within the National Security & Resilience studies programme at RUSI, and is currently on secondment to the UK Government. Prior to his secondment, he conducted research and analysis on a broad range of national security subjects including organised crime, intelligence, cyber security, counter-terrorism and counter-violent extremism. He was part of the secretariat for RUSI’s Independent Surveillance Review, and undertook research projects on behalf of the European Commission as well as the British, Canadian and Danish governments. About ASPI ASPI’s aim is to promote Australia’s security by contributing fresh ideas to strategic decision‑making, and by helping to inform public discussion of strategic and defence issues. ASPI was established, and is partially funded, by the Australian Government as an independent, non‑partisan policy institute. It is incorporated as a company, and is governed by a Council with broad membership. ASPI’s core values are collegiality, originality & innovation, quality & excellence and independence. ASPI’s publications—including this paper—are not intended in any way to express or reflect the views of the Australian Government. The opinions and recommendations in this paper are published by ASPI to promote public debate and understanding of strategic and defence issues. They reflect the personal views of the author(s) and should not be seen as representing the formal position of ASPI on any particular issue. Important disclaimer This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in relation to the subject matter covered.
    [Show full text]
  • A Community of Users on Secure, Safe and Resilient Societies
    A Community of Users on Secure, Safe and Resilient Societies (CoU) Mapping Horizon H2020 and EU-Funded Capacity-Building Projects under 2016-2018 Programmes - October 2019 3 A Community of Users on Secure, Safe and Resilient Societies Mapping Horizon 2020 and EU-funded Capacity-Building Projects under 2016-2018 Programmes October 2019 Community of Users (CoU) VI Mapping - Inners.indd 3 30/10/2019 13:37:24 A Community of Users on Secure, Safe and Resilient Societies (CoU) 4 Mapping Horizon 2020 and EU-funded Capacity-Building Projects under 2016-2018 Programmes - October 2019 Contents 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................8 2. OVERVIEW OF TASKS AND OBJECTIVES ...................................................9 2.1 Background .............................................................................9 2.2 Objectives ..............................................................................9 2.3 Logistics ...............................................................................10 2.4 Knowledge transfer .....................................................................10 2.5 Who are the users? ......................................................................12 3. POLICY BACKGROUND .................................................................13 3.1 General framework .....................................................................13 3.2 EU Civil Protection Mechanism and related international policies .............................14 3.3 Critical Infrastructure Protection
    [Show full text]
  • The EU-India Partnership: Time to Go Strategic? Institute for Security Studies Security for Institute European Union
    The EU-India partnership: time to go strategic? go to time The partnership: EU-India European Union Institute for Security Studies How can India and the EU expand their relationship from its current economic dimension Indian Council of to a broader, security-based dimension? Why is this not happening in spite of expressed World Affairs willingness and the clear reciprocal benefits that would ensue? Is there a lack of frank dialogue on sensitive areas, or is there a more general lack of mutual understanding? The various Indian and European contributors to this volume – the result of long-standing collaboration between the Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA) and the European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS) – assess incipient progress and explore ways to advance India-EU relations in the bilateral and multilateral dimensions of the Strategic Partnership. Although it was launched in 2004, a consensus emerges that such a partnership cannot be called strategic as yet. Continuing discussion and analysis of pressing issues is thus necessary in order to facilitate a breakthrough. This book contains detailed proposals for widening the scope of cooperation to both traditional and non-traditional security issues, such as counter-terrorism, security sector reform in third countries and energy. It also explores the potential for India and the EU to reach consensus in international governance forums, with particular emphasis on economic governance, as well as prospects for effective inter- regional cooperation on the main global security
    [Show full text]
  • NATO Intelligence Sharing in the 21 Century
    NATO Intelligence Sharing in the 21st Century Columbia School of International and Public Affairs Capstone Research Project, Spring 2013 RESEARCH TEAM FACULTY ADVISOR Keenan Mahoney Dr. Joshua Rovner [email protected] [email protected] Nemanja Mladenovic [email protected] Salvador Molina [email protected] Adam Scher [email protected] Selma Stern [email protected] Christopher Zoia [email protected] TABLE OF CONTENTS Executive Summary 3 Introduction & Framework 4 France 8 Germany 18 Italy 28 Turkey 41 Conclusion 55 Notes 57 Appendix 65 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report analyzes the opportunities and obstacles for intelligence sharing with select NATO members: France, Germany, Italy, and Turkey. In addition to describing the history, organizational structure, and capabilities of these members’ civilian and military intelligence organizations, the report provides a framework for assessing a country’s propensity to share intelligence based on the following six factors: strategic priorities, security environment, established partnerships, intelligence capabilities, and culture. We hope this framework can serve as an enduring analytical tool for intelligence scholars and practitioners. Based on our research, we conclude the following about the prospects for intelligence sharing with France, Germany, Italy, and Turkey: Due to the insular nature of France’s secret services and the lack of legislative oversight, France’s propensity to share intelligence will depend on the characteristics of its potential partners. France will be likely to share if the partner is involved in similar areas of strategic interest, if it is affected by an event that causes a sense of crisis in France, if there are mutual “boots on the ground,” or if the partner is a member of Five Eyes.
    [Show full text]
  • The Consequences of Brexit for European Defence and Security
    Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies Occasional Paper The Consequences of Brexit for European Defence and Security Sarah Lain and Veerle Nouwens The Consequences of Brexit for European Defence and Security Sarah Lain and Veerle Nouwens Occasional Paper, April 2017, updated August 2017 Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies ii The Consequences of Brexit for European Security and Defence About RUSI The Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) is the world’s oldest and the UK’s leading defence and security think tank. Its mission is to inform, influence and enhance public debate on a safer and more stable world. RUSI is a research-led institute, producing independent, practical and innovative analysis to address today’s complex challenges. Since its foundation in 1831, RUSI has relied on its members to support its activities. Together with revenue from research, publications and conferences, RUSI has sustained its political independence for 185 years. London | Brussels | Nairobi | Doha | Tokyo | Washington, DC About the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung is a non-profit German political foundation committed to the advancement of public policy issues in the spirit of the basic values of social democracy through research, education, and international cooperation. The FES, headquartered in Berlin and Bonn, has thirteen regional offices throughout Germany and maintains an international network of offices in more than 100 countries. The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s), and do not reflect the views of RUSI, FES or any other institution. Published in 2017 by the Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies.
    [Show full text]
  • Readings in European Security Volume 3
    READINGS IN EUROPEAN SECURITY VOLUME 3 CHAIRMAN: FRANÇOIS HEISBOURG EDITORS: DANA H. ALLIN & MICHAEL EMERSON CENTRE FOR EUROPEAN POLICY STUDIES BRUSSELS INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIES LONDON This volume of Readings in European Security contains the papers commissioned for presentation and discussion at the meetings of the CEPS- IISS European Security Forum (ESF) in the period from January 2003 to June 2005. They have been previously published in the European Security Forum Working Paper series, Nos. 16-20. CEPS and IISS gratefully acknowledge financial support received for the European Security Forum from the Compagnia di San Paolo, the US Mission to the EU and NATO. ISBN 92-9079-590-5 © Copyright 2005, Centre for European Policy Studies & International Institute for Security Studies. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise – without the prior permission of the Centre for European Policy Studies or the International Institute for Security Studies. Centre for European Policy Studies International Institute for Strategic Studies Place du Congrès 1 Arundel House 1000 Brussels, Belgium 13-15 Arundel Street, Temple Place Tel: 32 (0) 2 229.39.11 London WC2R 3DX, United Kingdom Fax: 32 (0) 2 229.39.72 Tel: 44 (0) 20 7379 7676 E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 44 (0) 20 7836 3108 Website: http://www.ceps.be E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.iiss.org READINGS IN EUROPEAN SECURITY VOLUME 3 CONTRIBUTORS DIDIER BIGO PETER BROOKES PATRICK CLAWSON MICHAEL EMERSON ANDREI FEDOROV FRANÇOIS HEISBOURG IRINA KOBRINSKAYA EUGENE B.
    [Show full text]
  • Remerciements
    Remerciements Cet ouvrage est l’aboutissement du colloque « L’espace pénal européen : bilan de la présidence belge et perspectives », organisé les 6 et 7 mars 2002 par la section juridique de l’Institut d’Etudes européennes de l’Université libre de Bruxelles en collaboration avec le ministère belge de la Justice, le Secrétariat général du Conseil de l’Union européenne, le Centre d’études pour l’application du droit communautaire en matière pénale et financière et le Bureau pour la Belgique du Parlement européen. Il a pu être réalisé grâce au soutien de l’Institut d’Etudes européennes de l’Université libre de Bruxelles (Pôle européen Jean Monnet), du ministère belge de la Justice, du Bureau pour la Belgique du Parlement européen et du programme Pôles d’attraction interuniversitaires P4/04 – Etat belge, Service du Premier ministre – Services fédéraux des affaires scientifiques, techniques et culturelles, du ministère de l’Education, de la Recherche et de la Formation de la Communauté française de Belgique. Les éditeurs remercient vivement pour leur précieuse assistance à l’organisation du colloque qui a débouché sur la publication de cet ouvrage Madame Marianne Dony, directrice de la section juridique de l’Institut d’Etudes européennes, Madame Jeanne Deligne, Monsieur Gustave Debeys et Monsieur Farid Bouyazidan. Préface António VITORINO Cet ouvrage trace un bilan de la construction de l’espace européen pénal à mi-parcours du délai de cinq ans prescrit en 1999 par le traité d’Amsterdam pour construire un espace commun européen de liberté, de sécurité et de justice. Les instruments d’action dont l’Union européenne s’est dotée jusqu’à présent dans ce domaine ont été analysés et les perspectives de progrès souhaitables, esquissés.
    [Show full text]
  • European Policy Review
    VOLUME 1 NUMBER 1 2015 EUROPEAN POLICY REVIEW Published by the European Student Tink Tank EUROPEAN POLICY REVIEW Volume 1, Number 1 Tis is the frst edition of the European Policy Review. Te European Policy Review was founded in 2014 by the European Student Tink Tank. Te journal aims to publish academic papers by undergraduate and postgraduate students on topics related to European Union policy. All papers are submitted to an anonymous peer-review pro- cess by graduate and doctoral students. Te journal is to be published annually. EDITORIAL POLICIES ANONYMITY We ask reviewers not to identity themselves to authors, in THE REVIEW PROCESS order to maintain referee confdentiality and to preserve the In order to determine the submitted papers’ suitability for anonymity of the review process. publication, the journal applies the requirements of a pro- cess of peer review. LICENSE TO PUBLISH Tis journal is published under the Creative Commons All submitted papers are read by the editorial team. Only License Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 those papers that seem most likely to meet the quality crite- International (CCBY-NC-ND 4.0). Please cite and use ac- ria and are judged to be of potential interest to our intended cordingly. audience are sent for formal review, typically two reviewers. Reviewers are expected to identify faws or weaknesses, as- sess the work’s novelty and ofer suggestions for improve- DISCLAIMER ment. On the basis of their evaluation, reviewers give ad- Te editorial board cannot be held responsible for errors in vice to the editorial team by choosing from among several information contained in this journal or any consequences possibilities: arising from the use of it; the views and opinions expressed do not necessarily refect those of the editorial board.
    [Show full text]
  • Mysl Eip 3(54)2016.Indd
    Adam Rogala-Lewicki EUROPEAN INTELLIGENCE COMMUNITY – THE UNFULFILLED PILLAR OF THE EUROPEAN UNION INTRODUCTION The subject of special services, in spite of being one of the most tantalis- ing and mysterious spheres of human activity, remains a poorly implemented research challenge. This statement is particularly important in the light of the shortage of scientific studies. However, as shown by numerous examples from the political history of the world, special services have a significant position in modelling the socio-political reality. Regardless of the degree of their involvement in the processes of decision making, the model of organisation, and finally the controversy that accompanies their operations – special forces have been and will remain an important designatum of the fields of social activity and the space of the analysis of interested researchers. It should be noted, however, that the overwhelming majority of authors do not regard this form of activity as a separate field of science. An exception is Abram Shulsky’s position, who calls intelligence a universal social science, the aim of which is to understand and forecast political, economic, social and military events1. Undoubtedly, this is a position which takes into account the pragma- tism associated with the function of intelligence. Intelligence is traditionally engaged in the collection, analysis and use of information from the perspec- tive of the interests of the client. 1 See more in: Shulsky, A., Schmitt, G.J. 1991. Silent warfare: understanding the world of intelligence. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation; Shulsky, A., Alan, V., Stillion, J. 1997. Preparing the U.S. Air Force for military operations other than war.
    [Show full text]
  • Kaunas University of Technology Faculty of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities
    KAUNAS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES, ARTS AND HUMANITIES IMPLEMENTATION, VALIDITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF EUROPEAN UNION COUNTER-TERRORISM POLICIES IN THE CONTEXT OF CONTEMPORARY TRANSFORMATIONS OF TERRORISM Final project for Master degree Supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Šarūnas Paunksnis KAUNAS, 2018 KAUNO TECHNOLOGIJOS UNIVERSITETAS SOCIALINIŲ, HUMANITARINIŲ MOKSLŲ IR MENŲ FAKULTETAS EUROPOS SĄJUNGOS KOVOS SU TERORIZMU POLITIKOS ĮGYVENDINIMAS, PAGRĮSTUMAS IR VEIKSMINGUMAS ATSIŽVELGIANT Į ŠIUOLAIKINIUS TERORIZMO POKYČIUS Baigiamasis magistro projektas Vadovas Doc. Dr. Šarūnas Paunksnis KAUNAS, 2018 2 KAUNO TECHNOLOGIJOS UNIVERSITETAS SOCIALINIŲ, HUMANITARINIŲ MOKSLŲ IR MENŲ FAKULTETAS EUROPOS SĄJUNGOS KOVOS SU TERORIZMU POLITIKOS ĮGYVENDINIMAS, PAGRĮSTUMAS IR VEIKSMINGUMAS ATSIŽVELGIANT Į ŠIUOLAIKINIUS TERORIZMO POKYČIUS Baigiamasis magistro projektas Europos Sąjungos tarptautiniai santykiai (kodas 621L20016) Vadovas (parašas) Doc. Dr. Šarūnas Paunksnis (data) 2018 01 09 Recenzentas (parašas) Doc. Dr. Gintaras Žilinskas (data) Projektą atliko (parašas) Edita Adomaitytė (data) KAUNAS, 2018 3 KAUNO TECHNOLOGIJOS UNIVERSITETAS Socialinių, humanitarinių mokslų ir menų (Fakultetas) Edita Adomaitytė (Studento vardas, pavardė) Europos Sąjungos tarptautiniai santykiai, 621L20016 (Studijų programa, kursas) Baigiamojo projekto „ Implementation, Validity And Effectiveness Of European Union Counter- Terrorism Policies In The Context Of Contemporary Transformations Of Terrorism “ AKADEMINIO SĄŽININGUMO DEKLARACIJA 20 18 m. sausio
    [Show full text]
  • Parliamentary Oversight of Military Intelligence
    PARLIAMENTARY OVERSIGHT OF MILITARY INTELLIGENCE Dr Grazvydas Jasutis Dr Teodora Fuior Dr Mindia Vashakmadze About DCAF DCAF - Geneva Centre for Security Sector Governance is dedicated to improving the se- curity of people and the States they live in within a framework of democratic governance, the rule of law, and respect for human rights. DCAF contributes to making peace and de- velopment more sustainable by assisting partner states and international actors supporting them to improve the governance of their security sector through inclusive and participatory reforms. It creates innovative knowledge products, promotes norms and good practices, provides legal and policy advice and supports capacity building of both state- and non-state security sector stakeholders. Active in over 70 countries, DCAF is internationally recognized as one of the world’s leading centres of excellence for security sector governance (SSG) and security sector reform (SSR). DCAF is guided by the principles of neutrality, impartiality, local ownership, inclusive participation, and gender equality. www.dcaf.ch. Publisher DCAF - Geneva Centre for Security Sector Governance P.O.Box 1360 CH-1211 Geneva 1 Switzerland [email protected] +41 (0) 22 730 9400 Authors: Dr Grazvydas Jasutis, Dr Teodora Fuior, Dr Mindia Vashakmadze Copy-editor: Tom Stanley Design & layout: DTP Studio ISBN: 978-92-9222-571-1 Parliamentary Oversight of Military Intelligence Acknowledgements DCAF would like to thank the Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sport (DDPS) of the Swiss Confederation for its generous support in making this publication pos sible. The NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO PA) and DCAF would like to thank all NATO PA Delegations who answered the surveys, the results of which served as a key resource for the analysis presented in this study.
    [Show full text]