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The Relationships Among Cognitive, Spiritual, and Wisdom

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The Relationships Among Cognitive, Spiritual, and Wisdom THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG COGNITIVE, SPIRITUAL, AND WISDOM DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTS MARY CLARE SMITH Bachelor of Arts Notre Dame College of Ohio June, 1971 Master of Arts in Religious Education University of St. Thomas June, 1981 Master of Arts in History John Carroll University June, 1993 Master of Arts in Art Therapy Ursuline College June, 1996 Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN URBAN EDUCATION at the CLEVELAND STATE UNIVERSITY August, 2012 ©Copyright by Mary Clare Smith 2012 This dissertation has been approved for the College of EDUCATION and the College of Graduate Studies by ________________________________________________________________________ Dissertation Chairperson, Elizabeth Welfel, Ph.D. Counseling, Administration, Supervision, and Adult Learning, (date) ________________________________________________________________________ Michael Horvath, Ph.D. Psychology Department, (date) ________________________________________________________________________ Elliott Ingersoll, Ph.D. Counseling, Administration, Supervision, and Adult Learning, (date) ________________________________________________________________________ Kathryn MacCluskie, Ph.D. Counseling, Administration, Supervision, and Adult Learning, (date) ________________________________________________________________________ Lynn Underwood, Ph.D. Hiram College, Research Integration, (date) RELATIONSHIPS AMONG COGNITIVE, SPIRITUAL, AND WISDOM DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTS MARY CLARE SMITH ABSTRACT This study explored whether (1) adult cognitive development correlates with spiritual development, (2) wisdom development mediates the relationship, and (3) age, gender, education level, socioeconomic status, or religious denomination are associated with level of cognitive, wisdom, or spiritual development. University students and alumni (N = 134) completed a demographic questionnaire, the Model of Hierarchical Complexity Helper-Person Problem (Commons & Pekkar, 2004), the Spiritual Assessment Inventory (Hall & Edwards, 1996, 2002), and the Self-Assessed Wisdom Scale (Webster, 2003). This study hypothesized that wisdom, understood to derive from both personality qualities and life experience, mediates the influence of cognitive development on spiritual. This research hoped to provide empirical support for understanding the direction and degree of influence of cognitive, wisdom, and spiritual development. Using structural equation modeling, spiritual development was measured only as awareness of God. Cognitive development correlated significantly with spiritual awareness with moderate effect size. An inverse relationship was found between wisdom development and spiritual awareness. Wisdom development did not mediate the impact of cognitive development on spiritual awareness. Gender, age, education level, socioeconomic status, and religious affiliation were not associated with cognitive, wisdom, or spiritual development. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT . iv LIST OF TABLES . viii LIST OF FIGURES . ix CHAPTER I. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND . 1 Why Consider Spirituality. 2 Need for Empirically Supported, Spiritually Concerned Psychological Care . 3 Why Study Cognitive Development . 5 Rationale for This Research . 5 Adult Cognitive Development . 7 The Model of Hierarchical Complexity . 10 MHC Possible Limitations . 41 Spiritual Development . 42 Wisdom Development . 62 Research Questions . 66 Possible Significance for Research . 67 Limitations of This Research . 68 II. LITERATURE REVIEW . 71 Cognitive Development and Moral Reasoning . .71 Spiritual Development . 82 v Wisdom Development . 111 Question of Exclusive Domains . 119 Conclusion . 119 III. METHODOLOGY . 121 Participants . .121 Instruments . .122 Sampling Procedures . .122 Measures . 125 Research Questions . 126 Data Analysis . .127 IV. RESULTS . 136 Statistical Analyses . 138 Hypothesis One . 150 Hypothesis Two . .150 Hypothesis Three . 152 V. DISCUSSION . 162 Discussion of the Results of the Hypotheses. 162 Relationship of Results to Previous Theory or Research . 165 Implications for Practice and Future Research . 173 Methodological Implications . 178 Recommendations for Design of Future Research . 180 Suggestions for Future Research . 184 Summary and Conclusions . 185 vi REFERENCES . 187 APPENDICES A. DSM-IV V 62.89 and Joint Commission Spiritual Assessment . 206 B. Piagetian Stages of Cognitive Development . 209 C. MHC Helper-Person Problem . 212 D. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development . 217 E. Studies Supporting the Model of Hierarchical Complexity . 221 F. MHC Stages of Moral Perspective Taking . 224 G. IRB Approval . 229 H. Call for Participants . 231 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Stages According to the Model of Hierarchical Complexity . 18 2. Transition Steps . 31 3. Levels of Support . 36 4. Correlations Between Measures of Wisdom and Spiritual Development . 142 5. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Between Variables . 150 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 3.1 Path Diagram for this Study . 130 4.1 Path Diagram, Revised . 139 4.2 Path Diagram with Regression Weights . 146 ix Chapter 1 Theoretical Background This study explores the relationship between adult cognitive development as measured by the Commons Model of Hierarchical Complexity (Commons & Pekkar, 2004) and adult spiritual development as measured by the Christian-based Spiritual Assessment Inventory (Hall & Edwards, 1996, 2002). The study asks (a) whether level of cognitive development is associated with level of spiritual development, and (b) whether wisdom mediates the relationship between cognitive and spiritual development in adults. Cognitive development here is based in neo-Piagetian theory. Spiritual development is theoretically understood as object relations maturity and contemplative spiritual awareness (Hall, 2004, 2007). Social science literature includes empirical studies of cognitive/moral development as measured by the Commons Model of Hierarchical Complexity and of spiritual/religious development as measured by the Spiritual Assessment Inventory (Hall & Edwards, 1996, 2002), but not of the association between them. In addition, the study asks whether demographic variables significantly associate with level of cognitive, spiritual, or wisdom development. 1 Why Consider Spirituality Spirituality may be taken to include religion: “a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors related to concern about, a search for, or a striving for understanding and relatedness to the transcendent (Hill et al., 2000)” (Saunders, Miller, & Bright, 2010, p. 356). In both mental and medical health, spirituality and religion are increasingly recognized as important to clients, so increasingly necessary to incorporate in practice (e.g., Pargament, 2007). More than 80% of Americans report that in their lives religion is either “fairly” or “very” important (Gallup Organization, 2009). Many patients considering medical treatment want doctors to discuss spiritual and religious concerns, because of the bearing of these dimensions on medical decisions (MacLean et al., 2003). Mental health patients, according to several surveys, consider spiritually oriented conversations in psychotherapy to be appropriate, even beneficial (Rose, Westefeld, & Ansley, 2001). Some patients, anxious that clinicians might not respect their spirituality or religion, report that they hesitate for that reason to pursue mental health treatment at all (American Association of Pastoral Counselors, 2005; Saunders, Miller, & Brights, 2010). Spirituality and religious practice has been found to correlate with decrease in psychological distress, depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and suicide, and with enhanced hope, optimism, wellbeing, and coping capacity (e.g., Rew & Wong, 2006). Studies also show that spirituality and religious practice can associate with psychological difficulties, in some individuals and circumstances increasing anxiety, guilt, and religious obsessions and compulsions (e.g., Exline & Rose, 2005; Saunders, Miller, & Bright, 2010). 2 Clients’ spiritual and religious beliefs and practices are primary components of their cultural identity (Ponteretto, Casas, Suzucki, & Alexander, 2001). According to the APA Ethics Code, Principle E: “psychologists are aware of and respect cultural, individual, and role differences, also those derived from religion” (American Psychological Association, 2002, p. 1063) and take these factors into account in psychological practice. The Joint Commission mandates for accredited healthcare institutions, that providers conduct a spiritual assessment (see Appendix A). Spiritual and religious beliefs and practices affect social association as well as personal philosophy and understanding of adversity (Hathaway, Scott, & Garver, 2004), and must be taken into account in both establishing a therapeutic alliance and planning interventions (Knox, Catlin, Cassper, & Schlosser, 2005; Saunders, Miller, & Bright, 2010). Need for Empirically Supported, Spiritually Concerned Psychological Care In recent decades spiritually oriented measures and psychotherapies have proliferated in the field, inspiring therapists to integrate interventions that build on the therapeutic power of their clients’ faith-based worldviews and promoting psychological progress (Richards & Bergin, 2005; Sperry & Shafranske, 2005). Spiritually oriented psychological interventions might include conducting a spiritual assessment, consulting with or referring to spiritual leaders, teaching spiritual concepts, encouraging forgiveness,
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