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Routledge Handbook of Chinese Media

Gary D. Rawnsley, Ming-yeh T. Rawnsley

China, soft power and imperialism

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 Colin Sparks Published online on: 06 May 2015

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 the economic,military andculturalpowerofa nationcanbeconsidered.The conceptofcultural positive (Pan2006;Glaserand Murphy2009;Zhao2009). be scepticalofthelikelyvalue ofthishugeinvestment,whileChineseviewsaremuchmore long-term consequences,area matterofdebate.EstimatesmadeintheUnitedStatestend to of anation’(LiandHong2012). Thecurrentsuccessofthis‘going-out’policy,anditspossible means that‘softpowerhasalreadybecomethekeycomponent ofthecomprehensivepower From thisperspective,theintegrationofdifferentaspects power undergovernmentcontrol strength’, includingnotonlysoftpowerinallitsaspectsbut alsohardpower(Ding2008:28). case. MuchofthedebateinChinatakesplacewithindiscussions of‘comprehensivenational as anaspectofpower.Itthusprovidesexcellentstartingpoint fordiscussionoftheChinese has thegreatmeritofseeingculturalactivitiesnotassomeseparate fieldofhumanactivitybut and journalists’(Li2009:1).Nye’saccount,derivedfromhis workoninternationalrelations, has becomeoneofthemostfrequentlyusedphrasesamongpolitical leaders,leadingacademics, China andithasbeenarguedthatisevenmoreinfluential insideChina,where:‘softpower power’. Thisconcepthasprovidedthestartingpointformany westerncommentariesabout consequent uponChina’srise. developing anapproachthatfacilitatestheunderstandingofinternationalculturalimpact journalistic andscholarlyattention.Thischapter,however,isprimarilyconcernedwith these changesarerelated,andallhavebeenthesubjectofanenormousamountpolitical, devoted todevelopingthisbothinternallyandinternationally(Li2013;Keane2007).Allof Dream’ asawayofincreasingChina’sinternationalinfluenceandconsiderableeffortsarebeing 2012). MostrecentlythenewPresident,XiJinping,haspopularisednotionof‘Chinese (CCP) in2007,topromoteitsmediaandcultureinternationally(Wang2011:2;LiSligo of asubstantialdrive,launchedattheseventeenthCongressChineseCommunistParty the world,Chinahassecondlargestmilitarybudgetinanditismiddle also politically,militarilyandculturally(Rudd2013).Alongsidethesecondlargesteconomyin The developmentofChinahasnotonlyalteredthebalanceglobalpowereconomicallybut Introduction China, softpowerandimperialism The conceptofsoftpowerisnot, however,theonlywayinwhichrelationshipbetween The dominantdiscourseonthisissueisthatadvancedbyJoseph Nyeunderthelabel‘soft Colin Sparks 2 27 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 Colin Sparks administration’s profligateuseofhardpower was damagingUSsoftpower and thusleadingto power, andwasparticularly concerned withthewayinwhich,hebelieved,Bush of Iraq(Nye2004).Inthisformulation, Nyestressedthereciprocallinksbetweenhardand soft course ofacritiquetheforeign policyoftheBushadministration,andinparticularitsinvasion optive powerisjustasimportant ashard,commandpower’(Nye1990:32). means ofachievingstateobjectivesininternationalrelations witharecognitionthat‘soft,co- supplement theclassical‘realist’viewthatregardedcoercion andbriberyastheonlyeffective agreed remainedcentralmechanismsinrealisingthenational interest.Hisconcernwasto Nye wascertainlynotattemptingtodiscardtheuseofeconomic ormilitarypower,whichhe would ensureitscontinuedoveralldominance.Instressing the importanceofculturalpower, in thefuture,itwouldretainabroadrangeofculturaladvantages overanycompetitorsthat overwhelming preponderanceoftheUSAasaneconomicand militarypowermightbereduced can bepersuadedthattheywantthesamethings(Nye1990: 31).InNye’sview,whilethe its powersofdefinitionandattraction:othercountriesdowhat theUSAwishesbecausethey power. Thissoft,‘indirectorco-optive’powerpermittedtheUSA toachieveitsobjectivethrough to forceorbribepotentialopponentsaccedeitswishes, cultureprovidedthoseofsoft strength providedtheresourcesofhard,‘command’power,endowingUSAwithability the world’smajorpoweroverforeseeablefuture(Nye1990:31–2).Ifmilitaryandeconomic were heldupasevidencethattheUSA,farfromenteringterminaldecline,wouldlikelyremain years oftheColdWar,ideawasageneralone,involvingwiderangeresourceswhich which itscriticaledgehasbeendirected.Inoriginalformulation,promulgatedinthelast has changedinanumberofimportantways,notleasttermsthespecificproblemstowards general categoryofsmartpower(Nye2011).Overthislonghistory,theemphasisconcept and developituptothepresent,mostrecentlyarguingthatisacomponentofmore Nye introducedtheconceptofsoftpoweraslongago1990andhascontinuedtodeploy Soft power problems presentedbythedistinctivefeaturesofChinesecase. is madetousetheseinsightsdevelopatheoreticalframeworkthatadequatesolvethe framework tostudythecontemporarysituation.Inresponsetheseshortcomings,anattempt developments. Neitheronitsownissufficientlydevelopedastoprovideanadequatetheoretical in mind,areshowntobelackingsomeimportantdimensionsnecessaryexplaincurrent international relations.Theseapproaches,bothdevelopedwiththeUSexperienceverymuch of theirabilitytoilluminateanumberkeyproblemsraisedbytheroleculturein makes somecomparisonsbetweentheirclaims.Itthenconsidersthemfromthepointofview us understandcurrentdevelopments.Itbeginswithabriefstatementofthetwopositionsand 2009: 4). a promotionofsoftpowermightresultinChinaitselfbeingaccusedsuchimperialism(Li to mediaandculturalimperialism(Li2011).Occasionallyitisevensuggestedthattooaggressive discussions aboutconstructingaNewWorldInformationandCommunicationOrderascounter Senior mediafigureshavesuggestedpoliciestorectifythatsituationtakendirectlyfromearlier that China,alongwiththerestofdevelopingworld,issubjecttoUSculturalimperialism. considerable resonanceinsideChinabothamongscholarsandmorebroadly.Itisoftenargued concept wasoncefashionableindebatesaboutinternationalcommunicationandstillcommands imperialism addressesthesameissues,albeitfromaratherdifferentnormativeperspective.This 28 Just overadecadelater,Nye gave theideaperhapsitsmostinfluentialarticulationin This chaptercomparesthesetwoapproachesfromthepointofviewtheirutilityinhelping Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 the post-1945world, theUSAhadreplaced UKasthedominantpower,but itscharacteristic populations wasachievedbythe establishmentofdirectimperialrule.Schillerarguedthat in had beenthekeydeterminant ofpower,andthesubordinationhugeterritories and by earlierimperialpowers,notably theUnitedKingdom.Inthatearlierphase,militaryforce on othercountries. US scholarHerbertSchillerwho,likeNye,wasmainlyconcerned withtheimpactofUSculture current hasbeenaversionofMarxism.Themostinfluential theoristwasunquestionablythe power. Althoughwritersusingthetermhaveadoptedarange of differentpositions,thedominant Cultural imperialismcomesfromamuchmorecriticaltradition thandoesthenotionofsoft and providetheopportunitytoreconsideritsculturaldimensions (Callinicos2009;Fuchs2010). invasion ofIraq),haveprovokedarenewedscholarlyinterestin thegeneraltheoryofimperialism, fashionable concept,notablytheincreaseduseofmilitaryforce bytheUSA(exemplifiedin theories ofglobalisation.Morerecently,thesamepoliticaldevelopments asmadesoftpowera communication inthe1970sand1980s,butitwaseclipsed the1990sinscholarlydebateby The conceptofculturalimperialismhadadominantrole indiscussionsofinternational Cultural imperialism contribute toAmericanpowerinmanyareas’(Nye2002:11). and opennessthatareoftenexpressedinpopularculture,highereducation,foreignpolicy considerable advantagessince‘thevaluesofdemocracy,personalfreedom,upwardmobility, internal authoritarianpolicies(Nye2010a,2010b,2012).TheUSA,bycontrast,isabletoenjoy offer, ChinadoesnotofferanyseriouschallengetoUSsoftpowerforthefamiliarreasonofits of onlytwoorthreeyearspreviously.Heisconvincedthat,whateverotherchallengesitmay critical attentiontoChina.Hisrecentworkdisplaysamarkedchangeoftonefromhiswriting Nye iscertainlyfollowingtheObamaadministration’s‘pivottowardsAsia’anddevotingmore most alarmist,USscholarsareraisingthequestion:‘WillChina’sriseleadtowar?’(Glaser2011). quite vocalinexpressingconcernatthe‘riseofChina’(Landler2012;Friedberg2012).Attheir 2009). Thisoverallsituationiscurrentlychanging,andsomeUSjournalistsscholarsare dedicated toexploringareasofpossiblecollaboration(RosecranceandGu2009;NyeWang this foundoneexpressioninadegreeofscholarlycooperation,involvingJosephNyehimself, phase ofUSandChinesepolicysoughttobuildacommonapproachcontentiousissues that ChinahasbeguntoemergeinhiswritingasamajorcontenderwiththeUSA.Anearlier It isonlyrelativelyrecently(perhapsasaresultofchangestoUSforeignandmilitarypolicy) concerned himmorethananyotherpossiblechallengestoUSinfluence(Nye2011:231–3). preoccupation ofNye’swork.Upuntilveryrecently,thisdimensionUSsoftpower leg ofculturalinfluence. actions hadmadeitharderandtoachieveitsforeignpolicyobjectivesthroughthethird US militarypowerbecameevidentanditseconomicdominancewasincreasinglyfragile, Muslim world,asembodyingaruthlessandbrutalarrogancetowardsothers.Asthelimitsof and perhapsevenloved,allaroundtheworldintoonethatwasperceived,particularlyin disastrous outcomeshad,henoted,transformedtheUSAfromastatethathadbeenadmired, the benefitsofitsprescriptions.ThemilitaryadventuresfirstBushpresidencyandtheir to persuadeothers,bothinsidetheconqueredcountriesandmoregenerallyinworld,of and conquersmallcountriesalmostatwill,itdidsothecostofseriousdamagetoitsability an overalldeclineintheinternationalinfluenceofUSA.WhileUSAwasabletoinvade Schiller beganbycontrastingUS worlddominationinthe1970swithexercised Rebuilding USsoftpower,particularlyintheMuslimworld,wasandremainsamajor China, softpowerandimperialism 29 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 Colin Sparks vision ofAmerica(Schiller1970: 158). embodied in‘theforcesofenlightenment’thatprovidedanalternative and,inhisview,preferable, Alongside thedominantcommercialculture,heidentified arangeofculturesresistance Nye, however,Schillerdidnotoperatewithanunquestioned categoryofnationalinterest. the UK,orasrelativelyweakanddefensive,withSoviet Union(Schiller1970:5).Unlike To theextentheconsideredotherculturalcentres,saw them asinacycleofdecline,like Schiller wasoverwhelminglyconcernedwiththeculturaland economicpoweroftheUSA. factors that,inamuch-quotedpassage,helabelled‘culturalimperialism’: world andeffectivelysubordinatingthemtothewillofUSA.Itwasthiscombination This hadtheeffectofinfluencingattitudesandbehaviourrulingclassesdeveloping which involvedacombinationofeconomicinfluence,militarypowerandculturalpersuasion. facilitated thespreadofprogrammesmadeinUSA.Thiswaspartamoregeneralprocess industrialized world’(Schiller1970:109). electronic communications,televisioninparticular,emanatingfromafewpowercentersthe tribal heritagesarebeginningtobemenacedwithextinctionbytheexpansionofmodern ‘What isinvolvedtheculturalintegrityofweaksocietieswhosenational,regional,local,or exported internationally,attheexpenseofrichlocalculturessmallerandpoorernations: version ofUSculture,ratherthanitsdiversereality,thatwasdominantnationallyandbeing ming isparamount’(Schiller1970:101).Itwaswhathesawasanhomogenisedandconformist of the“creative”processoratitsconclusion,advertiser’sinfluenceinAmericanprogram- revenues fromadvertisersseekingtoreachlargeaudiencesandthus:‘whetheratthebeginning broadcasters, thatdominateditsproductionanddistribution.Theseweredependentupon internationally, wasfilteredthroughtheneedsofcommercialcompanies,primarily that USculturewascomplexanddiverse,butitsrepresentation,bothdomestically Schiller didnothaveawhollypositivevieweitherofUSpowerorculture.Hebelieved to establishthepowerandinfluenceofUSAonworldstage.UnlikeNye,however, economic power,culturalpower.LikeNye,healsobelievedthatthethreeoperatedtogether 1970: 5). not entirely,fortheearlier,“bloodandiron”foundationsofmoreprimitiveconquerors’(Schiller its dependenceuponamarriageofeconomicsandelectronics,whichsubstitutesinpart,though communication: ‘Whatlendssophisticationtothestill-youthfulAmericanimperialstructureis more dependentupontheexerciseofeconomicpoweranddominationinternational form ofdominationwasnotthroughbuildinganextensivecolonialempire.USrulemuch 30 have incommon. Nye’sformaldefinitionofsoft power,whichisthat‘soft power istheability The moststrikingfeatureofany comparisonbetweenthesetwoapproachesishowmuchthey Common strengths,common weaknesses The spreadofmodernmeansmasscommunication,andnotablytelevisionbroadcasting, Schiller thusoperateswithaverysimilartripartitestructureofpowerasNye:militarypower, system. correspond to,orevenpromote,thevaluesandstructuresof thedominatingcenterof attracted, pressured,forced,andsometimesbribedintoshaping socialinstitutionsto a societyisbroughtintothemodernworldsystemandhowitsdominatingstratum the conceptofculturalimperialismtodaybestdescribessumprocessesbywhich (Schiller 1976:9) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 culture: ‘There isnoescapingtheinfluenceof Hollywood,CNN,andthe . American even theworkingclasscouldafford todrive’(Luce2012). conditioning, aniceboxinevery fridge,ubiquitousneonlightsandanopenroadonwhich mother spentseveralmonthsin theUSin1950s,itwasdazzlinglyfuturistic.There air- in materialgoods.EdwardLuce caughtthispointverywellwhenhewrote:‘WhenmyBritish celebrated inthedominantversionofUSculturemighthave forthosefromculturespoorer apparently blindtotheappealthatprofusionofcommodities characterisingUSlifeand invisible orrepressedinthenationalculture(Miller1995). Moregenerally,Schillerwas been evidencethatsuchartefactscanbepopularpreciselybecause theyarticulateissuesthatare might beaspectsofthedominantUSculturethatothersfind seductive, althoughtherehaslong commercial cultureisimposeduponothercountries.There littleornorecognitionthatthere culture verydifferently.ForSchiller,thereisaconstantemphasis uponthewaysinwhichUS a similarstructure.Bothofferveryone-sidedviewofUS culture,albeittheyevaluatethat 1970: 110–15). like educationintosatisfyingelitepersonalconsumptionmodelled onthatoftheUSA(Schiller and thedistortionofeconomiespoorernationsawayfromurgentdevelopmentalpriorities result ofthespreadwhathetermed‘culturalmush’wasdestructiondistinctlocalcultures that shapeandstructureconsciousnessthroughoutthesystematlarge’(Schiller1976:17).The the worldsystem.Itisimageryandculturalperspectivesofthisrulingsectorincenter of theUS-andWestEuropean-controlledmultinationalcorporationsthatenergiseorganise commercial endsoflargecommunicationcompanies:‘Itis,afterall,theglobalmarketimperative first oftheUSAandthenincreasinglyworld,hadbeensubordinatedtonarrow least asdefinedbytheUSelite,hadservedtoadvanceasituationinwhichculturallife, 2011: 231).Schiller,ontheotherhand,arguedthatpursuitofUSnationalinterest,at unquestioningly committedtothepursuitofwhatheseesasUSnationalinterest(Nye opposite. Nye,particularlyinhiselaborationofaforeignpolicybasedon‘liberalrealism’remains Nye seeshisowncountryasineverywaysuperiortoothers,Schillereffectivelyarguesthe domination whileNye’sgivesrelativelymoreweighttomilitaryforce. different formsofpower,althoughSchiller’sanalysisismoreconcernedwitheconomic of theUSA.BothseeexerciseUSdominationasarisingfromacombinationthese and bothholdthatthelatterisofuniqueimportanceforunderstandinginternationalinfluence between militaryandeconomicpowerontheonehandculturalinfluenceother, a seriouschallengefromanotherstateintherealmofculture.Bothmakecleardistinction of USdominationtheinternationalsceneandneitherreallyhasanyconceptionitfacing the culturalactivitiesofanystateotherthanUSA.Bothseektoexplaindistinctnature more orlessinpassing,nowherealongcareerdidSchillerdevotesignificantattentionto conditions forthepossessionofsuchinfluence.Similarly,despitementioningWesternEurope commanded asubstantialinternationalfollowing–thereisnodetailedexaminationofthegeneral – forexample,thesoftpowerwieldedbySovietUnionindayswhencommunism principle beappliedtoanycountrybut,whiletherearesomepassingreferencesothercases are, inpractice,exclusivelyconcernedwiththeUSA.Nye’sconceptofsoftpowercould ‘attracted, pressured,forced,andsometimesbribed’(Nye2011:20–1).Bothofthesewriters into Schiller’sclaimthattheUSAachieveditsendsthroughmeansbywhichforeigneliteswere positive attractioninordertoobtainpreferredoutcomes’.Thiscouldveryeasilybeinserted to affectothersthroughtheco-optivemeansofframingagenda,persuading,andeliciting For hispart,Nye(2002:xi)dwells onlyuponwhatheseesastheattractiveelementsinUS Examined moreclosely,however,thesewildlydivergentnormative judgementsdemonstrate The mostobviousdifferencebetweenthetwopositionsis,ofcourse,normative.Whereas China, softpowerandimperialism 31 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 Colin Sparks both positiveandnegativeaspectsatthesametime. to onegroupandrepellentanother,mightbeperceivedbyofpeopleashaving of anyparticularcountrymight,atoneandthesametime,displayelementswhichareattractive power isadancethatrequirespartners.’Moregenerally,theinternationalimpactofculture in onecontextmighthaveapositivevaluationanother.AsNye(2011:84)putsit:‘Soft necessarily beconstantterms:somethingthatmakesaparticularcountry’scultureunappealing what ispositiveandnegativeaboutUSculture,neitherwouldthesejudgements negative aspectsofanationalculture.Therewouldnot,course,begeneralagreementupon other aspectsofinternationalrelations,wouldrequireanassessmentboththepositiveand of thebalancebetweentwo.Anyadequatetheoryculturalpower,anditsabilitytoinfluence negative onesarerepellent.Theinternationalinfluence,orotherwise,ofacultureistheresult all cultures,eventhatoftheUSA,arecontradictory:positiveelementsattractiveand those elementsthatmaycauseuneasinessormisgivingsinotherstates’(Li2009:8).Inreality, the goodpartofitsculturethatoutsideworldbelievesisenjoyableoragreeableandhides their culturesothatonlytheattractiveelementsarevisible:‘Astateattemptstodisplay is anecessarypartoftheexerciseinternationalculturalinfluencesincestatesattempttofilter aspects. Indeed,somecommentatorsonsoftpowerhavearguedthatthisselectiveassessment not beuniversallyattractive. religious fundamentalistshaveenormousandintrusivepoliticalintellectualinfluence,might that acultureobsessedwithgunownership,legitimisesthedeathpenalty,andinwhich supposes that‘sexandviolence’donotattractacertainaudience.Certainly,heseemsunaware unattractive, hedoesnotconsiderwhetherthismightalsobethecaseforUSA–unless While heisclearthatothercountries,andnotablyChina,haveaspectsoftheircultureare films andtelevisionexpressfreedom,individualism,change(aswellassexviolence).’ 32 way toHollywood orHarvard.Differentinstitutions, evenwithinthe ,have public diplomacy,uponwhich muchofNye’swritingconcentrates,operatesinaquitedifferent their impactthatcanaccount for suchdiversityposesverygreatproblems.Diplomacy,even the broaderapproachcoversquite differentsocialphenomenaandfindingawayofassessing extent towhichastatecanwield suchpowereffectively. control ofinformationsources;diverseotherfactorsalsoneed tobeconsideredinjudgingthe Not allinternationalculturalinfluenceistheresultofsale oftelevisionprogrammesorthe definition ofthepotentialinfluenceculture,Nyeoffersa better startingpointthanSchiller. culture andhighereducation,aswelldiplomacy(Nye2002: 11).Inproposingabroader includes suchmaterial,buthearguesforaverybroaddefinition ofsoftpower.Itincludespopular increasingly commoditisedformofculturethatcouldbetraded internationally.Nyecertainly the electronictechnologiesofcommunicationandways inwhichtheyhavepromotedan scope ofculturalimperialism,althoughtheburdenhisoverall workistoconcentrateupon that canbeconsideredunderthisheading.Schillerdoesnot spelloutinanydetailtheexact which neitherwritergivesseriousattention.Thefirstandsimplest isthescopeofactivities Chinese culturalactivities,uponwhichthereisnosuchimplicitagreement,andtosomeof to becompletelyantithetical,thereareseveralissues,allcentralunderstandingcontemporary While thereisthissurprisingdegreeofoverlapbetweentwopositionsthatmightbethought The complexitiesofinternationalculturalinfluence Neither writeriswillingfullytoacceptthateveryculturehasbothpositiveandnegative Adopting thisbroaderperspective, however,leadstoasecondandmoreintractableissue: Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 if notincenturies. Anewsitem–areportof an earthquake,forexample– on theotherhand, have averygreatinfluenceover verywideareas,butitseffectislikelytobemeasuredindecades ways. Areligiousorphilosophical position–sayBuddhismorpossessiveindividualism may that thesedifferentaspectsof cultural poweroperateondifferenttimescalesandin population ofthecountriesin question,fittedwellwithUSforeignpolicyobjectives. in policieswhich,howeveradvantageousordeleteriousthey mayhavebeentothegeneral these latterinstitutionshavebeensuccessfulinthisaspectof their missionandtohaveresulted have significantlyinfluencedattitudestowardsUSpolicy,there seemstobesomeevidencethat elite, andthus,atleastindirectly,toinfluencewhattheydo.While itisunclearwhethermovies Kennedy SchoolofGovernment,isintendedprofoundlytoshape theintellectualcultureof Fort Benning,economistsattheUniversityofChicago,or politiciansandbureaucratsatthe Training actualorpotentialmembersofthoseelites,onthe otherhand,whethersoldiersat governmental indifferencetopopularsentimentisacommonplace inallexistingpoliticalsystems. such anattitudeitisbynomeanscertainthattheywill influenceelitedecisions,since favourable attitudetowardsUStradepolicy,andevenifthe majorityofordinarypeoplehold produce. ApopulartasteforHollywoodmoviesmayornotbegeneralisedintoamore in termsofboththeculturalinfluenceandformsbehaviourthattheyareintendedto road tobecoming,powerholdersintheircountryoforigin.Theseareimportantdifferences environment isaimedatasmallgroupwhoareassumedeitheralreadytobe,orbeonthe influence onwidespreadpopularimagesoftheUSA,immersioninaneliteacademic and spendingayearonscholarshipatHarvard.WhileHollywoodmoviesmayhavesome influence willdifferbetweensuchwidelydifferentexperiencesaswatchingaHollywoodmovie influence. way inwhichtheycanbeaddedtogethertocreateacompositecategoryofinternationalcultural of thereputationhighereducationinstitutionsiscertainlyevengreater,andtherenoobvious of amass-marketcinemafilm.Thedifferencebetweentheinfluenceeachtheseandthat by aninternationalnewschanneldiffersinscale,andprobablysocialcomposition,fromthat Hollywood (Cain2012;Coonan2012).Itiscertainlythecasethatculturalpowerexerted including China:inthefirsthalfof2012,9out10top-grossingmoviesChinawerefrom blockbusters, ontheotherhand,attractverylargeaudiences,bothintheirUShomeandabroad, influence canthereforehardlybebasedontherelativesizeoftheiraudiences.Hollywood proximate cultureshaveveryfewviewersindeed.Anyclaimtotheirinternationalcultural audiences evenathome,andinternationallythenewschannelsproducedbyrelatively but presumablytiny(Nielsen2011:12;HolcombandMitchell2013).Thesearehardlymass than 0.3percentofthepotentialaudiencein2012,whileBBC’sisunmeasured time viewershipofaround626,000outatotalUS18+population228million,orless be measuredaccurately(BARB2012).Initshomemarket,CNNattractedamedianprime cent audienceshareandCNN’soflessthan0.1perissosmallitcannot BBC –alsoattractverysmallaudiences.InitsUKhomeNews24attractsarounda1per broadcasters heholdsupasalternativesandimportantelementsinsoftpower–CNNthe effort andresourceshaveattractedonlyverysmallaudiences(Nye2012).However,the Central Television(Zhongyangdianshitai,CCTV)andXinhuahavedevotedsomuchtime, It isthereforeveryhardtofindasimplewaymeasureinternationalculturalinfluence. different potentialforrealisingculturalpowerandshouldnotbejudgedbyasinglestandard. The problemofmeasuringthe impactofculturalpowerisfurthercomplicatedbythefact This problemiscompoundedbythefactthatitalsolikelynatureanddegreeof For example,Nyenotesquitecorrectlythatthe24-hournewschannelsuponwhichChina China, softpowerandimperialism 33 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 Colin Sparks be considereda promoterofUSsoftpower. academic community,atleast in termsofonlinevisibility,isNoamChomsky,whocanhardly like NyewhoflitbetweenWashington andBoston,themostfamouslivingmemberof US system entirelylinkedtoUSgovernment policy.Afterall,whiletherearewell-knownfigures were eitherdirectlyorindirectly highlycriticalofthatpolicy.NeitheristheUShighereducation undertaking theinvasionand occupation ofIraq,Hollywoodmadeanumbermovies that reality –buttheyarerelativelyweak.Forexample,during theperiodwhenUSAwas and theWhiteHousearepresent–Nyeisalivingembodiment ofatleasttwo-thirdsthat relatively distantfromthegovernment.Itistruethatlinks betweenHollywood,Harvard programmes andpopularmusicareindeedproducedbycommercial organisationsthatare but coreaspectsofwhatheidentifiesasthesourcesUS softpowerlikefilms,television example academicexchanges,arelargelyfundedbythegovernment andfollowitspriorities, this category,notablypublicdiplomacy,doinfactbelongto thegovernment,andothers,for responsive toitspurposes’(Nye2002:11).Someimportant aspectsofwhatNyeincludesin does . . . manysoftpowerresourcesareseparatefromAmericangovernmentandonly partly arguing that‘softpowerdoesnotbelongtothegovernment inthesamewayashardpower (Schiller 1970:55). States InformationAgency(USIA),thepropagandaarmofAmericanGovernmentoverseas’ Advisory CommissiononInformation. . . which . . assessestheoperationofUnited president oftheColumbiaBroadcastingSystemwhowasalso‘ChairmanUnitedStates interdependence wasembodiedatthelevelofpersonnelbyindividualslikeFrankStanton,then US entertainmentcompaniestoestablishtheirdominationovertheworldmarket.This government uponthe‘freeflowofinformation’was,heargued,apowerfulfactorinallowing embodied inthedevelopmentofsatellitecommunications.Similarly,stressplacedby the onehand,anddevelopmentofcommunicationtechnologyonother,notablyas National AeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA)theDepartmentofDefense,on (Schiller 1970:16).Inhisaccount,therewerecloseinstitutionalandorganiclinksbetweenthe to stresstheirmutualinterdependenceasdifferentaspectsofwhathetermedthe‘powercomplex’ significantly intheirassessmentofthelinksbetweenthreedomains.Schiller’sanalysistended stress theneedtoseeculturalpoweraspartofoverallastate,buttheydiffer Another majorissueconcernstherelationshipsbetweendifferentaspectsofpower.Bothwriters Articulations ofpower positive andnegativedimensionsintoasinglebalanceofsoftpoweraredoomedtofailure. wide rangeofitemsthatare,quitecorrectly,gatheredunderthisheading,attemptstosumthese to somepeopleattimes,andothersprovingsimilarlyrepellent.Justbecauseofthevery influence ofanycountrywillbecontradictoryandshifting,withsomeaspectsappealingstrongly state toexerciseinternationalculturalinfluence.Thelikelihoodisthatthe be aggregatedintoonesingle‘effect’thatwemighttermsoftpowerandwhichpermits operating atdifferentlevelsovertimescalesongroupsofpeople,cansimply response. quantitative socialsciencewillprobablyproduceadifferentandlessemotionallycharged or film,mayhaveaneffectontheemotionallifeofindividualgroup,butacoursein in weeks,letalonemonths.Similarly,animaginativework,whetherpoem,painting,novel may haveaverygreatinfluenceoverwideareasbutitseffectisunlikelytobemeasured 34 Nye, ontheotherhand,stressesrelativeautonomyof the differentaspectsofpower, Overall, itseemsdifficulttoconceiveofanywayinwhichthisrangedifferentimpacts, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 autonomy, ofwhichperhapstheNordiccountriesarebestmodernexamples. most clearlyembodiedinanearlierperiodofChina’smodernhistory,andextreme power canbestbeseenaspointsuponaspectrumbetweenanextremeofintegration,perhaps degree ofautonomyorinterdependencebetweentheinstitutionsstateandthosecultural much betterstartingpoint.ThepositionsofSchillerandNye,theevidenceconcerning dimensions ofpower,andthetwoconsideredhereoneadvancedbySchilleroffersa the investigationofpreciselinksbetweendifferentinstitutionsthatwield a littleoff-key. presidential election.Atthehighestlevels,atleast,talkofapluralitycompetingelitesseems mittee, andin2007ranunsuccessfullyforthepostofDemocraticnomineeupcoming Congressman forthirty-sixyears,servedasamemberoftheSenateForeignRelationsCom- was agriculturesecretaryunderPresidentClinton;thecurrent,fifth,incumbentaUS Truman andEisenhower;itsthirdwasaformerspecialadvisertoPresidentJohnson;thefourth under PresidentHarding;itssecondservedingovernmentpostspresidentsRoosevelt, with goodlinkstotheUSgovernment:itsfirstchairmanwasaformerPost-masterGeneral against piracyandcopyrighttheft.Inpursuingtheseaims,ithasalwaysbeenledbyindividuals to theprotectionofintellectualproperty,anditlobbiesUSgovernmenttakefirmeraction agreements betweentheUSgovernmentandotherstates.Morerecently,itsfocushasshifted Department’ anddevotedthemajorityofitseffortstosupportingestablishmentfreetrade had verycloserelationswithUSpolitics.Atonetime,itdescribeditselfasthe‘littleState and itmostcertainlyisnotanarmoftheUSgovernment.Onotherhand,hasalways power. TheMPAAisabodyorganisedandfinancedbythesixmajorfilmtelevisionstudios interpenetration ofinstitutionsproducingsoftpowerandthegovernmentthatdisposeshard quite wellwithSchiller’snotionofapowercomplex. of governmentalinstitutionsandthatcommercialorganisationsevenintheUSAfits enjoyed bytheorgansofsoftpower.Thereisadegreeinterchangebetweenleadership such astopromoteUSsoftpower.Itis,however,possibleoverstatethedegreeofautonomy power iscertainlypersuasive,andthesubstantiveproductsofthoseinstitutionsarenotnecessarily Noculturecanbeseenintermsthatarewhollypositive orwhollynegative.Anyreally • the problemandpreciseways inwhichitisdevelopingtheChinesecase: them, oratleasttoclarifythe issues atstake,ifwearetounderstandboththeoverallnature of soft powerandhardpower,therearesixpointsatwhichwe needtodivergefrombothof definition ofculturalpoweraswellSchiller’sgreaterwillingness toanalysethelinksbetween power, anditslinkagewitheconomicmilitarypower; whilewecanacceptNye’sbroad guide. Whilewecanacceptthecontentionofbothwriters astotheimportanceofcultural development, neitherseparatelynorincombinationdothey provideacompletelyadequate valuable startingpointsforacomprehensiveassessmentofthe culturalconsequencesofChina’s Overall, wemaysaythatwhiletheapproachesadvocatedby NyeandSchillerbothprovide Filling thegaps The analysisoftheinternationalculturalinfluenceacountryrequires,amongothertasks, The MotionPictureAssociationofAmerica(MPAA)providesagoodexamplethe All ofthisevidencethedistancebetweeninstitutionssoftpowerandthosehard find repellent.Analysingthecultural influenceofastaterequiresspecifyingwhichothers existing culturewillhaveelements thatcertaingroupsfindattractiveandothersthey China, softpowerandimperialism 35 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 Colin Sparks 36 AlthoughSchillerrecognised,asNyedoesnot,thattherewereimportantcounter-currents • Whilerecentexperiencehasindeedbeenofonedominantculture,thattheUSA,having • Thearticulationofdifferentdimensionspowerandinfluenceisnotagiven.Insome • Thecomplexityof thedifferentkindsofactivitiesandpossibleinfluencesgroupedtogether • Wecannotarriveatanestimateoftheculturalinfluenceanygivenstatesimplybyadding • of Blackmusic in theUSAimmediatelysprings tomind. alternative oroppositionalcultural formsarealsointernationallyinfluential–theexample commercial elitesofanysociety willbeexamplesofthedominantculture,itmightthat definition thoseaspectsthatare mostlikelytobepromotedbyboththepoliticaland and changeablethaneitherSchiller orNyeispreparedtoacknowledge.Whilealmostby prominence toarecognitionthat ‘nationalcultures’aremuchmorecontradictory,contested 1976: 95–6).Anadequateaccountofinternationalcultural influence wouldgivegreater be rememberedthathealsorecognisedthesecouldcontested fromwithin(Schiller cultural imperialism,hetendedtostressthedefenceofnational cultures,althoughitshould his analysisisuponthatdominantculture.So,too,inestimation ofthealternativesto that providedanalternativetothedominantcommercialculture oftheUSA,stressin of itsownself-image. field ofinternationalcompetitionratherthanconsideringitin isolationandentirelyinterms ideological andculturalconflict.Anyanalysisofinfluence mustplaceitwithinthe and militarycompetitionconflictbetweenmajorpower centres, sotootherehasbeen accurate pictureoftherecordatleastlastcenturyisthatjustastherehasbeeneconomic not onlyamilitarychallengefromtheSovietUnionbutalsoanideologicalone.Amore can bestbeseenasexceptional.DuringmostoftheColdWar,forexample,USAfaced much moreinternationalexposurethananyofitspossiblecompetitors,suchasituation element inculturalprojectioncanwelegitimatelyspeakof‘culturalimperialism’. Only incircumstanceswhereitcanbedemonstratedthattheuseofstatepowerisasignificant of internationalculturalexchangesignificantlyreducetheanalyticpowerconcept. attempts, includingthosebySchillerhimself,toextendthetermcoverentiregamut activity isnotlinkedtostateorganisationsandpolicy,theterminappropriate.Later term ‘imperialism’indiscussingtheinternationaldimensionofUSculture;wherecultural analysed betweenthestateandelectronicindustrieswerereasonthatheused on thewaysinwhichdifferentaspectsofculturearereceived.ThecloselinkagesthatSchiller of thestatemachine.Itislikelythatnaturetheselinkageswillhavesomeinfluence connected, butinotherstheyaretightlypackedtogether,invariablyunderthedirection contexts thethreedimensionsofeconomics,cultureandcoercionareonlyloosely particular contexts.Onlythislatterisameasureofsomethingwemightterm‘softpower’. projected, andtomeasure,ifatallpossible,theinfluencesthattheseprojectionshavein resources ofastate,toanalysethedifferentwaysbywhichsuchculturalare serious analysis,whateveritspopularcurrency.Itwouldbebettertobeginfromthecultural under theterm‘softpower’meansthatconceptisaninappropriatestartingpointfor discrete elements. contradict oneanother,andtheiroveralleffectisunlikelytobethesimplesumof over differenttimescales.Thesedimensionsmayacttoreinforceoneanotherorthey dimensions ofculturehavedifferentaudiences,potentialinfluencesandoperate up thepositiveandnegativeaspectsofthisorthatdimensionculture.Different be ambivalence,ifnotcontradiction,presentintheirattitude. are supposedtobesubjectthisinfluence,andacceptingthatinmostsituationstherewill Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 historically tobe extremelyinfluential,certainly intheimmediate‘sinosphere’ andarguably placed toexerciseinternational influence. dependent uponthesizeoftheir internalmarketsthanfilmandtelevision,aremorestrongly production alreadydoesforsome markets.Inthemeantime,otheraspectsoftheircultures, less to provideaviablealternative tomanyaspectsofUSsoftpower,asindeedIndian film is difficulttoseewhyChineseorIndianculturalinfluenceshould notbeable,attheveryleast, eventually levelthatparticularplayingfield.Withequalmaterial resourcesattheirdisposal,it industries isconstrainedbythisrelativepoverty,buteconomic growthwill,ifitcontinues, for muchoftheattractionthoseaspectsUSculture.The scaleoftheirculturalandcreative both currentlylackthematerialabundancethatis material andsymbolicfoundation the fullspectrumofculturalproduction,andparticularlynot in theaudiovisualfield,sincethey of politicalsystem,neitherthemislikelytobeashort-term competitorwiththeUSAacross by thatoftheUSA,althoughtheymightwelcomeandabsorb manyofitsartefacts.Irrespective No onewouldeverimaginethattheculturesofthesecountries wereindangerofbeing‘swamped’ distinctive musicalformsandvibrantpopularculturesthatowe little ornothingtowesternmodels. well-developed philosophicalsystems,strongliterarytraditions, robustlinguisticresources, to anyotherstate,withthepossibleexceptionofIndia(Thussu2013). China areclearlyveryconsiderable;indeedtheymaywellbemoresubstantialthanthoseavailable realistic startingpointforassessinginternationalculturalinfluence,theresourcesavailableto view oftheissuesatstake.Consideredinbroaderperspectivethatwehavearguedisamore , buttofocusexclusivelyontheseistakealudicrouslynarrowandshort-sighted national imageofChinaandgivingitadistinctivelynegativetwist,certainlyamongwestern economically, politicallyandculturally.Theseare,ofcourse,importantinshapingtheinter or thatparticularfacetofthewhole. much moreproductive,responsethansimplysneeringattheallegedlyrepulsivefeaturesofthis are receivedbydifferentsocialgroupsaroundtheworldisamuchmorechallenging,butalso aspects ofChineseculture.TrackingthedifferentwaysinwhichcontemporaryChina assessment ofitspoliticalregime,forexample,theremightbemorepositiveresponsestoother accept thatChina’sinternationalculturalinfluencewillbecontradictory.Alongsidethenegative particular countrytooneaspectofChineseculture,amoreconvincingpicturewould Rather thanfollowinghisleadandgeneralisingfromthereactionofthisorthatgroupinone different picturefromtheeasydismissalofChina’ssoftpowerthatNyehasrepeatedsooften. If webeginourassessmentofthecurrentculturalinfluencealongtheselines,obtainaquite China’s culturalresources soft powerinstitutions. and culturalinfluencesimprovesuponNye’svaguestatementsabouttherelativeautonomyof concentration uponelectronicmedia,whilethelatter’sattentiontolinksbetweenstateaction the broadrangeoffactorsthatcontributetoculturalinfluenceusefullyextendsSchiller’s each writerovercomesomeoftheweaknessesandgapsinother’swork:Nye’sstressupon The twowritersshareasurprisingamountoftheiranalysesincommon,andtheinsights cultural impactofChina,theybothprovidevaluablestartingpointsforamoreadequateapproach. satisfactory theoreticalframeworkwithinwhichtoanalysethepresentandfutureinternational If neithersoftpowernorculturalimperialism,atleastintheircanonicalforms,providesawholly In thecaseofChina,theseabundant culturalresourceshaveinfactprovedthemselves The enormousscaleandlonghistoriesofthesetwocountriesmeansthattheybothhave It istruethattherearemanyegregiouslyunattractivefeaturesofcontemporaryChinesesociety, China, softpowerandimperialism 37 - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 Colin Sparks than 100Tibetans topublicself-immolationin theyearpriortothiswriting andresultedin local uprisings.Itisasocietyin whichtheoppressionofnationalminoritieshasdrivenmore peasants andworkersrunning at around200,000ayearandoftenboilingoverintofull-scale come atacolossalprice.China isasocietyrifewithsocialunrest,‘massincidents’involving be livinginimpoverishedor wealthy societies.Theenormouseconomicachievementshave and everywherethehallmarks of thiskindprimitiveaccumulation,whethertheyhappen to to thoseconcernedwithresistingtheruthlessexploitationand savagerepressionthatarealways its culturalinfluencecertainlychallengesthatoftheUSA. alternative tothenotoriousprescriptionsofWashington Consensusandforthisaudience privileges. Afterall,Chinaprovideswhatappearstobeatriumphantly successfuldevelopmental societies seekingtostimulatesocialchangewhileretainingtheir ownunquestionedpowerand on earth,hasanunderstandableattractiontotherulingelites ofotherrelativelyimpoverished in aculturethatisundergoingrapidtransformation,andembodied inthemostdynamiceconomy symbolic production.Today,apoliticalphilosophythatjustifies authoritarianrule,embedded has openeditselfeconomicallytotheworldbutatsame timeretainsastatemonopolyof politically quiescentmiddleclasshappilysquanderfortunesonluxurybrands;theChinathat China thathasliftedmorethan600millionpeopleoutofabjectpoverty;thewherea society thatofferaquitedifferentperspectivetothestabilityofhistoricalmodel.Thisis infrastructure (CommitteeonTransportationandInfrastructure2013). are increasinglyviewedasoutdatedandinadequatetosolvecontemporaryproblemsof the USHouseofRepresentatives,wheresomeprescriptionsneoliberalderegulation social andeconomicprojectsretainsapowerfulappealinquitesurprisingplaces,forexample in thewest.Theideologyofstateasexpressioncollectivewillrequiredfornecessary the recognitionofmutualinterdependenceandcollectiveresponsibilityisfarfromalieneven porary world,thecoreideaofasocietyinwhichcommonlotcanbestbeadvancedthrough 73). Whileafull-blownConfucianphilosophymightnotgivemuchpurchaseonthecontem western modelsandwhichcanhaveaveryreal,ifdiffuse,internationalinfluence(Ding2008: remain isthepersistenceofaculturalframeworkthatprovidesanalternativetodominant however, nolongerapplyeitherintermsofChinaitselforpotentialemulators.Whatdoes ruling elitesofothersimilarlyun-dynamicbutlesssophisticatedsocieties.Thoseconditions, in whatwasthenthemostadvancedextantcivilisation,hadanunderstandableattractionto able stabilityinthefaceofseverehistoricalshockslikeinvasionandconquest,embodied Historically, aworld-viewthatstressedcontinuity,embeddedinculturedisplayedremark of Chineseculturethatprovedattractivetoparticularforeignsocialgroupsinthepast. explore thisdynamicinteractionifweconsiderpoliticalphilosophy,whichisoneoftheaspects potential culturalinfluencemustanalysetheinteractionofthesedisparateelements.Wecan immediate impactofaspectsthecontemporarysocietyandanyroundedassessmentChina’s (bed linen). still possibletopurchasecontemporaryChinoiseriefromJohnLewis(tableware)andMacy’s timescales anditmaybearguedthatitsmajorimpactisnowinthepast,althoughfact over thelast500years.Thisculturalinfluence,however,hasoperatedrelativelylong imaginary renderingsthatembodieditarearecurrentthemeinmanyaspectsofEuropeanculture ‘Chinoiserie’ wascertainlyneveranaccuratecopyofitsoriginalinspiration,butthedifferent much morewidely,forexampleinimportantaspectsofEuropeanpoetryandvisualculture. 38 At thesametime,thesefeaturesofcontemporaryChinawill havenoattractionwhatsoever On theotherhand,therearemoreimmediateandshort-termaspectsofcontemporaryChinese The undoubtedhistoricalinfluenceofChinesecultureingeneralexistsalongsidethe - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 China istrying todeveloparelikely,inthe short termatleast,toreplace Hollywoodasthe international channels.Similarly, whilenoneofthecinematicorbroadcastorganisations that the essentiallyimperialisticassumptions thatunderliesomuchofthereportingonmain might joinAlJazeeraEnglish as aserioussourceofalternativeperspectivesthatdonotshare as thedominantglobalnewschannel intheforeseeablefuture,itispossiblethatoneorboth While itisimprobablethateither CCTVNewsorXinhua’sCNCWorldwillreplaceCNN from elitegroupsandthusthesechannelsdohaveasignificant internationalpoliticalinfluence. have manyfewerviewers,eveninmomentsofinternational crisis,butthesewilltendtobe state broadcastersandiseagerlywatchedbylargeaudiences. Theotherinternationalchannels in theMiddleEast.Atsuchtimes,itprovidesanalternative tothesterilepropagandaof Jazeera’s Arabicservicereallyhasasubstantialviewership,particularly inmomentsofgreatcrisis As wesawabove,theaudiencesforallinternationalnewschannels aresmallinsize.OnlyAl China’s massmedia,andinparticularitssubstantialinvestment ininternationalnewsoutlets. A similarlyuneveninfluencecanbeexpectedintermsofefforts toexpandtheinfluenceof The massmedia gaming (Blum2013). influenced cinemaandpotentiallyprovideanalternativemythologicalresourceforcomputer developed world;atamorepopularlevel,variouselementsof Chinese visualartenjoysahighreputation,andprices,incentresthroughoutthe are learningsomethingoftheChineselanguageandthusculture;contemporary nearly 700locationsaroundtheworld,hasundoubtedlyincreasednumberofpeoplewho popular forms,isalreadyareality:theConfuciusInstituteandClassroomsprogramme,with elite. Ontheotherhand,longer-terminfluenceofChineseculture,inbothitseliteand the twointernationalnewschannelswillsupplantCNNasasourceofinformationforglobal involved: despitethehugeinvestment,itisunlikelythat,atleastinshortterm,eitherof that canachievenothinginthewayofpositiveresults.Thereiscertainlysomeelement Chinese scholarprivatelydoes,as‘missionimpossible’–anexpensiveexerciseinnationalvanity around theworld.Wecannotdismisswholeof‘going-out’strategy,asoneprominent to findthatcontemporaryChinawieldsdifferentandequallycontradictoryculturalinfluences influence ofChinawillbejudgeddifferently. Depending upontherelativeweightaccordedtodevelopmentanddemocracy,socultural harder andslowertorailroadthroughdevelopmentalprojectsirrespectiveofsocialcost. opposition toschemesthatdestroypeople’shomesandlivelihoodswhichmakeitmuch does enjoymanydemocraticlibertiesthatdonotexistinmainlandChina.Thesepermitpopular terminal intheHongKongSpecialAdministrativeRegion.Thelatterisnodemocracy,butit Shenzhen. Itistakingtenyearstobuildthelast25kilometresfromthereWestKowloon took Chinasevenyearstobuildthe2,200-kilometrehigh-speedraillinefromBeijing for othernationalelitesseekingtoimprovetheircompetitivepositionintheworldmarket.It infrastructure thatChinaisconstructingsoexpeditiouslywithoutdoubtholdsapowerfulappeal and contradictoryways.Thegleaming,modern,albeitsometimesdangerouslyunreliable and politicalmodelsthathaveaccompaniedit,canbeareinterpretedinquitedifferent by ecologicaldisastersinwhichpollutedriversandpoisonedfoodaremundaneitemsofnews. the virtualoccupationofcitiesMuslimwestbyarmedpolice.Itisasocietyravaged Just becauseofthesedifferentandquitecontradictoryculturalresources,wewouldexpect The undoubtedeconomicsuccessofChinaoverthelastthreedecades,andideological China, softpowerandimperialism wuxia (i.e. martialarts)have 39 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 Colin Sparks justified interms oftheneedfortelevisionto domoretobuildaharmonious society,butat material andtodropsomeof theirmostpopularshows(Branigan2011).Thisdecision was and Television(SARFT)ordered themtoshifttheirprogrammingtowardsmoreserious collaboration andexport.Inautumn 2011,however,theStateAdministrationofRadio,Film very successfuldomesticentertainment showsandtoexplorethepossibilitiesofinternational number ofprovincialTVstations, mostnotablyHunanTV,haveinthepastbeguntodevelop pressure formorethanmerepresentationalchanges(Liang2013). alongside youngandenthusiasticChinesecitizensintheoverseas officeshasalreadyincreased credible remainsveryuncertain,althoughrecruitingexperienced westernjournaliststowork rules canbesufficientlydifferentfortheinternationaloutput ofthesemediaastomakethem China’s media.Whether,asmanyofthejournalistsemployed bythenewchannelsdesire,these of opinion,isnotevenaremoteapproximationtotherules governing thedomesticoutputof Such acodeofethics,particularlywithregardtothestressupon thepresentationofdiversity transparency anddiversity,tobeconsideredaseriousguide itsoperations(AlJazeera2013). but itisneverthelessrealenoughforitsCodeofEthics,which stressestheneedforaccuracy, Jazeera doesfromDoha.Theindependenceofthelatteris, course,veryfarfromcomplete, channels areabletooperatewithatleastthesamedegreeofindependencefromBeijingasAl volume). the modestaudiencesofaCNNorBBC(alsoseeGaryD.Rawnsley,Chapter28inthis audiences aspropagandainstruments,pureandsimple,thentheywillneverbeabletowineven simply repeatofficialstatementsfromBeijing.Iftheycontinuetobeperceivedbytheirpotential to provideacrediblenewsservicewhichdemonstratessomepoliticalautonomyanddoesnot hand, theconditionforthemtoachieveaseriousinternationalaudienceisthattheyareable the budgetsofthesechannelsareoverwhelminglyresultpoliticaldecisions.Onother of paymentsfor‘advertisements’placedbyprovincialgovernmentsandstate-ownedcorporations, the Chinesestate.Whetherindirectformofpaymentsfromstatebudgetorterms channels toexististhattheyreceive,nowandfortheforeseeablefuture,massivesubsidiesfrom international news.TheconditionfortherecentlyexpandedChinesenews and shortcominginpublicdiplomacy’(D’Hooge2011:29). projection, itstilltruethat‘China’sauthoritarianregimeliesattherootofbothChina’ssuccesses governmental organisations(NGOs)haveincreasinglybecomeplayersinChina’ssoftpower Even thoughsomecommentatorshavenotedthatorganisationslikeuniversitiesandnon- or coercion–toworktogetherandexpandpublicdiplomacyactivitiesabroad’(Zhang2011). ‘the ChinesegovernmentcancentrallycoordinateTVstationsatalllevels–bycommand Army (PLA).Nevertheless,itremainsthecasethat,unlikecurrentsituationinUSA, of thingsthiscontrolcannotbeastightanddirectispartythePeople’sLiberation much morefirmlyundergovernmentcontrolthanintheUSA,althoughperhapsnature the prospectsofChineseinternationalculturalinfluence.InChina,gamutsoftpoweris other criticsarequitecorrecttopointthewaysinwhichthatcloserelationshipcandamage the casethatinChinathesethreemomentsofpowerareverycloselyintertwinedandNye directly theissueofarticulationcultural,politicalandeconomicpower.Itiscertainly products thatoriginateinChinaandareproducedbyChineseorganisations. sometimes thief)offoreignfilms,programmesandformatstowardsdevelopingmarketsfor capital oftheworld’simagination,itiscertainlyfeasibletomovefrombeinganimporter(and 40 A similarcontradictionfacesattemptstoexportChineseentertainment programming.A The perceptionofcredibilitywillonlybeapossibilityiftheChineseinternationalnews The contradictionsthatthisclosearticulationraisescanbeseenmostclearlyinthecaseof To identifysuchrelativelymodest,butmorerealistic,objectives,however,istoconfront Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 into Chinaper yearhasbeenaccompanied by efforts,notnecessarilysuccessful, toproduce films andbroadcasters.Theslow relaxationofthenumberpermittedforeignfilmsallowed calculus isclearlypresentinthe historyofthevariousrelaxationsrestrictionsuponforeign if nottheactualability,tobecome aninternationalplayerinitsownterms.This‘mercantilist’ other, protectionofaninfantindigenous producerallowsittogrowanddevelopthepotential, have facedverystrongcompetition fromforeigncompanies.Intheseindustriesasmuch any them tobenefitfromtheincreasingwealthofinternalmarket inwhichtheywouldotherwise that itleadstoarelativelyclosedenvironmentforthecreativeand culturalindustrieshaspermitted of Chinesecontrolownershipandcontentisnodoubtlargely politicalinnature,thefact this exceptiontosupportindigenousproductioninoneway oranother.Whilethemotivation Organization orWTO).Numerousstatesofvariouskinds, most famouslyFrance,haveused the foundingofGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade (GATT,nowtheWorldTrade unique toChina;ithasbeenrecognisedasalegitimateexception tothefreetradelogicsince is limited(Zhao2008:105).Protectingcreativeandculturalindustries isnot,ofcourse,something owns themassmediainChina,thereislittledoubtastoextent towhichforeignparticipation while atthesametimefailingadequatelytopolicetrade instolenculturalgoods. protectionist policiesrestrictingbothimportsofproductionandownershipmediaoutlets such internationalagreements.Inthefieldofculture,Chinahasbeenperceivedasadopting other commodity,andtheeconomicgrowthofChinahasinvolvedanincreasingnumber international spreadofculturerequiresinterstateagreementsatleastasmuchthetradeinany in China,whichgenerallyproducessomedifficulties,bringsimportantadvantages.The in termsofinternationalculturalinfluence,particularlyatthepopularlevel. economically, politicallyandmilitarily,itundoubtedlyenjoysveryconsiderableadvantages environment ofcompetition,primarilywiththeUSA.Thelatterisincumbentpower, analyse, weneedtorememberthatthiseffortwilltakeplacenotinavacuumbutan differ dependinguponwhichaspectweconsider,andcountry,regionorsocialclass Alongside therecognitionoflikelihoodthatChina’sinternationalculturalinfluencewill Cultures incompetition to develop. conditions. ThisisnottheatmosphereinwhichanirresistiblechallengetoHollywoodlikely will bestoppedbytheauthorities,whilestillotherssimplyadaptedtoprevailing favour withthepartycensors,somewillbebluntedorsidetrackedintosaferchannels,and methods ofworkingwillbedeveloped.Asthingsstand,sometheseinnovationsfind diverse talent,bothjournalisticandcreative,toensurethatnewattractiveideas does makeitverymuchmoredifficult.Alargeandincreasinglywealthyindustrycontainsenough success. Itdoesnotpreventthecountryfromdevelopinginternationalculturalinfluencebutit is boththeconditionforChina’sinternationaleffortinbroadcastingandanobstacletoachieving a successontheinternationalmarketareseriouslyreduced. and matureaccordingtoitsowndynamics,thenthechancesofproducingmaterialthatcanbe can adoptculturalpoliciesthatallowanentertainment-orientedbroadcastingsectortodevelop commercial factors,inculturalproductionasmuchotherareasofbusiness.UnlessChina how politicalinfluencecanstillbeusedtogaineconomicadvantageattheexpenseof least inpartitwasdesignedtolimitcompetitionwithCCTV.Exampleslikethisdemonstrate The formerpolicyisundoubtedlyareality.Whiletheresome confusionastowhoactually As wehaveseen,insomeimportantrespectsthecloserelationshipbetweencultureandpower The closerelationshipbetweenpolitical,economicandculturalpowerthatprevailsinChina China, softpowerandimperialism 41 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 Colin Sparks with foreigntourists’(MotionPictureAssociationofAmerica2012). in Beijingasmajorsourcesofillegalphysicalitems.Thelatter,shockingly,‘isespeciallypopular as majorprovidersofillegalonlinecontent,andtheHailongmallSanLiTundistrict China, itspecifiedXunlei.comandPaipai.com,bothhostedbystate-controlledChinaUnicom, Representative, theMPAAidentifiedanumberofnotoriousoffendersaroundworld.In In its2012filingtotheIntellectualPropertyandInnovationOfficeofUSTrade internationally asoneofthestatesfailingmostegregiouslytotakevigorousactionagainstoffenders. clauses guaranteeingCCTVaccesstotheirhomemarkets(Chin2011:197). agreements allowingforeignbroadcasterslimitedaccessfortheirsatelliteserviceshascontained Chinese filmsthatarecapableoffindingreciprocalinternationalmarkets.Similarly,the 42 easy fortheShanghai MediaGrouportheHunan BroadcastingSystem.Allowing aChinese go nativeinordertobuildtheir empires.Suchapassport-switchingexercisewouldnotbe so broadcaster, whichiswhyprevious entrantsinthemarket,likeRupertMurdoch,havehad to question. USlawpreventsnon-citizens fromowningacontrollinginterestinradioortelevision move toverticalintegrationthrough acquiringbroadcastingoutlets,isamuchmoredifficult might hopetoenterwithout too manyproblems(Moran2009).Thenextlogicalstep, the is, however,athrivingmarketforforeignformats,eveninthe USA,whichChinesecompanies products, sothereisunlikelytobeasignificantdirectmarket forChineseprogrammes.There is notoriouslyinsular,andtheUSindustryrichenoughtosupply thatmarketwithindigenous media companiesjustasitisamarketforotherChineseexporters andinvestors.TheUSaudience size andimportance,theUSbroadcastingmarketwilleventually becomeatargetforChinese place obstaclesinthewayofforeigncompaniessellinggoods andacquiringassets.Givenits the onlystatethatactstoprotectitsculturalandcreativeindustries. OtherstatesbesidesChina confidence ofChinesemedia,buttheywillalsothenencounter therealitythatChinaisnot the abuseofrightsothers(Keane2008). the needlegallytoprotecttheirownproperty,whichisdifficult todoifoneisnotoriousfor broadcasters inChinanowhavetheambitiontoselltheirownproductsinternationallyandsee motivations fortheshiftfromthefttopurchaseofTVformatsisbecausesome due coursetheyarelikelytowantacquireoverseasassetsthemselves.Alreadyoneofthe and moreexperienced.Iftodaytheyworryaboutthethreatsposedbyforeigncompetition,in of suchgoods.Theambitionsitsmediacompanieswillalsochangeastheygrowlarger,richer increases sothatsituationwillchangeandChinacanexpecttobecomeasubstantialexporter very modestinscope,butasthehomemarketgrowsricherandqualityoflocalproductions economy developsandmatures.TheexportofChinesefilmstelevisionprogrammesisstill ‘weakness’ comparedtoitscompetitors.ThissituationwillcertainlychangeastheChinese in common,however,thefactthattheyarebothpredicateduponChineseindustry’s the importanceofstatepoliciesininternationaltradeculturalcommodities.Theyhave other inwhichitmoreorlessconsciouslyfailstoactprotectforeigncompanies,demonstrate borrowings beensanctionedbythelegalpurchaseofaformat. originals (Keaneetal.2007).Onlyrelativelyrecently,andstillveryunevenly,havethese gramming. Manysuccessfuldramasandgameshowsbearunmistakableevidenceoftheirforeign has longusedforeignprogrammesas,attheveryleast,‘inspiration’foritsentertainmentpro of theMPAAappearstobethattheyareofficiallytolerated.Moregenerally,Chinesetelevision demonstrate highlevelsofactivityinthesurveillanceandcontrolillegalactivity,sosuspicion obscure orbeyondtheeasyreachofChineselawenforcementagencies,whichinotherrespects With regardtotheprotectionofintellectualpropertyrights,Chinaisfrequentlyperceived Greater culturalambitionswillundoubtedlydevelopwith the increasingwealthandself- Both oftheseexamples,oneinwhichthestateactstoprotectChineseconcernsand 1 None oftheseoutletsare - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 international trade, anditwilluseallofitspower tohangonitsexisting position.Rapid the rulesofengagement,in natureandformofnewsreportingasmuchintherules of system whichisdominatedby apowerfulincumbent.Tolargeextent,thatincumbent sets international influence–economically, politicallyandculturally–itconfrontsanestablished in theworld’smediamayprove muchmoredifficulttoachieveevenoveranextendedtimescale. term influenceofChineselanguageandcultureislikelytogrow buttheattempttowininfluence proponents ofthegoing-outstrategyandlimitappeal theChineseDream.Thelong- important impedimentstosuccesswhichwillalsoconfound someofthemoreenthusiastic of responsesthattheintendedaudiencesmayhave.Atsame time,however,therearevery to allowforthecomplexitybothofdifferentculturalresources availableandforthevariety influence islikelytoincrease.Thiswillconfoundsomeofitharshest criticswhoarenotprepared influence. Inthefirstplace,Chinahassubstantialcultural resourcesanditsinternational class mightalsoturntopoliticalactionwithunpredictableconsequences. big problemsandcannolongerdeliverthesematerialgoods, thensomesectionsofthemiddle expansion, ithasbeenanideologythatworksformillions of people.Iftheeconomysuffers rich’ isthedominantpopularideologyincontemporaryChinaand,withrapideconomic middle classesjustasmuchtheykillworkersandpeasants.Itiscommonlynotedthat‘getting those overenvironmentalissues:asinVictorianLondon,pollutionandpoisonedfoodkillthe elections in2012.Theonlykindsofmassproteststhatinvolveabroadspectrumsocietyare Guangdong villageofWukan,whosedeterminationwonthemgenuinelydemocratic political changecomesfrommassmovementsofworkersandpeasants,likethoseinthe who havebenefitedsoconspicuouslyfromwideningsocialinequality.Currently,thedrivefor economy andrisinglivingstandardsarepowerfulargumentsforthestatusquoamongthose Growth ratesarecloselytiedtotheprospectsforpoliticalstability,sincearapidlyexpanding and isnot,apparently,acauseforconcernamongtheChineseleadership(Rabinovitch2013). years ofthecentury,butattimewritingitremainsanannualisedrate7.5percent for China’sinternationalculturalinfluence. both oftheseprovetobewrongitwillnecessaryconductafreshanalysistheprospects not anyfundamentalchanges.Bothoftheseassumptionscanbechallenged,andifeitheror current politicalsystemwillremain,perhapsexperiencingsomeimportantmodificationsbut enough toensurethatChinaplaysanincreasinglyimportantroleintheworld.Second, economy willcontinuetoexpand,notperhapsasrapidlyinthelastdecadebutatleastfast Throughout thischapterwehavemadetwoassumptionsaboutthenearfuture:first,Chinese Conclusions including theUSA. will workcloselywiththeChinesemediaindustrytopriseopenmarketsaroundworld, including China.Inthelongerterm,wecanexpectChineseMinistryofForeignAffairs Department workscloselywiththeUSmediaindustrytopriseopenmarketsaroundworld, pressure andinternationalbargainingnecessarytoresolvesuchanissue.TodaytheUSState between cultureandpowerinChinawouldatthatpointbeanimportantassetthediplomatic and attemptedacquisitions,thiswouldbelikelytostronglyresisted.Thecloserelationship Federal CommunicationsAct.GiventhefurorethathassurroundedotherChineseacquisitions company toacquirecontrolofaUStelevisionstationwouldrequireanamendmentthe In termsoftherelativelyrecent past,Chinaisanewcomertotheroleofcontenderfor With thosecaveatsinmind,however,wecandrawanumber ofconclusionsaboutthis The rateofgrowththeeconomyiscertainlyslowingfromdizzyingpaceearly China, softpowerandimperialism 43 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:09 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315758350, ch2, 10.4324/9781315758350.ch2 Colin Sparks Branigan, T.(2011)‘Chinesehittalentshowtobereplacedwithhousework programme’, Infairness,itshouldbenotedthattheMPAAcommendsTaobao,largestChinesee-commerce 1 Note or coerceothernationsintoacceptingadifferentworldorder. influence willalsorelyuponthestrengthofChinesestateto,asNyewouldputit,bribe the contemporaryworld,softpowerdoesnotexistinisolation.Chineseculture’sincreased will not,however,beasimpleprocessofculturalosmosis.InboththehistoryChinaandin advanced civilisation.Itsculturewas,correspondingly,extremelyinfluentialinternationally.It until thenineteenthcentury,Chinacouldclaimtobeworld’slargesteconomyanditsmost order butareassertionoftheculturalrealitiesthathavedominatedmosthumanhistory.Up power ofChineseculture.Totheextentthatthisoccursitwillrepresentnotanewglobal else, China’sinternationalinfluencewillincreasesubstantially,andthisinvolvetheseductive rather nebulousChineseDreamforsometimetocome(Patience2013). lower socialmobility,butitislikelytoremainsignificantlymoreattractivethanXiJinping’s whole. TherealityoftheAmericanDreammaybefadingwithstaticlivingstandardsandmuch before asimilarlevelofindividual,asopposedtoaggregate,abundanceprevailsinChina per capitaincometodayisasmallfractionofthattheUSA,anditwillbeverylongtime vastly greaterresourcesintheproductionofculturalcommoditiesthananyothercountry.China’s fortunate materialcircumstancesandthescaleofitsinternalmarketmeansthatitisabletodeploy in theartefactsofUScultureretainapowerfulandunderstandableattractiontothoseless in theworld’slinguafranca,areunlikelytooccur.Asnotedabove,abundanceembedded transformations ofthepatternsinternationalregulation,tradeinculturalartefactsor 44 Blum, J.(2013)‘WesternerstranslateChinesevideogamesinalabour oflove’, BARB (2012)‘Totalviewingsummary–monthly’,BroadcastingAudienceResearchBoard(BARB). Al Jazeera(2013)‘Codeofethics’,. 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