Theory of Judgment in the Lvov School of Philosophy: Introduction to Research

Філософські науки 91 Vol. 1, No. 2, 2015

УДК: 161.2

THEORY OF JUDGMENT IN THE LVOV SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Stepan Ivanyk University of Warsaw

(стаття надійшла до редколегії 8.09.2015 р., прийнята до друку – 15.10.2015 р.)

Current knowledge of philosophical and logical investigations includes numerous gaps regarding the theory of judgment in the Lvov School of Philosophy. The aim of the paper is to show that the task of filling this gap is not without merit and to outline the way how to complete this task. Theoretical and methodological roots of theory of judgement of the Lvov School in philosophy lies in philosophy of Franz Brentano, whose views on logic have been identified as the first ever revolt against Aristotelian logic. This fact increases the theoretical and practical value of attainments in the theory of judgement of the School as one of the most potent centers of Brentano’s philosophy, and justifies the necessity to scrutinize and systematize them. In turn, taking into consideration the fact that for specific interpretations of judgement in the School there were mainly innovative constructions of logic, conducting such a study seems to be crucial not only from the historical point of view (as the reconstruction of an important period of history of Polish philosophy and logic in Lvov) but also can provide plenty of interesting issues and serve as the source of inspiration for contemporary logic and meta-logic research. Therefore the way how to complete the task of the paper is like following: (1) to reconstruct a full range of theoretical propositions in the theory of judgment devised in the Lvov School; (2) to explicate epistemic and ontic foundations of theoretical propositions of the School and (3) to find, analytically develop, and introduce to science so far unknown scientific materials (dissertations, readings and academic lectures, correspondences, etc.). Key words: The Lvov School of Philosophy, theory of judgment, research.

ТЕОРІЯ СУДЖЕННЯ У ЛЬВІВСЬКІЙ ФІЛОСОФСЬКІЙ ШКОЛІ: ВСТУП ДО ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ

Степан Іваник

Сучасний стан досліджень наукової спадщини львіської філософської школи має численні прогалини, однією з яких є теорія судження цієї школи. Показано важливість завдання заповнення цієї прогалини і окреслено шлях виконання цього завдання. Ключові слова: львівська філософська школа, теорія судження, дослідження.

Current state of knowledge. The range of Szkoła Lwowsko-Warszawska, Warszawa 1985; J. Czerny, research on the theory of judgment in the Lvov School Kazimierz Twardowski – współtwórca brentanowskiego shall be considered in terms of the state of research on programu filozofii, Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 1990; the Warsaw-Lvov School, since the Lvov School was its R. Jadczak, Kazimierz Twardowski – twórca Szkoły integral part. Lwowsko-Warszawskiej, Toruń 1991; J. Woleński, There is no gainsaying the fact that the most Szkoła Lwowsko-Warszawska w polemikach, Warszawa advanced research on the Lvov School legacy (as the 1997; R. Jadczak, Mistrz i jego uczniowie, Warszawa integral part of Warsaw-Lvov School) is conducted in 1997; J. Jadacki, Orientacje i doktryny filozoficzne, Poland where, within the last seven decades (from 1945 Warszawa 1998; T. Rzepa, Życie psychiczne i drogi do and currently), hundreds of dissertations and articles niego: (psychologiczna Szkoła Lwowska), Szczecin 1998; regarding both various aspects and particular J. Jadacki, Recent Polish Philosophy, Warszawa 2009; representatives of the School have been published. It is R. Murawski, Filozofia matematyki i logiki w Polsce worth listing the most popular, that is the following: międzywojennej, Toruń 2011. S. Zamecki, Koncepcja nauki w Szkole Lwowsko- In Poland works of the major representatives of Warszawskiej, Wrocław 1977; J. Woleński, Filozoficzna the School are periodically published; these include the

Lviv Polytechnic National University Institutional Repository http://ena.lp.edu.ua 92 Stepan Ivanyk following figures: Kazimierz Twardowski, Kazimierz Judgment between 1894 and 1897, “Grazer Ajdukiewicz, Jan Łukasiewicz, Tadeusz Czeżowski, Philosophische Studien” 67 (2004), p.1-20; M. van der Tadeusz Kotarbiński, Władysław Tatarkiewicz and Schaar, Twardowski on Knowledge, Judgment and Truth others, and the tradition of the School is maintained in [w:] Horecka, A. (Ed.), Logic, Methodology & works of the contemporary Polish philosophers (Anna Philosophy of Science 5, p. 131–141, Warszawa 2009). Brożek, Andrzej Grzegorczyk, Jacek Jadacki, Jan Far less attention has been paid to analyzing the theory of Woleński, Arkadiusz Chrudzimski and others). judgment of the famous Lvov Twardowski’s students: Apart from Poland, the vast part of the legacy of Jan Łukasiewicz (regarding his scientific output in the Warsaw-Lvov School belongs to western countries Lvov), Kaziemierz Ajdukiewicz, Stanisław Leśniewski, (J. Cavallin. Psychologism in philosophy: Edmund Tadeusz Kotarbiński, Zygmunt Zawirski, Tadeusz Husserl, Kazimierz Twardowski and intentional objects, Czeżowski, Władysław Witwicki, Henryk Mehlberg and Stockholm 1987; P. Simons. Philosophy and Logic in Leopold Blaustein. However, what shall be underscored, Central Europe form Bolzano to Tarski, Dordrecht 1992; and which has not been included at all, is scientific works F. Coniglione. Polish scientific philosophy: the Lvov- in the scope of the whole range of less known (or Warsaw School, Amsterdam-Atlanta 1993; K. Kijania- unknown) students of the Lvov School founder: Daniela Placek, J. Woleńskiegi (eds.), The Lvov-Warsaw School Gromska, Walter Auerbach, Marian Borowski, Bogdan and Contemporary Philosophy, Dordrecht-Boston 1998; Nawroczyński, Stefan Ołeksiuk, Stefan Baley, Gabriel S. Lapointe, J. Wolenski, M. Marion (eds.), The Golden Kostelnyk, Milena Rudnicka, Miron Zarycki, Tadeusz Age of Polish Philosophy: Kazimierz Twardowski’s Gluziński, Eugeniusz Hłuszkiewicz, Stanisław Philosophical Legacy Dordrecht: Springer 2009; Kaczorowski, Władysław Hetper, Helena Dubeńska, K. Szaniawski (ed.), The Vienna Circle and the Lvov– Tadeusz Witwicki, Franciszek Manthey, Rudolf Warsaw School, Dordrecht/Boston/London 1989) Russia Nykołajczuk-Nałęcki, Pepi Spinner, Fryderyka (W. Wasiukow (red.), Философия и логика Львовско- Schrenzel, Franciszek Smolka, Irena Jawicówna, Adam Варшавской школы, Moskwa 1999; W. Wasiukow, Stögbauer, Wacław Wolski, Salomon Igel and others. Исследования аналитического наследия Львовско- One of the major reasons for such insufficient Варшавской школы, Sankt-Petersburg 2006) and state of knowledge of the theory of judgment in the Lvov Ukraine (B. Dąbrowski, Львівсько-Варшавська філо- School seems to be the common conviction that logic софська школа (1895-1939), Lwów 2004, S. Ivanyk, was primary for the Warsaw branch of the Warsaw-Lvov Степан Олексюк – учень Казимежа Твардовського, School, at the time when the Lvov branch dealt mainly Lwów 2012). Furthermore, translations of works of the with psychology, and conducted in this center logic main representatives of the School are published in research was “infected” with the anachronistic western languages and Russian, whereas at the psychologism and, quoting Roman Ingarden, they were University in Trento (Italy), as well as in Saint utterly “barren”, that is not worth paying special attention Petersburg (Russia) there are special research centers of by researchers. its scientific legacy. Another vital cause of such circumstances can be Problem statement. However, in spite of such found when considering a very difficult access to the considerable and constantly enlarging literature devoted scientific legacy of the School by Polish researchers. The to the Warsaw-Lvov School, hitherto there has not been thing is that works of the majority of the aforementioned any comprehensive study on development of logic and its representatives of the School, which are essential for philosophical foundations – regarding the theory of reconstruction of the theory of judgment in the School, or judgment in particular – in the Lvov branch of the which were printed in insignificant quantities in School. It is only the theory of judgment by the founder publishing companies or Lvov magazines in the years and the Master of this School - Twardowski – that has 1894-1918, are currently hard-to-access antique rarity, or been multiply analytically developed (yet not which were not published at all, and currently are comprehensively) by Polish and Western researchers available only as manuscripts and typescripts in various (e.g. E. Paczkowska-Łagowska, O naturze sądów według archives in Lvov. Finally, a language barrier appears to Twardowskiego, [in:] Psychika i poznanie. Epistemologia be another obstacle when accessing legacy of the School: K. Twardowskiego, Warszawa 1980; A. Olech, among representatives of the Lvov School there were Twardowskiego rozróżnienie „czynności” i „wytworów” also Ukrainians (Stefan Baley, Gabriel Kostelnyk, Stefan a różne rozumienia terminu „sąd” [in:] Język wyrażenia Ołeksiuk, Milena Rudnicka, Miron Zarycki and others), i znaczenia, Częstochowa 1993; B. Smith, Kasimir whose vast number of works were published in Twardowski: Sachverhalt vs. Judgment-Content: Ukrainian. Immanence and Idealism [w:] Austrian Philosophy. The Aim of the paper. As we saw above, although the legacy of Franz Brentano, Illinois 1994; A. Betti, The number of works concerning the Lvov-Warsaw School Road from Vienna to Lvov. Twardowski’s Theory of (1895–1939) is gradually increasing, the scope of

Lviv Polytechnic National University Institutional Repository http://ena.lp.edu.ua THEORY OF JUDGMENT IN THE LVOV SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH 93 research is still incomplete. In particular, the current is acceptance or refusal of an object. Later on, knowledge of philosophical and logical investigations Twardowski in his lecture “The idio-and allogenetic includes numerous gaps regarding the theory of judgment theories of judgment” (1907) described the Aristotelian in Lvov branch of the School, most notably in a very theory of judgment as “allogenetic” and the Brentano’s significant period of 1894–1918 when its theoretical and theory of judgment – as “idiogenetic”, opting for the methodological foundations were laid. The aim of the latter and proposing some modification of it. This paper is therefore (1) to show that the task of filling this modification consisted in taking to account of distinction gap is not without merit and (2) to outline the way how between content and object of mental acts (including acts to complete this task. of judgment) made by Twardowski in work “On the Importance of the research. The question “What content and object of presentation” (1894). According to is judgment?” has exercised generations of philosophers. the aforementioned distinction, Twardowski argued that In description of one of the last comprehensive reserch of the object of the judgment is that the existence of what is the issue, work under the title “Judgment and Truth in stated or denied in judgment, and the content of Early Analytic Philosophy and Phenomenology” (ed. judgment is existence or non-existence which is Mark Textor, Palgrave Macmillan: 2013) we can read attributed to the object of the judgment. Thus, the that “The prevalent view of judgment in late Modern essence of the judgment by Twardowski is a statement or philosophy was the idea that judgment is the synthesis of rejection of the content of judgment, that is the existence representations into a unity. The synthesis model of of its object. judgment proved to be highly influential. Idealists on the The theory of judgment developed by Brentano Continent and in Britain conceived of judgment as a and then creatively modified by Twardowski is unifying act. However, the end of the nineteenth century undoubtedly the element of the whole doctrine of the and the beginning of the twentieth century saw a major analytical trend, thanks to which the interest in their change in the theory of judgment. Early analytic works has been on the increase for dozen years. The philosophers such as Frege, Russell and Wittgenstein as value of their theories of judgment is concerned with the well as phenomenologists such as Brentano, Husserl and following: Reinach changed how philosophers think about First of all, back then it was something new when judgment” [45]. Let us remember that it was the very compared to previously existing tradition (quoting period when the Lvov School of philosophy appeared. As Władysław Tatarkiewicz: “It was the first rebellion again known it’s founder and Master – prominent Polish Aristotle’s logic after the long period of time” [144, philosopher Kazimierz Twardowski came to Lvov in p. 160]); 1894 from the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire – Secondly, the theory of judgment served as the Vienna – the city where he was born, graduated from basis for new interpretation of the Aristotle’s logic gymnasium, and studied philosophy at the university, represented by Brentano and his followers. mainly under a supervision of Franz Brentano. Without a shadow of a doubt, a forte of this theory Twardowski working in the Lvov School believed to be of judgment is being holistic, which consists in on the the follower of his Viennese master and endeavored to one hand matching logic, epistemic and ontic statements create one of the centers of Brentano’s philosophical which act in favor of the proposed theory, and – on the thought in Lvov. In his autobiography he wrote in this other hand – being able to consider issues coherently regard: “I felt called to bring my people a philosophy, with the theory of preliminary subjects – in particular the what I learned from Franz Brentano, especially to theory of presentation, name and object. Therefore, introduce the academic youth into the spirit and method Brentano’s followers do not get engaged into the of this philosophy” [46, p. 29]. In this way, Lvov became problem of tautology of positive existential judgment, along with Vienna, Graz, Prague and other cities one of and contradiction of negative existential judgments. the powerful centers of philosophical tradition stemming Consequently, a number of valuable ideas of from Brentano – so called brentanism. Brentano’s supporters are related either directly to the This fact leads to the search for theoretical and theory of judgment, or to its widely understood methodological roots of theory of judgment of the Lvov foundations. Brentano and Twardowski were capable of School in philosophy of Brentano, whose views on logic demonstrating, firstly, why functionally judgment is have been identified by Władysław Tatarkiewicz as the individual category and the one which does not derive first ever revolt against Aristotelian logic [144, p. 160]. from any other, and – secondly - why it is judgment that The sense of this “revolt” consisted in a completely provides basic knowledge information. A considerable different from Aristotle understanding of essence of systematic value has Brentano’s arguments, directed judgment: namely Brentano questioned the Aristotelian against the classical theory of predicative judgments. understanding of judgment as a combination of two One needs to pay special attention to the fact that presentations, recognizing that the essence of judgments Brentano’s and Twardowski’s analyses show that

Lviv Polytechnic National University Institutional Repository http://ena.lp.edu.ua 94 Stepan Ivanyk considering certain problems – especially ontological – 7. The matter of relation between truth and can occur within considering the structure and elements existence, and false and non-existence. of judgment. 8. Significance of change of view of the essence The aforementioned points increase the theoretical of judgment for the theory of understanding. and practical value of attainments in the theory of Realization of the goals of such a research will be judgment of the Lvov School of philosophy as one of the concerned with systematic development of (a) critical most potent centers of Brentano’s theory, and justifies literature regarding the theory of judgment and (b) source the necessity to scrutinize and systematize them. In turn, literature (published and non-published). A distinctive taking into consideration the fact that for specific feature of the study would be to put much effort into interpretations of judgment in the School there were finding, analyzing and introducing non-published works mainly innovative constructions of logic, conducting of the representatives of the Lvov School into science, such a study seems to be crucial not only from the since it is fundamental to assume that in Lvov archives historical point of view (as the reconstruction of an one can find a number of valuable manuscripts for the important period of history of Polish philosophy and Polish intellectual legacy, development of which is logic in Lvov) but also can provide plenty of interesting indispensable for the fully valuable reconstruction of the issues and serve as the source of inspiration for theory of judgment and logic in the Lvov School. What contemporary logic and meta-logic research. It seems renders the proposed assumption legitimate are the that results of the research will be of interest for anyone following: (1) archival discoveries by the Ukrainian working on epistemology, ontology, analytic philosophy, philosophers from the late XX century or fixed in their philosophy of mind, psychology and, forasmuch theories works references to precious materials of the of judgment attempt to describe the mind processes that representatives of the School, with which Polish take place when human being make decisions and researchers are unfamiliar, and (2) results of the choices in everyday life, these results could be also conducted reviews of the archival resources of Lvov by applicable in non-philosophical areas as diverse as the author of the given project in the years 2009–2012. economics, sociology, theology, mathematics Ad (1) It is primarily concerned with archival (probability) and politics. materials of Twardowski, which were not provided to Research plan. All the above facts give reason Poland by Lvov University after the Second World War for hypotheses, that the Lvov School of philosophy and have remained in Lvov up to the present day. Polish presented (1) a considerable and uniform intellectual researchers learned about them via works of Ukrainian formation, whose theoretical axe was original theory of philosophers, which quoted works by Twardowski in judgment, and (2) a laboratory of thought, discussion their oeuvre (e.g. professor Marat Vernikov in his article centre, which provided a number of valuable (but for Философские взгляды К. Твардовского [Philosophical many reasons frequently neglected or underestimated) views of K. Twardowski] [52] mentions the whole for the science of the Polish and international collection, located in archives of the Library of the Ivan philosophical and logic ideas, particularly within the Franko National University of Lvov, of manuscripts of theory of judgment. academic lectures by Twardowski. One of these lessons – A special attention would be drawn to the role of Preliminary lecture at Lvov University from 15 polemical tradition within the Lvov School (for example November 1895 – was published by the author shortly the following disputes: “Łukasiewicz-Smolka”, “Wolski- after the above-mentioned article, and in Poland Witwicki”, “Leśniewski-Kotarbiński”), which published after 17 years [51]. Marat Vernikov in his substantially contributed to emergence of original manuscripts mentioned, exceptionally critical for theories in the field of theory of judgment and logic. analysis of the theory of judgment of Twardowski, his Among the most interesting issues, considered in works lecture from 1899/1900 entitled Reformative tendencies of the representatives of the School, which will be within formal logic, which inspired inter alia subject to critical analysis and creative development, Łukasiewicz who eventually got involved in the formal would be inter alia the following: logic. Unfortunately, this manuscript and many other 1. Relation of judgment and other classes of important texts by Twardowski have not been found so mental acts (performances and volitional acts). far. Yet, in the nineties in Polish magazines there were 2. Is judgment included in perception? also other materials by Twardowski, found in Lvov 3. Differentiation between judgment in terms of archives (e.g. Philosophical Autobiography [46] and logic and judgment in terms of psychology. Theory of Judgments (unfinished text) [50]. 4. Relations between judgment and its expression Ad (2) On the basis of the conducted archival in natural language (sentence). queries in Lvov by the author of the project, it was 5. Is existence a content of judgment? possible to fix existence of a number of materials in 6. Is existence a predicate of judgment? Lvov archives (including manuscripts, typescripts of

Lviv Polytechnic National University Institutional Repository http://ena.lp.edu.ua THEORY OF JUDGMENT IN THE LVOV SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH 95 unpublished dissertations, MA and PhD theses, seminar readings and academic lectures, correspondences, etc.) of essays, lessons, lectures, correspondences, etc.), which the representatives of the Lvov School. Thus, the shed new light on the theory of judgment both of research aims to outline both historical and analytical K. Twardowski and his vast array of students: Kazimierz context of the aforementioned propositions, which will Ajdukiewicz, Walter Auerbach, Stefan Błachowski, allow on the one hand to highlight the significant and Izodora Dąmbska, Jan Łukasiewicz, Henryk Mehlberg, specific aspects of the theory of judgment in the Lvov Rudolf Nykołajczuk-Nałęcki, Helena Słoniewska, School, and on the other hand – indicate important and Franciszek Smolka, Tadeusz Tomaszewski, Stefan current for the contemporary science elements of the Baley, Stefan Ołeksiuk, Milena Rudnicka, Miron Zarycki above-mentioned theory. This means that the study is of and others. Thousands of pages have been found so far. paramount importance both with respect to history and One has to list manuscripts of unknown lessons by theory. Twardowski and Ajdukiewicz regarding logic delivered at Lvov University, unpublished works by Łukasiewicz 1. Ajdukiewicz K. Logika (konspekt wykładów) / and Smolka, doctoral dissertations and scientific lectures K. Ajdukiewicz. – Lwów: manuscript, 1923-1924. – 41 p. (also unpublished) by Ajdukiewicz, Auerbach, Mehlberg 2. Ajdukiewicz K. Sąd jako konotacja zdania / K. Ajdukiewicz // etc. J. Pelc (ed.). Semiotyka polska. 1894–1969. – Warszawa: PWN, 1971. – P. 112–126. 3. Ajdukiewicz K. W sprawie Therefore, the research plan assumed in the given odwracalności stosunku wynikania / K. Ajdukiewicz // Przegląd article can be defined as follows: Filozoficzny, R.16, z. 2–3, 1913. – P. 287–297. 1. Conducting a detailed review of Polish 4. Auerbach W. Meinongowska teoria obiektywu / publishers and scientific magazines from the end of W. Auerbach. – Lwów: manuscript, 1927. – 66 p. XIX – early decades of XX century, in which were works 5. Auerbach W. Zagadnienie wartości poznawczej sądów of the representatives of the Lvov School regarding the przypomnieniowych / W. Auerbach. – Poznań: Poznańskie theory of judgment. Selection and analytical Towarzystwo Psychologiczne, 1935. – 45 p. 6. Baley S. Narys development of the found materials. logiky / S. Baley. – L’viv: Naukove Tovarystvo im. 2. Conducting detailed queries of Lvov T. G. Shevchenka, 1923. – 52 p. 7. Borzym S. Twardowski i Szkoła Lwowska przed rokiem 1918 / S. Borzym // A. Walicki archives, selection and digital copying of the most (ed.). Zarys dziejów filozofii polskiej: 1815–1918. – Warszawa: valuable materials of the representatives of the Lvov PWN, 1983. – P. 488–510. 8. Brentano F. Przedstawienie i sąd School with regard to the theory of judgment (for this dwiema różnymi klasami podstawowymi / F. Brentano // purpose 6 scientific trips (each with the length of F. Brentano. Psychologia z empirycznego punktu widzenia. – approximately 1 month) to Lvov during 2014–2015 are Warszawa: PWN, 1999. – P. 296–340. planned). Selection and analytical development of 9. Czeżowski T. Przyczynek do sylogistyki Arystotelesa. materials which were and will be found. Brentanowaska teoria wnioskowań kategorycznych / Considering the specific nature of the research, T. Czeżowski // Studia Societatis Sc. Toruniensis. – 1950. – realization of particular tasks at every stage will require Sectio A, Vol. 2, No. 2. – P. 65–75. 10. Dubeńska H. Teoria sądów Lutosławskiego / H. Dubeńska. – Lwów: manuscript, application of diverse methods: (1) in order to explore 1913. – 49 p. 11. Gluziński T. O istnieniu implicite pewnych and settle archival documents, general methods of powiedzeń w powiedzeniach innych / T. Gluziński. – Lwów: archival work will be used; (2) in order to develop manuscript, 1912. – 38 p. 12. Gromska D. Instnienie jako analytically studied materials, a typical method for „treść” sądzenia i sądu. Kilka uwag na marginesie teorii sądu strictly historical analysis of correspondence and Twardowskiego / D. Gromska // Przegląd Filozoficzny. – 1914. – autobiography documents will be used on the one hand, R. 17. – P. 465–483. 13. Gumański L. Elementy sądu i istnienie / and on the other – typical in philosophical studies – L. Gumański // L. Gumański. Istnienie i logika. – Toruń: UMK, reconstruction of logic and philosophical views included 2006. – P. 9–142. 14. Gut A. Philosophical Priority of in maintained source texts, enriched with critical Judgment / A. Gut // Brentano’s Studien. – 2008. – No. 12. – P. 281–306. 15. Hetper W. Podstawy semantyki / W. Hetper. – development of issues included in it, as well as Lwów: Drukarnia Gospodarcza, 1936. – 30 p. comparative juxtaposition of issues included in texts with 16. Hetper W. Rola schematów niezależnych w budowie fixed views on logic and meta-logic thoughts of the systemu semantyki / W. Hetper // Archiwum Towarzystwa Warsaw-Lvov School. naukowego we Lwowie. – 1938. – T. 9. – P. 253–264. Conclusion. The major aim of the research on 17. Hłuszkiewicz E. Istota sądów przeczących / E. Hłuszkiewicz. – theory of judgment in the Lvov School of philosophy is Lwów: manuscript, 1913. – 77 p. 18. Igel S. O przedmiotach therefore (1) to reconstruct a full range of theoretical zastępczych / S. Igel // Przegląd Filozoficzny. – 1929. – R. 32. – propositions in the theory of judgment devised in the P. 165–184. 19. Jadacki J. Polish Analitical Philosophy. Lvov School; (2) to explicate epistemic and ontic Studies on its Heritage / J. Jadacki. – Warszawa: Semper, 2009. – 384 p. 20. Jawicówna I. Sądy przeczące i twierdzące / foundations of theoretical propositions of the School and I. Jawicówna // Przegląd Filozoficzny. – 1905. – R. 8. – P. 201– (3) to find, analytically develop, and introduce to science 215. 21. Kaczorowski S. Nauka o sądach złożonych we so far unknown scientific materials (dissertations, współczesnej logice / S. Kaczorowski. – Lwów: manuscript,

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