Electric Mobility in Cities: the Case of Vienna
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energies Article Electric Mobility in Cities: The Case of Vienna Amela Ajanovic *, Marina Siebenhofer and Reinhard Haas Energy Economics Group, Vienna University of Technology, Gußhausstraße 25-29, 1040 Vienna, Austria; [email protected] (M.S.); [email protected] (R.H.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +43-(0)1-58801-370-364 Abstract: Environmental problems such as air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions are especially challenging in urban areas. Electric mobility in different forms may be a solution. While in recent years a major focus was put on private electric vehicles, e-mobility in public transport is already a very well-established and mature technology with a long history. The core objective of this paper is to analyze the economics of e-mobility in the Austrian capital of Vienna and the corresponding impact on the environment. In this paper, the historical developments, policy framework and scenarios for the future development of mobility in Vienna up to 2030 are presented. A major result shows that in an ambitious scenario for the deployment of battery electric vehicles, the total energy demand in road transport can be reduced by about 60% in 2030 compared to 2018. The major conclusion is that the policies, especially subsidies and emission-free zones will have the largest impact on the future development of private and public e-mobility in Vienna. Regarding the environmental performance, the most important is to ensure that a very high share of electricity used for electric mobility is generated from renewable energy sources. Keywords: battery electric vehicles; public transport; emissions; policies 1. Introduction Globally, cities generate about 80% of the GDP, consume about 75% of global primary Citation: Ajanovic, A.; Siebenhofer, energy, and cause more than 70% of energy-related carbon dioxide emissions [1]. The number M.; Haas, R. Electric Mobility in of the urban population is rapidly increasing worldwide, from 751 million in 1950 to 4.2 billion Cities: The Case of Vienna. Energies in 2018. It is likely to reach about 5.1 billion by 2030 [2]. In Europe, the majority of citizens 2021, 14, 217. https://doi.org/ live in urban areas, and for their daily life, they require some kind of private or public 10.3390/en14010217 mobility. Urban mobility is an important facilitator for economic growth, employment and development. In the EU, urban mobility already accounts for 40% of all CO2 emissions Received: 8 December 2020 of road transport and up to 70% of other pollutants from transport [3]. With increasing Accepted: 28 December 2020 urbanization, problems such as congestion and pollution are becoming more and more Published: 4 January 2021 evident, especially in larger cities. Hence, one of the key challenges in the transition towards Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu- more sustainable development of the energy system is the transport sector. Moreover, there tral with regard to jurisdictional clai- are two trends, urbanization and electrification, which are deeply transforming energy ms in published maps and institutio- systems globally [4]. However, most of the cities have car-centric infrastructures built in the nal affiliations. 20th century, which occupy large territories and cause high rates of urban air pollution and congestion. Especially in urban areas, electric mobility is seen as an important means to cope with local environmental problems as well as to combat global warming. The shift from private cars to public transport and the electrification of mobility are Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li- often seen as the right ways towards sustainable development of urban areas. However, censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. it is important to notice that electric mobility in both private and public transport has a This article is an open access article long history. distributed under the terms and con- In particular, the capital of Austria has a long history of electric mobility. In Vienna, ditions of the Creative Commons At- trams powered by electricity, at 600 V DC, have been used since 1897. Due to their lower tribution (CC BY) license (https:// noise and smell compared to horse-drawn and steam trams, they very quickly became the creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). favorable option. Horse-driven trams were removed from use in 1903 and steam trams in Energies 2021, 14, 217. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14010217 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 19 noise and smell compared to horse-drawn and steam trams, they very quickly became the Energies 2021, 14, 217 favorable option. Horse-driven trams were removed from use in 1903 and steam2 oftrams 18 in 1922. In the first half of the 20th century, since private cars were too expensive for most of the population, trams were a major transport mode in Vienna. Still today, electric trams are1922. an essential In the first part half of of the the public 20th century, transport since sy privatestem in cars Vienna were tooin spite expensive of the for broader most of port- the population, trams were a major transport mode in Vienna. Still today, electric trams are folio of other mobility options. Over time, some parts of the tramlines were replaced with an essential part of the public transport system in Vienna in spite of the broader portfolio busesof other and mobilitymetros, options. but the Over Viennese time, some trams parts network of the tramlines comprises were around replaced 220 with km, buses which makesand metros,it the sixth but thelargest Viennese in the trams world network [5]. comprises around 220 km, which makes it the sixthToday, largest the in metro the world is the [5]. backbone of the public transport system in Vienna. After the first testToday, operations the metro in 1976, is the the backbone modern of themetro public opened transport in 1978. system Over in Vienna. time, the After number the of linesfirst increased, test operations as did in the 1976, total the length modern of metro the network. opened in The 1978. current Over time, underground the number network of extendslines increased,to 83 km. as did the total length of the network. The current underground network extendsBesides to 83the km. tram and metro network, there is also a bus line network in Vienna of Besides the tram and metro network, there is also a bus line network in Vienna of about about 850 km. Although most of the buses are still powered by fossil fuels, there are dif- 850 km. Although most of the buses are still powered by fossil fuels, there are different ferentinitiatives initiatives for purchasing for purchasing electric electric buses. buses. Since 2013, Since fully 2013, electric fully eight-meter electric eight-meter minibuses mini- buseshave have been been used inused the in city the center. city Currently,center. Currently, 12-m battery-electric 12-m battery-electric buses are in the buses test stageare in the testand stage should and beshould included be inincluded passenger in servicepassenger from service 2023. Moreover, from 2023. the Moreover, first hydrogen thebus first hy- drogenis in testbus operation is in test thisoperation year, 2020 this [6 –year,8]. 2020 [6–8]. TheThe electrification electrification and historicalhistorical development development of the of public the public transport transport system insystem Vienna in Vi- ennais depictedis depicted in Figure in Figure1. 1. FigureFigure 1. Development 1. Development of of electrification electrification of the publicpublic transport transport system system in Vienna.in Vienna. Reorganizing urban mobility towards more sustainability is a common challenge to Reorganizing urban mobility towards more sustainability is a common challenge to all major cities. Efficient and effective urban transport is crucial for the achievement of all sustainabilitymajor cities. goals.Efficient However, and effective the development urban transport of mobility is is crucial very dependent for the achievement on policies of sustainabilityimplemented goals. and policy However, objectives the development set for the future. of Alreadymobility in is 2011, very the dependent Transport Whiteon policies implementedPaper [9] sets and the policy goal to reduceobjectives the use set offor conventional the future. fossil-fueledAlready in cars2011, in the urban Transport transport White Paperby 50% [9] bysets 2030 the and goal to phase to reduce them out the completely use of byconventional 2050. As a follow-up fossil-fueled to this document,cars in urban transportthe European by 50% Commission by 2030 and came to up phase in 2013 them with out an Urban completely Mobility by Package 2050. As with a afollow-up special to thisfocus document, on urban the road European charging Commission and access restriction came up schemes, in 2013 monitoring with an Urban and management Mobility Pack- ageof with urban a special freight flowsfocus andon urban financial road support charging mechanisms and access for restriction the preparation schemes, of Urban monitor- Mobility Plans. ing and management of urban freight flows and financial support mechanisms for the However, the success of the European policies and goals, which are agreed upon at the preparationEU level, depends of Urban also Mobility on actions Plans. taken and policies implemented by national, regional and localHowever, authorities. the This success is the of reason the European that the development policies and of urban goals, mobility which is are quite agreed different upon at thefrom EU citylevel, to city.depends Although also the on developments actions take aren and different, policies the increasingimplemented use of by alternative national, re- gional and local authorities. This is the reason that the development of urban mobility is quite different from city to city. Although the developments are different, the increasing Energies 2021, 14, 217 3 of 18 fuels and alternative automotive technologies can be noticed in most cities. Over the last decade, special interest in electrification of mobility has been rapidly increasing.