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Europe, Frontiers and Languages EUROPE, FRONTIERS AND LANGUAGES Guide for the Development of Language Education Policies in Europe From Linguistic Diversity to Plurilingual Education Reference Study Albert RAASCH Universität des Saarlandes Language Policy Division Directorate of School, Out-of-School and Higher Education DGIV Council of Europe, Strasbourg 2002 TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface...........................................................................................................................5 1. By way of introduction......................................................................................7 2. The new that is simply renewal........................................................................7 3. A conclusion...and a beginning: CICERO.......................................................8 4. The frontiers: European texture ........................................................................9 5. Frontiers and cohesion....................................................................................10 6. Frontiers and frontier regions.........................................................................10 7. The frontier regions and languages...............................................................14 8. Frontier situation: a (typical?) example..........................................................15 9. The frontier regions: the main prospects ......................................................18 10. This means in practice:... .................................................................................19 References ..................................................................................................................20 Preface This text, part of a series published by the Language Policy Division, is clearly significant in its own right because it deals with certain influential factors in the organisation and sociolinguistic foundations of language teaching and in the linguistic ideologies at work in problems related to the languages of Europe. It is however part of a larger project since it is one element of a collection of publications focused on the Guide for the Development of Language Education Policies in Europe: From Linguistic Diversity to Plurilingual Education. This Guide is both a descriptive and programmatic document whose purpose is to demonstrate the complexity of the questions involved in language teaching, often dealt with in a simplistic manner. It aims to describe the processes and conceptual tools needed for the analysis of educational contexts with respect to languages and for the organisation of language learning and teaching according to the principles of the Council of Europe. There are several versions of this Guide for different audiences, but the full version deals with a number of complex questions, albeit in a limited framework. It seemed necessary to illustrate these questions with case studies, syntheses and studies of specific sectors of language teaching, dealing in monographic form with questions only touched upon in the Guide. These Reference Studies provide a context for the Guide, showing its theoretical bases, sources of further information, areas of research and the themes which underlie it. The Modern Languages Division, now the Language Policy Division, demonstrates through this collection of publications its new phase of activity, which is a continuation of previous activities. The Division disseminated through the Threshold Levels of the 1970s, a language teaching methodology more focused upon communication and mobility within Europe. It then developed on the basis of a shared educational culture, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (published in its final version in 2001). This is a document which is not concerned with the nature of the contents of language teaching but rather with the form of curricula and syllabi for language teaching. The Framework proposes explicit referential levels for identifying degrees of language competence, and thus provides the basis for differentiated management of courses so that opportunities for the teaching of more languages in schools and in lifelong learning are created. This recognition of the intrinsic value of plurilingualism has simultaneously led to the development of an instrument which allows each learner to become aware of and to describe their language repertoire, namely the European Language Portfolio. Versions of this developed in member States are manifold and were at the heart of the European Year of Languages (2001). Plurilingualism has been identified in numerous Recommendations of the Council of Europe as the principle and the aim of language education policies, and must be valued at the individual level as well as being accepted collectively by educational institutions. The Guide and the Reference Studies provide the link between teaching methods and educational issues on the one hand and policy on the other, and have the function of making explicit this political principle and of describing concrete measures for implementation. In this study Albert Raasch discusses the ways in which the frontiers which characterise Europe with its multiplicity of countries are a potential location for new approaches to language learning. Whereas in the past frontiers were peripheral and served the function of dividing one country from another, they are today locations which can symbolise the process of European integration. Border regions thus offer opportunities of a special kind in which the value of plurilingualism can be made more evident more quickly. In this situation it is therefore important to find ways of profiting from the particular linguistic combinations present in a border region and Raasch gives practical examples of how this is being done. This specific aspect of the problems of language education policies in Europe gives a perspective on the general view taken in the Guide but nonetheless this text is a part of the fundamental project of the Language Policy Division: to create through reflection and exchange of experience and expertise, the consensus necessary for European societies, characterised by their differences and the transcultural currents which create “globalised nations”, not to become lost in the search for the “perfect” language or languages valued at the expense of others. They should rather recognise the plurality of the languages of Europe and the plurilingualism, actual or potential, of all those who live in this space, as a condition for collective creativity and for development, a component of democratic citizenship through linguistic tolerance, and therefore as a fundamental value of their actions in languages and language teaching. Jean-Claude Beacco and Michael Byram 1. By way of introduction Frontiers are not called "frontiers" everywhere. The English word "borders" suggests the edges of a country comparable to the sea coasts. One of the terms used by the Romans was "limes", a word that appears to be distantly derived from "obliquus", meaning "oblique", which suggests that the "limes" is the "oblique" transversal road marking the end of a territory. In classical Latin the word "fines" denoted the frontier or the territory along it. The German word "Grenze", which is obviously of Slav origin (compare Russian, Polish, Czech etc), has replaced the word "frontier" which was still in use up to the 18th century. It conjures up images such as "to present a united front", like the parallel words in English or French, which originate in "frons", "front" and so on. All these words convey the idea of "finis" or the end of something, of natural or artificial phenomena (e.g. "the Wall"); none of them suggests contact, opening, door, window, entry/exit etc. Is it any wonder that we find these same notions of "finis" and "front" in people's minds (and hearts)? Participants in a seminar held at the Council of Europe Centre for Modern Languages in Graz have expressed themselves as follows: "On a closer look the term "frontier" shows remarkable diversity, both in denotation (what are the semantic contents of this word?) and in connotation (what are the emotional and affective contents accompanying denotation?)." Frontiers reflect the body of the rules that determine the political, juridical, social, economic, cultural and linguistic landscape in a state or between two countries. "Frontiers" also exist as linguistic, ethnic and cultural boundaries within national borders. In accordance with different experiences and objectives, frontiers mark the boundary between "here" and "over there", between "this side" and "the other side"; between the "familiar" and the "strange"; between "mine" and "yours"; frontiers separate in-groups from out-groups; they are synonymous with "protection" against the "outside"; they demarcate the individual, they draw a line of common points, of contact with the "other", and conjure up the possibility of "something in common". The word "frontier" thus denotes representations which are both cognitive and emotional/affective. "Frontiers" therefore exist in the minds and hearts of individuals, and not solely as implicit or explicit rules of concrete games. Accordingly, the concept of "frontier" is necessarily dependent on change, is dynamic and can be influenced. 2. The new that is simply renewal The notion and reality of frontiers have changed over the centuries. The vagueness of frontiers as they existed in the Middle Ages has given way to well-defined lines of demarcation. The juridical functions of frontiers have been adapted to new concepts,
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