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Suzie Dobrontei Phd Thesis From Big Brother to terrorism; understanding people’s perceptions of surveillance, privacy and Islam Zsuzsanna Dobrontei Thesis submitted to Royal Holloway, University of London in fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology. Department of Psychology Royal Holloway, University of London July 18, 2019 1 Declaration of Authorship I declare that this work was carried out in accordance with the Regulations of the University of London. I declare that this submission is my own work, and to the best of my knowledge does not represent the works of others, published or unpublished, except where duly acknowledged in the text. No part of this thesis has been submitted for a higher degree at another university or institution. Signed: Date: 18/07/2019 Zsuzsanna Dobrontei Royal Holloway, University of London 2 Acknowledgements First of all, I am eternally thankful for my supervisor, Dr Marco Cinnirella, who guided me through this experience and became a trusted friend. Thank you for making me want to become a better researcher and for giving me incredible opportunities and experiences – academic and non-academic – throughout my PhD. My secondary supervisors – Dr John Bryden and Dr Vincent Jansen – it has been a pleasure working with both of you and your keen insights and critiques have helped shape my research approach and my critical thinking. I am grateful for having the kindest, funniest, most supportive group of friends (you all know who you are!) whose encouragement powered me through these years both academically and personally. I loved sharing all these crazy experiences with you, and I could not have completed this PhD without your support. A special thanks to my family, though who are distant, always encouraged me to believe in myself and follow my dreams. The person I would like to thank the most, is my best friend William who through all my struggles and anxieties never let go of my hand but instead became my husband. I’m the luckiest person in the world to be part of your team (because we are a team, remember?) and I will always feel honoured to be your accomplice. 3 Abstract Freedom of expression has a critical role in modern democracies and consequently the influence of social media on the expression of national and political identities is growing. In light of recent revelations regarding the extent of surveillance, issues of privacy have come to the forefront of attention. In the first exploratory study using interpretive phenomenological analysis of individual interviews, British citizens' views on surveillance and its different domains, their thoughts, beliefs and concerns about privacy in general and online were explored. Trust in the British Government, its services and also in online companies (e.g., Google) in regard to surveillance was also investigated. Deriving from knowledge gained from Study 1, Study 2 was designed using a quantitative approach. Predictors of both online and Facebook privacy concerns were assessed, such as personality traits, self-esteem, and attitudes towards openness and trust. In another quantitative study, the relationship between British identity and system justification, perceived need, perceived benefits, and concerns about government surveillance were examined (Study 3). Recent terrorist events provided the opportunity to investigate individuals’ realistic and symbolic threat perceptions in the aftermath of the attacks as well as their support or rejection of surveillance, and attitudes towards Islam. In Study 4, in the aftermath of the 2015 Paris attacks, using thematic analysis of an online forum discussion, people’s attitudes towards the proposed implementation of more invasive surveillance measures by the British Government were investigated. Finally, in Study 5, content analysis of tweets after the 2015 Westminster attack explored people’s attitudes towards Islam on Twitter and network analysis was utilised to identify and gain insight into groups within the network structure. The body of work promotes a new way to conceptualise attitudes toward surveillance and privacy that recognizes how they can intertwine with social identity and threat perceptions in complex and sometimes unexpected ways. 4 Table of Contents Declaration of Authorship 2 Acknowledgements 3 Abstract 4 Table of Contents 5 List of Tables 9 List of Figures 10 1. Introduction 11 2. Methodology 19 2.1 Ethical Approvals 19 2.2 Participants 21 2.3 Materials and Measures 22 2.4 Data Management 23 2.5 Design and Analysis 24 2.5.1 Quantitative research 24 2.5.2 Qualitative research 25 2.5.2.1 Thematic analysis 26 2.5.2.2 Epistemological considerations 29 2.5.3 Mixed methods research 31 2.6 Reflections on my Research Journey 36 3. To Surveil or Not to Surveil? A Qualitative Exploration of British Young Adults’ Views and Perceptions of Surveillance 42 3.1 Abstract 42 3.2 Introduction 43 3.3 Methods 47 3.3.1 Participants 47 3.3.2 Procedure 48 3.3.3 Data analysis 48 3.4 Results 51 3.4.1 Surveillance is ubiquitous 53 3.4.2 Nothing to hide 57 3.4.2.1 Lawful behaviour 59 3.4.2.2 Ordinary personal information 60 5 3.4.3 Protection of the public 61 3.4.4 Trust in the agent of surveillance 67 3.4.4.1 Efficacy 67 3.4.4.2 Inherent trust in the agent of surveillance 69 3.4.4.3 Transparency regarding surveillance 71 3.4.5 Concerns 74 3.4.5.1 Misuse of surveillance 74 3.4.5.2 Privacy infringement 78 3.4.5.3 Unjustified surveillance 80 3.4.5.4 Surveillance capitalism 84 3.5 Conclusion 87 3.6 Supplemental Material 93 4. Predictors of Information Privacy Concerns on Facebook 96 4.1 Abstract 96 4.2 Introduction 97 4.2.1 Facebook and privacy 97 4.2.2 Personality and SNS use 99 4.2.3 Trust and SNS use 105 4.2.4 The present study 107 4.3 Methods 107 4.3.1 Participants 107 4.3.2 Stimuli and materials 108 4.3.3 Design and statistical analysis 111 4.4 Results 111 4.4.1 General Facebook use 111 4.4.2 Privacy settings 113 4.4.3 Information privacy concerns on Facebook 114 4.5 Discussion 115 5. British National Identity and Perceptions of Government Surveillance 124 5.1 Abstract 124 5.2 Introduction 125 5.2.1 Surveillance in the UK 125 5.2.2 Perceptions of government surveillance 127 5.2.3 The role of shared identity 129 5.2.4 The present study 133 6 5.3 Methods 135 5.3.1 Participants 135 5.3.2 Measures 136 5.3.3 Procedure 138 5.3.4 Design and statistical analysis 138 5.4 Results 139 5.4.1 Multiple analysis of variance 139 5.4.2 Correlations 139 5.5 Discussion 139 6. Exploring Views on the Acceptance or Rejection of Increased Surveillance in the UK in the Aftermath of a Terrorist Attack 145 6.1 Abstract 145 6.2 Introduction 146 6.2.1 Post 9/11 surveillance 146 6.2.2 The trade-off model 147 6.2.3 Threat 149 6.2.4 Trust 150 6.2.5 Perceived effectiveness 152 6.2.6 The present study 153 6.3 Methods 155 6.3.1 Data collection and participants 155 6.3.2 Data analysis 158 6.4 Results 158 6.4.1 Realistic threat of terrorism versus symbolic threat of surveillance 161 6.4.2 With ‘us’ or with the terrorists 166 6.4.3 Efficacy of surveillance strategies 168 6.4.3.1 Effective old and ineffective new surveillance measures 168 6.4.3.2 Adaptability of terrorists 169 6.4.3.3 Independent cells 172 6.4.4 Governmental trust 172 6.4.4.1 Misuse of surveillance 173 6.4.4.2 Trustworthiness 175 6.5 Discussion 177 7. Exploring Manifestations of People’s Attitudes Towards Islam on Twitter After the Westminster attack 185 7.1 Abstract 185 7 7.2 Introduction 186 7.2.1 Islamophobia 186 7.2.2 Westminster attack 190 7.2.3 Twitter and online Islamophobia 191 7.2.4 The present study 192 7.3 Methods 195 7.3.1 Data collection 195 7.3.2 Analyses 195 7.3.2.1 Quantitative social network analysis 196 7.3.2.2 Qualitative analyses 197 7.4 Results 198 7.4.1 Quantitative social network analysis 198 7.4.2 Qualitative analyses 203 7.4.2.1 Sentiment analysis 203 7.4.2.2 Content analysis 208 7.4.2.2.1 Positive themes 209 7.4.2.2.2 Negative themes 213 7.5 Discussion 224 7.6 Supplemental Material 235 7.6.1 Section one 235 7.6.2 Section two 240 8. General Discussion 242 9. Conclusion 253 10. References 254 8 Table List of Tables Table 3.1 Different agents, types and forms of surveillance. 52 Table 3.2 Example of coding and theming. 95 Table 4.1 Daily duration of Facebook use. 113 Table 4.2 Daily frequency of Facebook use. 113 Table 4.3 Pearson’s correlations between different personality traits and Facebook use measures. 113 Table 4.4 Descriptive statistics for the personality and trust variables and Pearson’s coefficients for their correlations with information privacy concerns on Facebook. 115 Table 4.5 Multiple regression analyses on Information privacy concerns on Facebook with all predictors. Both standardise (b) and unstandardised (B) coefficients are reported. 116 Table 7.1 Examples of the most frequently used hashtags accompanying tweets with positive and negative sentiment. The number of hashtags is presented in brackets. 207 Table 7.2 The first five tweets with the highest number of retweets and their sentiment.
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