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Tragic Orphans: Indians in Malaysia

Tragic Orphans: Indians in Malaysia

Index

A Allied Coordinating Council of Abbasid Dynasty, 7 Islamic NGOs (ACCIN), 398 Abdul Aziz, Mohammad Amin All-Indian Congress Committee, 190 Nordin, 405 All-Malaya Central Dravida Kalagam, Abdul Halim, Ahmad Faruz Sheik, 249 398 All-Malaya Council for Joint Action Abdul Hamid, Ahmad Fauzi, 389, 395 (AMCJA), 232 Abdullah, Cik Dat Anjang, 268 All-Malayan Rubber Workers’ Abdullah, Sultan, 24 Council (AMRWC), 247 ABIM. See Angkatan Belia Al Ma’unah, 394 (ABIM) AMCJA. See All-Malaya Council for Abolitionism, 66 Joint Action (AMCJA) ACCIN. See Allied Coordinating AMCJA-PUTERA, 233, 242, 290 Council of Islamic NGOs coalition, 255 (ACCIN) negotiations, 232 , 156 American War of Independence, 66 Agamic , 141 Amery, Leo, 166 Agent for the Government of , Amrita Bazar Patrika (1912), 107 116, 124, 126 AMRWC. See All-Malayan Rubber agriculture, British colonial economy, Workers’ Council (AMRWC) 27–28 Anderson, John, 96 Aiyer, K.A. Neelakanda, 162 Angkatan Belia Islam (ABIM), 338 Albuquerque, Alfonso de, 17 Angkatan Pemuda Insaf, 231 alcoholism, 124–25 Anglican Clapham Sect leadership, 66 Aliens Ordinances, 163 Anglo–Dutch Treaty of London “Allah”, non-Muslim usage of, 431 (1824), 21 Alliance educational policies, 305 Anglo-US-Dutch coalition, 187 Alliance formula, 276, 347 Annadurai, C.N., 280 Alliance National Convention, 278 anti-British sentiment, 187

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anti-Chinese Sabillah, 227 Balan, R.G., 268 ‘anti-development’ process, 315 Baling demonstrations anti-Hindu agitation in Madras, 280 (1974), 338 anti-Japanese groups, 186 Bangkok resolutions, 194 apostasy, 399 Banishment Ordinance, 163 Arab Muslim traders, 7–8, 17 Bank of Chettinad, 140 Arasaratnam, Sinnappah, 140, 405, 450 Barbadian Code, 65 arkatia, 82–84 Barisan Alternatif, 339 arsenal of democracy, 177 (BN), 311–12, 348 “Aryan invaders”, 154 Baron, J.M., 120 “Aryan” race, 154 Battalion Sikhs, 142 Asia, British objectives in, 19 battle-hardened troops, 182 Asian civil servants, 228 condominium, 434–35 Asian management staff, 119 Bersih organization, 390, 433–34 Asian traders, 17 Besant, Annie, 153 Asian troops, 180 Besar, Mentri, 431 Asian volunteers, 181 Bhattacharya, 239 Askar Melayu Setia, 186 BIA. See British Indian Army (BIA) atavism, 40 BIA troops, 189 authoritarianism, 333–34 Biblical scholarship, 64 Azad Hind Fauj, 198 Bin Laden, Osama, 389 Aziz, Datuk Mohamad, 434 Blackburn, Robin, 72n7 Aziz, Ungku, 314–15 “black Europeans”, 139 black , abolition of, 72 B BMA. See British Military Baba cultures, 51 Administration (BMA) Baba, Ghafar, 338 BN. See Barisan Nasional (BN) Badawi, Abdullah, 388, 426 BN coalition in 1977, 331 Bersih, 390 territories, 300 disillusionment, 2007, 391 Bose, Rash Behari, 193, 195, 197 election, 2004, 389 Brazier, John, 251 Islam Hadhari programme, 388–89, Briggs, Harold, 266–67 397 Briggs Plan, 266, 289 phenomenon, Britain negotiated agreements, 69 390–91 British Army, 143 Lingam tape, 389–90 British authorities, 192 Mahathir’s plans, 388–89 British Caribbean, 65 patronage networks, 389 British colonial economy, 26–27, 30 as prime minister, 388, 413, 415 agriculture, 27–28 Bagehot, Walter, 41 labour, 28–29 Bajpai, Girja Shankar, 125, 152, 161 in Malay, 29 Balakrishnan, Aum Sri Siva, 405 tin mining, 28

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 492 12/8/14 11:11 AM Index 493

British colonialism, 19, 35, 205, 209, British objectives in Asia, 19 332 British policy in Malaya, 48 , 25–26 British prestige, 38 Melaka and , British racial ideologies, 38–41 21–22 British racial policy, 42 , 19–20 British rule, 48 Peninsular Malaya, 22–24 in Malaya, 136 , 20–21 re-establishment of, 237 British colonial rule in India, 42 British rulers, 36–37 British colonial society, 180 British slave plantations, 71 British colony of Barbados, 64 British Social Darwinism, 50, 51 British complacency, 178 British society, 46 British-dominated plantation sector, on eve of invasion, 177–79 352 British traders, 66 British East India Company (EIC), British Trade Union Act of 1927, 163 153 British troops, 179–80 British financiers, 26 , 2–3 British forces, 21, 186 Bukit Asahan Estate Incident, 320–21 British of Malaya, 46 Bukit Mertajam clashes, 305 Chinese society in colonial Malaya, Bukit Sembilan Estate, 243 54–55 bureaucratic machinery, 48 co-option of elites, 49–50 Burma campaign, 190 ethnic compartmentalization in Burma Railway, 206 colonial Malaya, 55–56 Bush, George W., 393 , 48–49 business sector, Indian participation Malay society under colonialism, in, 237 52–54 prestige, 46–47 C racial ideologies, 50–52 Cairo, trading economies of, 16 signs of change, 56–57 Caldwell, Bishop Robert, 154 British government, 300 Cannadine, David, 40 British High Commission, 408 Carrian Affair (1981–83), 334 British imperialism, 189 Carter, Marina, 94 British Indian Army (BIA), 142, 186 , divisions, 82 British Indian opium trade, 21 Catholicism, establishment of, 17 British invincibility, myth of, 180 Catholic Portuguese, 17 , dynamics of, 181 Central Indian Association of Malaya British Military Administration (CIAM), 116, 157–62, 239 (BMA), 178, 227–28 Ceylon, European plantation coffee British military intelligence, 178 industry in, 27 British military strategists, 177 Ceylon , 137–39 British mines in Malay states, 22 Chatterji, A.C., 189

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 493 12/8/14 11:11 AM 494 Index

Chempaka Negri Lakshmi Textiles Chulias, immigrants, 22 Sdn Bhd project, 356 CIAM. See Central Indian Association Chettiar, K. Ramanathan, 277 of Malaya (CIAM) Chettinad, 139 citizenship, 282 Chettinad Bank, 140 crisis of, 316–18 Chiang Kai Shek, 183 campaign, 194 Children and Young Person’s civilian defence facilities, 179 Ordinance No. 33 of 1947, Civil Service, , 185, 342–43 261n153 Clarke, Andrew, 24 China CLC. See Communities Liaison educational and language policies, Committee (CLC) 305 Clifford, Hugh, 49 and India trade networks, 4 colonial economy trade developments in, 4 development of, 76 trade with , 6–7 rapid expansion of, 142 Chinese communities, 55, 227, 230, colonial government, 284 337, 362 colonial Malaya and Indian communities, Chinese society in, 54–55 interaction with, 51 ethnic compartmentalization in, of Malaya and Singapore, 184 55–56 Chinese cultural traditions, 55 society in, 52–54 Chinese dichotomy, 57 colonial repression, 253–54 Chinese firms, 28 colonial-UMNO nexus, 232 Chinese guerrilla movement, 185–86 Committee of Inquiry, 94–95 Chinese immigrant labour, 22 Commonwealth forces, 186, 232 Chinese–Japanese war (1937), 58 communalism, 210, 237, 254, 302 Chinese junk trade, 18 policies of, 453 Chinese labour, 163 of, 237 Chinese merchants, 30 communism, 256 Chinese migrants, fresh wave of, 54 Communities Liaison Committee Chinese miners, 22 (CLC), 270–71, 277 Chinese pilgrims, 3 Congress of National Culture, 311 Chinese society in colonial Malaya, constitutional amendments of 1971, 54–55 393 Chinese squatters, 184 Constitutional (Amendment) Bill, 310 Chinese tin miners, 28 Constitutional Commission, 274 Chinese workers, 56 constitutional reform Chin Peng, 252 Federation, 231–34 Chitty Melaka, 137 , 228–31 Chola Kingdom, 4 constitution, features of, 275 Chowdary, S. Raghavayya, 155 contract system, 354 Christian missionaries, 138 Controller of Labour, 111, 114

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 494 12/8/14 11:11 AM Index 495

“” labour, 85–86, 88, 150 Dutch authority in 1818, 21 Cooperative Societies Act, 358 Dutch colonialism, 17–19 Cooper, Duff, 179, 181 , 18 Coromandel Coast Muslims, 144 Dutch Reformed Church, 18 Coronation Durbar of 1911, 38 Dutt, S., 124, 167 Council of Action, 194–95 cow’s head incident, 432 E Cripps, Stafford, 190 East India Company (EIC), 35, 68 , 335 trade between India and China, 19 Crouch, Harold, 333 treaty signed between Sultan and, crude racial , 182 20 East India Company Act, 35 D East-West trade, development of, 2 dacoity, 76 economic policy in Malaysia, 308–12 DAP. See Education Act of 1961, 362 (DAP) educational projects, 361 Dawn Raid of 1981, 352 education, language and, 284 Democratic Action Party (DAP), 307 Education Ordinance of 1957, 284, ultimatum, 431 362 Department of Labour, 111 Education Welfare and Research depression, 140 Foundation (EWRF), 361 Depression industrial activism, 162 EIC. See East India Company (EIC) Descent of Man and Selection in 8 March 2008, 412 Relation to Sex, The (Darwin), 40 Elphick, Peter, 181 Dickson, Frederick, 93 Emancipation Act, 66 diet, sparseness of, 88 emergency, 265, 268–69 “divide and rule” tactics, 245 declaration of, 285 DMK. See Dravida Munnetra Emigration Act of 1922, 111–12, 121 Kazhagam (DMK) Emigration Bill, 111 Dobbie, William, 178 Emigration Commissioner, 110 Drabble, John, 28 Emigration Committee, 111 Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam emigration labourers, social and (DMK), 280 psychological impact of, 107 Dravida Murasu, 249 Emperor of India Life Insurance , 242, 248–49 Company, 196 Dravidas, Adi, 120–21 English law, principles of, 80 “Dravidian” ideology, 152 English-speaking workforce, 136 Dravidianism, 280 Essential Goodwill Regulations, 309 ideology of, 155 estate culture, self-referentiality of, 118 in Madras, 249 estate workforce, proportion of, 103 Dravidistan, 248 ethnic compartmentalization in Dublin Estate, 244 colonial Malaya, 55–56

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ethnic relations, 335–37 Federation of Indian Organizations European civil servants, 228 (FIO), 277 European colonialism and Malay , 233 Peninsula independence through negotiation British colonial economy. See process, 267–68 British colonial economy Federation of Malaya Agreement, 26, British colonialism. See British 234, 283 colonialism Federation of Trade Unions, 285 Dutch colonialism, 17–19 Federation Plan for the Elimination Portuguese colonialism, 16–17 of the Communist Organization European colonial powers, 185 and Armed Forces in Malaya, European commentators, mortality 266 rate, 123 FELDA. See Federal Land European Exchange Rate Mechanism, Development Authority (FELDA) 334 female immigration, 121–22 European firms, 28 Fernandez, Norman, 431 European historiography, 40 financial crisis (1997–98), 338 European imperialism, 19 financial scandals, 334 European Malaya, 47 FIO. See Federation of Indian European planters, 109 Organizations (FIO) European population in Malaya, FIPG. See Formation of the 178–79 Provisional Government of Free European racial theorists, 39 India (FIPG) European society, 179 FMS. See European troops, 180 (FMS) Evangelical Protestantism, 35 Force 136, 185 EWRF. See Education Welfare and Force Z, 179 Research Foundation (EWRF) Forex scandal (1992), 334 Formation of the Provisional F Government of Free India Federal Land Development Authority (FIPG), 199 (FELDA), 354 “Forward Movement” into Malay Federal Legislative Council, 252 states, 28–30 (FRU), 320 Fourth Malaysia Plan, 350 Federated Malay States (FMS), 24, fragmentation of estates, 313–15 46–48 FRU. See Federal Reserve Unit (FRU) Federation Fujiwara, Iwaichi, 187 life of, 302–3 political forces within, 302 G Federation Agreement, 233, 254, 277 Ganabatirao, V., 437 Federation of Indian Associations, Ganapathy, S.A., 254 157 Gandhi, Mohandas K., 94

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“ganger”, 85 Hindi language, promotion of, 156 GATCO. See Great Alonioners Hindraf. See Hindu Rights Action Trading Corporation (GATCO) Force (Hindraf) GDP growth and sectional Hindraf-Pakatan cooperation, 436 composition of, 341 Hindu communities in Melaka, 137 General Labour Unions (GLUs), 245 Hindu cosmology, epics of, 3 Gerakan Ra’ayat Malaysia Party, Hindu marriages, 89 306–7 Hindu Registration Enactment, 122 Gilchrist, Robert Niven, 168 Hindu Rights Action Force (Hindraf), Gill, Naranjan Singh, 190, 195 405–11, 436–37 GLUs. See General Labour Unions activism, 454 (GLUs) “body snatching”, 401–2 Gokhale, Gopal Krishna, 94 conversions, 402–3 Government of India Act 1858, 36 MIC, 415 gradualism, policy of, 299 Post 8 March, 413–15 Gray, John, 40 rise of, 400–401 Great Alonioners Trading temple demolitions, 403–5 Corporation (GATCO), 356–57 Hirschman, Charles, 50 , 113–14 Hitler, Adolf, 196 of 1929–33, 114 Home Rule League, 153 Great Eastern Life Assurance, 356 Party (HRP), 414, 436 Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Human Rights Watch, 439 Sphere, 176, 181, 193 Hussain, Sultan, 20 Great Rebellion (Indian Mutiny), 21, Hussein, Abdullah, 432 35–36, 42, 47 Hussein, Hishammuddin, 390, 432 “grow more ” campaign, 205 Guillemard, Lawrence, 151 I Gunseibu, 182, 184 Iberian colonialism, 63 Guru Kalgidhar Diwan Malaya, 142 Iberian colonization of the Americas, 64 H Ibrahim, Anwar, 333, 388, 437, 439 Hall, George, 230 incident, 337–39 Hamid Albar, Datuk Seri Syed, 414 Lingam tape, 389–90 Hamitic race, 64, 154 Ibrahim, Ngah, 142 Harun, Datuk, 307 Ibrahim, Temenggong Daing, 25 Hashim, Ahmad Amir Mohammad, Ibrahim, Zaid, 397 408 IIL. See Indian Independence League Hassan, Ahmad Mustapha, 307 (IIL) Hemileia vastarix, 27 “immigrant” communities, 230, 234, Hevea brasiliensis, 27 271, 283 Hideki, Tojo, 197 immigration machinery, 108–16 Hideo, Iwakuro, 194 formal structure of, 128

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IMP. See Independence of Malaya Indian government scholarships, Party (IMP) 429–30 imperial racial ideology, 56 Indian Immigrants Protection Imperial Titles Act, 38 Ordinance of 1876, 91 Imphal campaign, 201 Indian immigration, 136–37, 144 INA. See Indian National Army (INA) Ceylonese Tamils, 137–39 INA/IIL leadership, 239 Chettiyars, 139–41 INA/IIL movements, 207 Chitty Melaka, 137 indentured labour system, 76, 106 North Indians, 143 Independence of Malaya Party (IMP), Sikhs, 141–42 271–72, 278 South Indian professional, clerical independent traders, categories of, and technical migrants, 142–43 143 traders and related migration, “independent” trade union 143–44 movement, 251 Indian Immigration Committee, 107, India 109–10, 112, 114–15 educational and language policies, in 1907, 109 305 regulation of, 110 participation in MNLA, 268 wage inquiry in July 1930, 114 racial ideologies, 41–42 Indian Immigration Department of trade developments in, 4 1912, 111 trade networks Indian Immigration Department and China, 4 Report of 1904, 104 and , 2 Indian Immigration Fund, 109–10 and , 2 Indian Immigration Ordinance, 92 trading communities of, 139 Indian indentured labourers, 63, 78 India Act XIII of 1859, 91 abuse and coercion of, 94 Indian Act No. 5 of 1877, 91 deployment of, 69 Indian Civil Service, 195 recruitment of, 82–90 Indian communities, 137–38, 230, regulation of, 90–96 238–39, 242, 340–45, 348, 355, 368 substandard living conditions, issues facing, 406–7 87–88 in Malaya, 141, 240, 269 Indian Independence League (IIL), Najib and, 428–29 187, 194 position of, 453 establishment of, 186–95 Indian “coolie” labour, 69 Indian infant mortality, excessive rate habitual ill-treatment of, 91 of, 124 Indian émigré communities, 187 Indian issues, Interlok, 432–33 Indian empire, 19 Indianization, 3 Indian “gangsterism”, 365 processes of, 2 Indian Government, 112 Indian labourers, 71, 109, 113, 149, major problem by, 125 150, 164, 246, 315, 354

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 498 12/8/14 11:11 AM Index 499

alcohol consumption of, 89 Indian politics, 256 in colonial Malaya, 67 Indian population emigration of, 115 classification of, 237 immigration, 77 disunity of, 150 and reception of, 116 proportion of, 122 in Malaya, 108, 110–11, 159 Indian Progressive Front (IPF), 435, migration of, 451 436 repatriation of, 113 Indian representatives to legislative social and economic conditions of, bodies, 141 115 Indian Rights Action Force (Indraf), UPAM recommended wages of, 116 437 Indian labour force, 122, 205 Indians Indian Labour Fund, 316 activism, 237 Indian Legislative Assembly, 111 in Malaya/Malaysia, 312–21 Indian Malaysian society, 450 , 452 Indian Muslims, 200 migration in Malaya, 107 communities of, 144 migration to Malaya, 450 in Malaysia, 220n253 mortality rate, 123 traders, 17 NUPW and unionism, 284–89 Indian Mutiny, 21, 35–36, 42, 47 Perak People’s Party, 281 Indian National Army (INA), 187, 190 politics and society, 236–38 recruitment to, 188 Indian Unionism, 244–48 , 107, 115, Malayan Indian Congress, 198, 239, 240, 255 formation of, 238–42 , 107, 161, 208, 240, plantation workforce, 236 255 Tamil Revivalism, 248 Indian nationalist animosity, levels Thondar Padai movement, 242–44 of, 106 traders, influence of, 2–3 Indian nationalist criticisms, 106 Indian share of professional Indian nationalist movement, 234, 239 employment, 344 Indian plantation workers, 343 Indian troops, 179–80, 188 Indian political activism, 255 in Malaya, 188 Indian political development Indian Unionism, 244–48 associations, 151–52 Indian workers, Depression industrial CIAM, 157–62 activism, 162 industrial unrest and strikes, Indian workforce, 205, 209, 246 162–68 Indic-Hindu issue, 456n17 Self-Respect Movement, 152–57 “Indonesian ,” 234 Indian political movements, 435 Indraf. See Indian Rights Action Force Hindraf, 436–37 Industrial Court in 1985, 353 IPF, 436 Industrial Courts Ordinance, 251 Makkal Sakthi, 435 Industrial Relations Act, 320–21

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 499 12/8/14 11:11 AM 500 Index

Industrial Revolution in Britain, 66 Lina Joy case, 398–99 influx of Tamil gangs, 365 in Malaysia, 391–94 inter-communal cooperation, island trade networks, 18 framework of, 303 Ismail, Muhammad Takiyuddin, 389 inter-ethnic brokerage, mechanics of, 304 J inter-ethnic relations, Islamic Jaafar, Dato Onn, 227, 230, 271–73, revivalism and, 399–400 278 Interlok, 432–33 Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia, 401 Internal Security Act (ISA), 305, 338, “Jaffna” Tamils, 137–39 427 Jalim, Azlina, 398 International comparative studies, Jamaluddin, Khairy, 389, 440 364 Japanese anti-Westernism, 183 International Islamic University, 396 Japanese Army, 187 International Monetary Fund, 338 Japanese campaign, 179, 187 international trade route, between Japanese cultural policies, 182 China and India, 1 Japanese economic policies, 183 Involuntary Labour Since the Abolition Japanese educational policies, 182 of Slavery (Kloosterboer), 67 Japanese forced-labour schemes, 186, IPF. See Indian Progressive Front (IPF) 206 ISA. See Internal Security Act (ISA) Japanese Imperial Army, 190 Islam, 7–10 Japanese intelligence, 187 “fanatical” enemies of, 17 Japanese invasion, 177 in Malaysia, 391–94 Japanese leadership, 185 political, future of, 430–32 Japanese military administration, 182, Islam Hadhari, 388–89, 397 205 tenets of, 417n5 Japanese military scrip, 182 Islamic administration, 49 Japanese occupation, 181–83 Islamic Administration Bill of 1989, Japanese polices on ethnicity, 400 185–86, 225 Islamic groups, activities of radical, Japanese troops, 180, 182, 225 394 Japanese war, 176–77 Islamic orthodoxy, 398 Javanese labour, 109 Islamic radicalism, 394 Jawi Peranakan Muslims, 242 Islamic revivalism, 392 Jayakumar, Xavier, 434–35 and inter-ethnic relations, 399–400 Jayasooria, Datuk Denison, 440 Islamic triumphalism, 395 Jeyakumar, D., 347, 452 Islamic universalism, 395 Jinnah, Mohammad Ali, 248 Islamic Youth Force Malaysia, 338 Johor, 25–26 Joint Consultative Committee, 288 Article 11, 397–98 principle, 274, 283 government’s response, 394–97 , 154

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 500 12/8/14 11:11 AM Index 501

K KLCC Twin Towers, 333 Kamalanathan, P., 441 klings, 137 Kampong Baru Malay community, Konfrontasi, 301 409 Korean War, 286 Kampung Medan incident, 364–66, Kuomintang (KMT), 184 372–73 Kuomintang Malaya (KMTM), 55 kangany labours administration and regulation of, L 110 Labour Code, 315 composition of, workforce, 120 of 1912, 111 education, 125–27 of 1923, 112–13, 125 estate organization, 117–19 Labour Commission, 93 farewell party in, 105 Labour Contracts Ordinance (1882), health and welfare, 122–24 92 housing standards for, 127 Labour Department, 110, 112 Indian mortality rate, 123 kangany licence from, 104 licence for, 104–5 1937 report of, 116 machinery, 108–9 1938 report of, 119 in Malaya, 103–30 “labour emporium”, Straits neighbourhood of, 105 Settlements, 29 recruitment of. See kangany labourers recruitment British colonial economy, 28–29 social problem in, 124–25 Chinese immigrants, 22 and sugar planters, 104 contractual agreement by, 70 kangany recruitment, 107 died of “homesickness,” 88 adoption of, 121 died of murder and suicide, 88–89 caste composition of, 104, 120–21 “lines,” 87 period of, 117 recruitment, 450 phases of, 106 labouring communities, 136 village/district phase of, 105 labouring Indians, political and social kangany system, 103–4, 107, 110 powerlessness of, 369 advantages of, 105 Labour Party, 281 legacy of, 119 Lahad incident, 439 mode of operation, 104 laissez-faire liberalism, 107 outcomes of, 118 Land Settlement scheme, 355 Kelantan government, 431 , 2 Kesatuan Melayu Muda (KMM), 185 language and education, 284 Ketuanan Melayu phenomenon, Larut Wars, 22, 142 390–91 Law Commission, 68 Khalsa Diwan Malaya, 142 , 180, 302–3 Kiong, Liew Choong, 434 legislative bodies, Indian kirani, 206, 245 representatives to, 141

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Liberation of Tamil Indians politics and society (LTTE), 409, 413 1945–48, 236–48 Libya, Ibrahim, 394 tamil cultural heritage, 249–50 Light, Francis, 19 contractual employment in, 107 Lina Joy case, Islamization, 398–99 defence strategy, 178 “lines”, 87 economies of, 182, 183 Lingam, V. K., 389–90 employers, 104 Lord Curzon, 94 estate environment in, 120 Lord Linlithgow, 166–67, 188 government. See Malayan LTTE. See Liberation Tigers of Tamil government Eelam (LTTE) indentured workforce position, 90 Indian community in, 141, 161 M Indian emigrants arrived in, 107 Madras, anti-Hindu agitation in, 280 Indian indentured labourers in, Madras Dravidian Association, 154 123 , 81 Indian labours in, 108, 110–11, 116, “Madrassi”, 136 159 Mahmud, Ibrahim, 394 Indian migration in, 107 Maidin, Rashid, 268 Indian population in, 149, 279 Maika Holdings, 359–61 Indian workforce in, 76 MAJU, 359 kangany labour in, 103–30 Maju Institute for Educational kangany recruitment, 103 Development (MIED), 361 large-scale migration of Indians to, Makkal Sakthi group, 410–11, 435 450 Malabar Muslims, 17, 144 mortality rate, 123 Agricultural Board in 1922, non-assisted migrants, 108 114 plantation crop in, 103 Malay population of, 51 definition, 392 recruiting policies, 107 Islamic identity, 395 wartime conditions within, 204–7 Malaya. See also Malaysia Malayan Agricultural Planters’ British colonialism in, 35 Association (MAPA), 353 British governance of. See British Malayan campaign, 187 governance of Malaya Malayan Chinese Association (MCA), British penetration of, 75–76 270 British rule in, 136 Malayan colonial agricultural Chinese community of, 184 economy, structure of, 28 colonial policy in, 161 Malayan colonies, 177 community and Indian community, Malayan Command, 189 British return to, 234–36 (MCP), Dravida Kalagam, 248–49 55, 165, 184–85, 246, 250, 253, 255

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 502 12/8/14 11:11 AM Index 503

and declaration of emergency, Malayan Union, 230 250–52 campaign, 231 Leninist theory, 265–66 citizenship, 239 peace talks with, 290 proposals, 230–31, 238, 239 unified strategy for defeating, 266 Malay Archipelago, 16, 176, 230 Malayan communities, 276 British encouraged immigration, 29 Malayan Constitution, 317 Dutch possessions in, 20 Malayan constitutional settlement of political, economic and social 1957, 275, 392 structures of, 18 Malayan Controller of Labour, 108 Malay aristocracy, 48, 50, 53 in Penang, 105 Malaya states, British policy in, 48 Malayan economy, 136, 178, 237 Malay civil servants, 348 development and management of, Malay community, 255, 335 26 Malay culture, 51, 311 Malayan Emigration Office, 110 groups, 311 Malayan employers, 143 identity, 230 Malayan employment market, 143 Malay dichotomy, 57 Malayan Estate Workers’ Union Malay Dilemma, The (Mahathir), 331, (MEWU), 319 332 Malayan government, 251–52, 278, Malay elite, 185 300 Malay ethnicity, definition, 392 repatriation policy, 115 Malay-Islamic chauvinism, 336 and UPAM, 116 Malay-medium national-type Malayan High Commissioner, 111 secondary schools, 363 Malayan Indian community, 207, 240 Malay millionaires, 335 Malayan leadership, 194 Malay Muslim community, 242 Malayan National Liberation Army Malay organizations, 227 (MNLA), 265–66, 269 Malay Peninsula Malayan Peoples’ Anti-Japanese British interests in, 21 Army (MPAJA), 184, 186, 225–28, centrality of, 1 250, 254 European colonization of, 23 Malayan Planting Industry history of, 1–5 Employers’ Association (MPIEA), and India, trade networks, 2 247 Islam, 7–10 Malayan politics, 271 Melaka, 5–7 Malayan railways, 47 Malay political authority, 25 Malayan Tamil Pannai, 249 Malay political loyalties, 58 Malayan territories, 21 Malay political primacy, 309 Malayan Trade Union Council Malay political sovereignty, 49 (MTUC), 286 Malay population, 55 Malayan trade unionism, 253 Malay radicalism, 254

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Malay Reservation areas, for food Malay society under colonialism, growth, 184 52–54 Malay Reservations Act of 1933, 140, Malay states, 22, 25 152 British colonial economy in, 29 Malay rulers, 48–49, 229 “Forward Movement” into, 28–30 Malaysia. See also Malaya intervention in, 23 economic policy, 308–12 rubber replace coffee in, 27 economy of, 255, 338, 341, 371 Malay supremacy, 335 education system in, 362 male immigration, 121–22 formation of, 300–302, 321 Manickam, Janakey Raman, 368 Islam and Islamization in, 391–94 Manickavasagam, V., 348, 359 13 May incident, 304–8 MAPA. See Malayan Agricultural Malaysian Agricultural Producer’s Planters’ Association (MAPA); Association (MAPA), 316–17 Malaysian Agricultural Malaysian Bar Council, 389 Producer’s Association (MAPA) Malaysian Civil Service, 342–43 Marakkayars, 144 Malaysian Federation, consummation Marimuthu, P., 403–4 of, 301 Marjoribanks, N.G., 117 Malaysian identity, 439 Marrakayar, Ahmad Tambi, 117 Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC), Masoosai, Revathi, 402–3 208, 237, 313, 347–52, 429, 435, Mauritius, 68 452–53 MCA. See Malayan Chinese citizenship, 282 Association (MCA) formation of, 238–42 McDonald, Malcolm, 231 language and education, 284 MCP. See Malayan Communist Party and Merdeka, 277–84 (MCP) NUPW and, 314 MCP Central Committee, 252 projects and cooperatives, 358–61 Mecca, trading economies of, 16 “Tamilization” of, 280 Medieval , 64 “” concept, 303–7 Mediterranean slave trade, 71 Malaysian Medical Council, 380n115 Megat Iskandar Shah, 8, 9 Malaysian official nationalist Mein Kampf (Hitler), 196 ideology, 336 Melaka, 5–7 Malaysian Police force, 385n264 attack on, 1607, 18 Malaysian political affairs, non- Hindu communities in, 137 in, 348 sugar estates in, 26 Malaysian political structure, 311 Melaka Sultanate, power of, 16 Malaysian Solidarity Convention, 303 Melayu, 232 Malaysian Union proposal, 254 Melayu Baru, production of, 332 Malaysia’s Human Rights Menon, N.K., 157 Commission, 366 Merdeka, MIC and, 277–84

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 504 12/8/14 11:11 AM Index 505

Metropolitan Indians, 157 MTUC. See Malayan Trade Union MEWU. See Malayan Estate Workers’ Council (MTUC) Union (MEWU) Mughal Emperor, 203 MIC. See Malaysian Indian Congress “Muhammadans”, 136 (MIC) Muhammad ash-Shafi’i, 9 MIC-initiated projects, 361 Mukundan, K.A., 126, 150–51 MIC Unit Trust, 358–59 Muller, Max, 154 middle-class community, 138 Multipurpose Cooperative Society, Indians, 343–45 356–57 MIED. See Maju Institute for Mustaffar, Fauzi, 401 Educational Development Muzaffar, Chandra, 254 (MIED) Mylapore set, 153 Military campaign, 179–81 Milner, Anthony, 453 N minority ethnic groups, 238 Nadarajah, Datuk R., 434 minority sub-communal groups, 240 Nagarajan, S., 347, 404 Min Yuen, 266–67 Nahappan, Datuk Athi, 318 Misra, Maria, 386n283 Naicker, E.V. Ramasami, 152, 155 MNLA. See Malayan National Nair, M.N., 144 Liberation Army (MNLA) Nambyar, P.K., 151 “moderate” unionism, 284 communities, 55, 183 modernism, 395 Napoleonic Wars, 20–21 Mohamad, Mahathir, 331 Narayanan, P. P., 287, 355 , 427 Nathan, R.H., 164, 165 legacy, 339–40 National Consultative Council Mohamad, Maznah, 233, 399 (NCC), 309 Mohamad, Tan Sri Musa, 380n115 National Development Policy (NEP), Mohan, Loga Bala, 441 340–45, 377n84 mondal, 85 MIC and, 349–52 moneylending facilities, 139 National Economic Consultative money politics, 335 Council (NECC), 363 Montague-Chelmsford reforms of National Equity Corporation, 352 1918–19, 111 National Goodwill Committee Moorthi, S.V.K., 247 (NGC), 309 Moplahs, 144 National Ideology, principles of, 309 Morrison, Ian, 179 National Land Finance Cooperative MPAJA. See Malayan Peoples’ Anti- Society Ltd. (NLFCS), 315–16, 355 Japanese Army (MPAJA) National Mosque in , MPIEA. See Malayan Planting 338 Industry Employers’ Association National Multipurpose Cooperative (MPIEA) Society, 357

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National Operations Council (NOC), Nippon Seishen, 182 306–8 NLFCS. See National Land Finance National Salvation Movement, 55, Cooperative Society Ltd. 183 (NLFCS) National Union of Plantation Workers NOC. See National Operations (NUPW), 280, 318–19, 352–54 Council (NOC) Bukit Asahan Estate Incident, non-communist trade union 320–21 movement, 251 citizenship issue, 317 non-Malay community, 255 emphasis on Indian estate labour, non-Malays, 229, 230 288–89 in Malaysian political affairs, 348 MEWU, 319 Nordin, Ramiah Bibi, 403 projects, 355–58 northern Malay states, 22 UMEWU, 319–20 North European colonialism, 63 and unionism, Indians, 284–89 North Indian merchants, 144 Nattukottai Chettiyars, 139–41 North Indians, 143 Nazi leadership, 196 NSILU. See Negri Sembilan Indian NCC. See National Consultative Labour Union (NSILU) Council (NCC) NSM. See New Social Movements NECC. See National Economic (NSM) Consultative Council (NECC) NSPWU. See Negri Sembilan Negri Sembilan Indian Labour Union Plantation Workers Union (NSILU), 285 (NSPWU) Negri Sembilan Plantation Workers NUPW. See National Union of Union (NSPWU), 285 Plantation Workers (NUPW) NEM. See (NEM) O “neo-colonial” racial ideologies, 453 “,” 426–27, 454 NEP. See National Development Onn, Datuk Hussein, 331, 428 Policy (NEP); New Economic Oorjitham, K.S. Susan, 346 Policy (NEP) “”, 336–37 NESA, 358 Ordinance 6 of 1838, 72 Netaji Week, 198 “Orientalism despotism”, 153 Netto, Terence, 437 Origin of Species by Natural Selection New Economic Model (NEM), 377 (Darwin), 39 New Economic Policy (NEP), 309–10 New Social Movements (NSM), 336 P NFLCS, 358 Padai, Thondar, 242, 255 NGC. See National Goodwill Pakatan government, 431, 436, 437 Committee (NGC) palaiyakkarars, 79 (2006–10), 351 Palanivel, Datuk G., 434, 441 Nippon-Go, 182 Pali, influences of, 12n19

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 506 12/8/14 11:11 AM Index 507

Paloh Rubber Workers Association, 243 PDMF, 249 PAM. See Planters’ Association of Peaceful Assembly Act, 427 Malaysia (PAM) Penang, 19–20, 121 Pandithan, Tan Sri G., 436 Malayan Deputy Controller of Pandit Nehru, 159, 160 Labour in, 105 Pangkor Treaty, 48 sugar estates in, 26 pan-Indian nationalism, 239 Penang People’s Progressive Party, Pan-Malayan Chinese Rubber 441 Workers Union, 289 Peninsula Pan-Malayan Council for Joint defences, 177 Action, 232 rubber in 1890s, 103 Pan-Malayan Dravidian Federation stable workforce in, 115 (PMDF), 248 Peninsular Malaya, 22–24 Pan-Malayan Federation of Trade , South Indian Unions (PMFTU), 252–53 Plantation Workers in, 34n107 Pan-Malayan General Labour Union Peoples’ Action Party (PAP), 300, (PMGLU), 245–46, 249 302–3 Pan-Malayan Islamic Party (PMIP), People’s Progressive Party (PPP), 281 272 Perak Army Police, 142 Pan-Malayan Labour Party, 281 Perak People’s Party, 281 Pan-Malayan Rubber Workers Union Perak succession disputes of 1873, 24 (PMRWU), 286–87 Peranakan, 137 Pan-Malayan Trade Union Advisor, Persatuan Hindraf, 437 251 Persatuan Islam Se-Tanah Melayu, PAP. See Peoples’ Action Party (PAP) 272 Papal Bull of 1537, 64 Persekutuan Tanah Melayu, 232 Parameswara, 5–6, 8 Pertubuhan Kebangsaan Melayu Bersatu, Pardesi Khalsa Sewak, 142 230 Parliamentary Committee, 70 Perwaja scheme, 334 Parliamentary rule, 310 Pires, Tome, 137 Partai Islam Se Malaysia (PAS), 311, plantation culture, 451, 454 389, 395, 399, 412 plantation labourers, 244–45 leaders, 430 in India, 343 local council, 431 supply and management of, 109 radicalism, 400 Plantation Workers Union of Malaya Partai Kebangsaan Melayu, 230 (PWUM), 285 Partai Rakyat, 281 plantation workforce, 236 particularism, 393 Planters’ Association of Malaysia Parti Pesaka Bersatu (PAM), 109 (PSB), 311 plutocratic class, 41 PAS. See Partai Islam Se Malaysia PMDF. See Pan-Malayan Dravidian (PAS) Federation (PMDF)

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 507 12/8/14 11:11 AM 508 Index

PMFTU. See Pan-Malayan Federation Quit India campaign, 190, 192, 202, of Trade Unions (PMFTU) 248 PMGLU. See Pan-Malayan General Labour Union (PMGLU) R PMIP. See Pan-Malayan Islamic Party “racial” communities, concomitant (PMIP) aggregation of, 453 PMRWU. See Pan-Malayan Rubber racial identity, concepts of, 237 Workers Union (PMRWU) radicalism political Islam, future of, 430–32 Islamic, 394 politico-administrative systems, PAS, 400 British colonial control in Raffles, Stamford, 20 Malaya, 25 Rahman, Abdul, 20 Portuguese colonialism, 16–17 Rahman, Tunku Abdul, 272, 277, 279, Portuguese invasion force, 17 288, 318, 438 post-Merdeka Alliance government, Ramachandran, M.G., 386n283 299 Ramasami, E.V., 249 post-Mongol period, Islam in, 8 Ramasamy, P., 352 post-war colonial administration, 255 Rani of Jhansi Regiment, 199, 204, 236 post-war movements, 452 Razak, Najib Abdul, 336–37, 376n58, post-war violence, 225, 226 397 POWs. See prisoners of war (POWs) and Indian community, 428–29 PPP. See People’s Progressive Party “1Malaysia”, 426–27 (PPP) reforms and liberalization, 427 pre-war British rule, period of, 237 citizenship and election, Prince of Wales, 179 438–41 prisoners of war (POWs), 186 UMNO under, 431 professional employment, Indian Razak Report, 284 share of, 344 Razak, Tun Abdul, 186, 308, 318, 331, pro-Pakistani Muslim League, 242 348, 350, 353, 361, 426, 454 Protector of Labour, 111 Registrar of Trade Unions, 247, Province Wellesley estate, 121 252–53 PSB. See Parti Pesaka Bumiputera Registration of Schools Ordinance, Bersatu (PSB) 163 Punjabi Muslims, 143 Reid Commission’s report, 274 Pusat Tenaga Rakyat, 232 religion, of Indian traders, 2–3 PWUM. See Plantation Workers Repulse, 179 Union of Malaya (PWUM) Resettlement Centres, 267 revenue-driven system, of land Q tenure, 80 Quaroni, Pietro, 196 revivalism, Islamic. See Islamic Queen Victoria, 36, 38 revivalism

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 508 12/8/14 11:11 AM Index 509

Revolusi Mental, 332 SCTA. See Ceylon Tamils RGA. See Rubber Growers Association (SCTA) Association (RGA) SEAC. See South East Asian RIAB I. See Rubber Industry Command (SEAC) Arbitration Board (RIAB I) , 310 Royal Air Force, 177 Act, 309 Royal Commission of Inquiry, 389, Sejarah Melayu, 9 438 Selanchar Empat in , 354–55 rubber, 285 Selangor Ceylon Tamils Association Rubber Growers Association (RGA), (SCTA), 138 109 Selangor Estate Workers’ Trade Union rubber industry, 113 (SETWU), 247 growth and development of, 27 Selangor Indian Association, 151, 157 Rubber Industry Arbitration Board Self-Respect Movement, 152–57 (RIAB I), 285 Sepang altar, 435 rubber tapping, 132n105 Sepang Municipal Council, 435 Rubber Workers Union, 287 SETWU. See Selangor Estate Workers’ Rukunegara, 309 Trade Union (SETWU) rural–urban migration, 345–47, 451 Shearn, E.S., 141 ryotwari settlement, 79 sickness-related deaths, 88 Sikh community, 142 S Sikhs, 141–42 Sabah, 300 Simson, Brigadier, 180 citizenship, 438 Singapore, 20–21, 177–79 election, 439–40 Chinese community of, 184 Indian vote, 440–41 Chinese majority in, 301 Sabah Alliance Party (SAP), 311 detachment of, 321 Saghal, P. K., 216n152 economies of, 183 Salafist-Wahhabi approach, 430 expulsion of, 302–4 Sambanthan, V.T., 278–79, 282, 313, internal politics, 300 319, 348, 355, 358 Singapore Federation of Trade Sanderson Committee, 83–84, 95 Unions, 252 Sanderson Report, 88, 103 Singh, Amar, 207 , influences of, 12n19 Singh, Manmohan, 429 SAP. See Sabah Alliance Party (SAP) Singh, Mohan, 187–90 United People’s Party Singh, Pritam, 187 (SUPP), 311 Sinnasamy, Kaliammal, 401 Sastri, Srinivas V.S., 115–16 Sino-centric nationalism, 55 exact methodology, 131n89 Sino–Malay dichotomy, 58 scholarships, Indian government, Sino-Malay Goodwill Committee, 270 429–30 Sino–Malay relations, 227

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 509 12/8/14 11:11 AM 510 Index

Sino-Malay rivalry, 210 British and Chinese merchants Sino-Malay tensions (1987), 336 based in, 23 Sitaramayya, Pattabhi, 195 British control of, 26 Sixth Malaysia Plan (1991–95), 351 census, 51 slavery and indentured labour, 63–67 Government of India and, 91, 92 indenture, introduction of, 67–71 Indian labour immigration to, 77 Small Holdings (Restrictions of Sale) urban areas and, 56 Bill of 1931, 140, 152 sub-communal identities, 238 Social Darwinism, 39–40, 42–43, 51 Subhas Chandra Bose, 195–204 Social Darwinist perspective, 178 Subh Sukh Chain Ki Varsha Barshe, 199 social problems, 366–67 Subramaniam, S., 441 Societies Act, 1966, 414 Suez Canal (1869), 23 socio-religious organizations, 142 Sufism, 9 Song Dynasty of China, 4 sugar plantations, 75 Soosay, A.M., 160 Sukarno, 301 South East Asian Command (SEAC), Sumatra and India, trade networks, 2 185, 225 SUPP. See Sarawak United People’s Southeast Asian maritime trade, 18 Party (SUPP) Southeast Asian sea lanes, 18 Swettenham, Frank, 53 dynasties of, 153 T economy and indentured labour, Tamil Cultural Heritage, 249–50 78–82 Tamil Education Society, 250 labours, 78, 110 Tamil Fund Ordinance, 104 colonial preference for, 77 Tamil Immigration Fund Ordinance, South Indian Muslim merchants, 144 109–10 South Indian Nattukottai Chettiar basic principles, 110 community, 140 repatriation allowance from, 115 South Indian Plantation Workers in Tamil labour, 244 Peninsular Malaysia, 34n107 Tamil movement, 249 South Indian professional, clerical Tamil Reform Association (TRA), 249 and technical migrants, 142–43 Tamil Representative Council, 250 Sreenevasan, Datuk Ambiga, 433–34 Tamil Revivalism, 248 Sreenivasagam, D.R., 281 Tamil school system, 362–64 Sreenivasagam, S.P., 281 Tamil society, in Malaya and , LTTE in, 413 Singapore, 280 Empire, 4–5 Tamil workers, 346 stateless Indians, 368–69 Tamil Youth Bell Club in 1977, 359 Strait of Melaka, 16, 18 , 232–33 settlements, 21–22 Tang Dynasty, 4 Straits Settlements, 21, 76, 90, 109, Tarling, Nicholas, 19 111, 143, 144, 161, 283 Tate, Muzafar Desmond, 364

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 510 12/8/14 11:11 AM Index 511

Teck, Lai, 252 U temple demolitions, 403–5 UFMS. See Templer, Gerald, 267 (UFMS) Tenno Heika, 182 Ukrainian medical degree crisis, thaipusam, hindu festival, 428, 436 380n115 Thanenthran, R.S., 435 “ultras”, 303 Third Malaysian Indian Economic UMEWU. See United Malayan Estate Congress in 1990, 351 Workers Union (UMEWU) Third Malaysia Plan UMNO. See United Malays National of 1970, 341 Organization (UMNO) of 1976–80, 350 UMNO-sponsored Singapore Alliance of 1981–95 conditions, 351 Party, 303 Thivy, J.A., 239 Unfederated Malay States (UFMS), Thomas, Shenton, 165–67, 178–79 25, 46, 48 Thondar Padai movement, 237, unionism, Indians, NUPW and, 242–44, 452 284–89 tindals, 85 Union resentment, 228 tin mines in Malay states, 22 United Malayan Estate Workers tin mining, British colonial economy, 28 Union (UMEWU), 319–20 toddy United Malays National Organization habitual consumption of, 124–25 (UMNO), 270–71, 273, 303, 389, problem of, 125 391, 395–96, 410, 412, 415, 441, Torrens system of land, 49 454 Toyo, Mohamad Khir, 365 Alliance formula, 311 TRA. See Tamil Reform Association conferences, 272 (TRA) formation of coalition reflected, Trade networks, 1 311 between India General Assembly, 390 and Malay Peninsula, 2 leadership, 409 and Sumatra, 2 and MCA relationship, 304 traders and related migration, 143–44 politicians, 440 Trades Union Enactment, 164 rural development policy, 325n55 Trade Union Acts, 163, 174n106 United Planters’ Association of Trade Union Ordinance, 163, 250, 251, Malaysia (UPAM), 109, 112, 247 321 policy, 246 traditional Indian rulers, 37 wages of Indian labours, traditionalism, 395 recommended, 116 traditional system, of household and universalism, Islamic, 395 grain reserves, 80 UPAM. See United Planters’ TUAM, 285 Association of Malaysia (UPAM) tuberculosis, 123 “uplift” campaign, CIAM, 162 Tun , 307 upper class Indians, 369–70

19 TragicOrphans_Msia.indd 511 12/8/14 11:11 AM 512 Index

US-based Global Assessment of wages, 88 Internet and Digital Media, 427 wartime developments in India, 194 U.S. military installations, 177 Wataniah, 186 Uthayakumar, P., 406, 436 Wavell, 236 policy, 339, 371 V Waythamoorthy, P., 436, 437, 441 varna system, 153 Weld, Frederick, 78 Veerasenam, P., 254 “white” labour, categories of, 65 Vellu, S. Samy, 348, 359, 360, 410, 415 Wilberforce, William, 66 Venetian merchants, 16 Wilson, C.E., 163 Venkatachar, C.S., 167 World Trade Center attacks, 393 Vereenigd Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC), 18 Y Victorians’ ethnocentrism, 39 Yaacob, Ibrahim, 185 Victorian Social Darwinism, 42 Yassin, Datuk Muhyiddin, 433 violent , policy of, 184 “Youth Corps”, 242 vira pattanas, 137 youth gangs, 367–68 VOC. See Vereenigd Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC) Z “Volunteer Corps”, 242 zamindars, 79 Zheng He, 6 W Ziauddin, Muhammad, 196 wage-fixing mechanism, 288 Zin, Abdullah, 398

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