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Research Commons at The http://waikato.researchgateway.ac.nz/ Research Commons at the University of Waikato Copyright Statement: The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). The thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: Any use you make of these documents or images must be for research or private study purposes only, and you may not make them available to any other person. Authors control the copyright of their thesis. You will recognise the author’s right to be identified as the author of the thesis, and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate. You will obtain the author’s permission before publishing any material from the thesis. The Defence of Ethnic Identity in Malaysia A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in International Relations and Security Studies at The University of Waikato by Melanie Jones-Leaning The University of Waikato 2010 Abstract The changing dynamics of interstate conflict in the post-Cold War environment led scholars to debate the relevance of established security theory. While traditionalists maintained that the state-centric theory should retain its primacy, others argued for a security agenda, not only broadened or widened to include other sectors, but one deepened or extended to include the individual and larger societal groupings as referent objects of security. In the 1990s, the Copenhagen Peace Research Institute developed a reformulated and expanded security agenda which recognized five dimensions of security – political, military, economic, environmental and societal. Societal security has been defined as the defence of identity with identity accepted as the way in which communities think about themselves and the manner in which individuals identify themselves as members of a particular community. The Institute’s research on societal security was further expanded by Paul Roe in his 2005 study on ethnic conflict in the Balkan states. The determination of successive Malaysian governments to inculcate Islamic values throughout its infrastructure and society was borne from the inter-communal violence in May 1969, a civil reaction to the unexpected election results. The loss of parliamentary majority, for so long the domain of the Malays, confirmed a significant shift in political power and the increasingly influential role of the non-Malay voice in the political process. The inter-ethnic hostility resulted in a Federation-wide state of emergency and the suspension of parliamentary democracy for 20 months during which time the country was led by the National Operations Council under the leadership of Tun Abdul Razak. The National Operations Council and subsequent administrations progressively introduced policy to restore Malay political supremacy and redress societal imbalance. ii Despite the obvious success of Malaysia’s social transformation, research has indicated that policy introduced to lessen the economic and social inequality of the Malays has, in effect, led to a polarising of ethnicities. Political historians and analysts are mindful that increasing ethnic tension along with tacit ethnic segregation are salient reminders of the violence of the 1969 ethnic riots. With the theoretical framework on societal security provided by the CPRI, this thesis proposes to analyse the impact of the post-1969 political paradigm on Malaysian society with particular focus on inter-societal relations. iii Acknowledgements I would like to express gratitude to my family and friends who helped me in a myriad of ways during the writing of this thesis. I am sincerely appreciative of the guidance I received from my supervisors – initially Dr Mark Rolls for his critical insistence that I stay on track and latterly Dr Alan Simpson for his affirming supportive advice. This journey has enriched my understanding, gifted me with lifelong friends and taken me to a country colourful, vibrant and exotic. I am better for the experience. iv Abbreviations and Acronyms 9MP Ninth Malaysia Plan, five-yearly economic plans which set the direction for the Federation over the coming five-year period. ABIM Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia, Malaysian Youth Islamic Movement Amanah Saham Nasional National Unit Trust APU Angkatan Perpaduan Ummah, United Islamic Movement BA Barisan Alternatif, Alternative Front BARJASA Barisan Raya’at Jati Sarawak, Sarawak Native People’s Front BCIC Bumiputera commercial and industrial community BMF Bumiputra Malaysia Finance Limited BN Barisan Nasional, National Front BS Barisan Socialis, Socialist Front CCO Clandestine Communist Organisation CPRI Copenhagen Peace Research Institute CSS Critical Security Studies DAP Democratic Action Party DJZ Dong Jiao Zong DTC Deposit taking co-operatives EC Election Commission v EPU Economic Planning Unit Felda Federal Land Development Authority GLC Government-linked companies HICOM Heavy Industries Corporation of Malaysia HINDRAF Hindu Rights Action Front ICA Industrial Co-ordination Act IGC Inter-Governmental Committee IIM Integrity Institute of Malaysia IIU Universiti Islam Antarabangsa, International Islamic University ISA Internal Security Act ISM Internal Security Ministry JAWI Religious Affairs Department of the Federal Territory KL Kuala Lumpur KMM Kumpulan Militan Malaysia, Malaysian Militant Group Kosatu Koperai Belia Bersatu Berhad LME London Metal Exchange MAS Malaysian Airline System MCA Malayan Chinese Association MCCBCHS Malaysian Consultative Council of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism and Sikhism MCP Malayan Communist Party vi MDP Parti Demokratik Malaysia MIC Malayan Indian Congress MPAJA Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army MPHB Multi-Purpose Holdings Berhad NDP National Development Party NEP New Economic Policy NNA New National Agenda NOC National Operations Council PANAS National Party Sarawak PAP People’s Action Party PAS (PMIP) Parti Islam Se Malaysia, Pan-Malayan Islamic Party PASOK United Pasok Nunukragang National Organisation PBB Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu Pekemas Social Justice Party Perkim Pertubuhan Kebajikan Islam Malaysia, Islamic Welfare and Missionary Association of Malaysia Proton (Perusahaan Otomobil National Automobile Industry Corporation Nasional) Petronas Petroliam Nasional Bhd PK Pakatan Rakyat, People’s Front PKI Partai Komunis Indonesia, Indonesian Communist Party vii PKR (KeADILan) Parti KeADILan Rakyat, Peoples’ Justice Party PNOC Philippine National Oil Company PPP Peoples’ Progressive Party PRM Parti Rakyat Malaysia, Malaysian Peoples’ Party PSM Parti Sosialis Malaysia Rabitatul Mujahidin League of Mujahidin SA Sarawak Alliance SCA Sarawak Chinese Association SNAP Sarawak Nationalist Party SST Societal Security Theory SUPP Sarawak United People’s Party Tabong Haji Pilgrimage Board TransPen Trans-peninsula pipeline UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UMNO Pertubohan Kebangsaan Melayu Bersatu, United Malays National Organisation UPKO United Pasokmomogun Kadazan Organisation US United States USNO United Sabah National Organisation UTAR Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman WWII World War Two viii Glossary Bersih Clean in Malay Bumiputera Original sons of the soil Council Negri State legislature Hadith Sayings of the Prophet Hudud Fixed punishments (singular had) Kharaj Personal non-Muslim tax Mentri Besar Chief Minister Merdeka Freedom (Independence) Rasuah Bribery Riba Interest Sunnah Practices of the Prophet Syariah Malay transliteration of the Arabic word shari’a, Islamic jurisprudence Ulama Muslim clergy Yang di-Pertuan Agong King Yang di-Pertua Negeri Governor Zakat Charity ix Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………ii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….............iv Abbreviations and Acronyms…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………v Glossary…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………ix Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….x Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………….1 Chapter 2: The Security Discourse.………………………………………………………………….8 2.1 The Commonality of Fear…………………………………………………………………………8 2.2 Classical Security Theory…………………………………………………………………………9 2.3 The Broadening Spectrum of Security…………………………………………….11 2.4 Human Security………………………………………………………………………………………….12 2.5 Critical Security Studies…………………………………………………………………………14 2.6 Securitisation……………………………………………………………………………………………….15 2.7 The Reconceptualistion of Security………………………………………………….16 2.7.1 Societal Security: a question of identity………………………….17 2.7.2 Threats to Societal Security………………………………………………….18 2.7.2.1 Migration…………………………………………………………………………19 2.7.2.2 Horizontal Competition…………………………………………….19 2.7.2.3 Vertical Competition………………………………………………….19 2.7.2.4 Depopulation…………………………………………………………………19 2.7.3 Sector Threat……………………………………………………………………………….20 2.7.3.1 Military…………………………………………………………………………….20 2.7.3.2 Political……………………………………………………………………………20 2.7.3.3 Economic……………………………………………………………………….20 2.7.3.4 Environmental………………………………………………………………21 x 2.8 The Defence of Societal Identity…………………………………………………………21 2.9 The Link to Ethnic Conflict…………………………………………………………………….21 2.10 CPRI Research Expanded……………………………………………………………………22 Chapter 3: The Formative Period: 1963-1969.………………………………….24 3.1 Malay Societal Identity……………………………………………………………………………24 3.2 Non-Malay Societal Identity………………………………………………………………….26 3.3 Malay/Non-Malay Relations: 1963-1969……………………………………….33 3.3.1
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