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Augsburg Honors Review

Volume 12 Article 2

2019 Noble Savage, Noble Scotsman: The Act of Union as a Dubious Model for British Colonialism Kelton Holsen Augsburg University

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Recommended Citation Holsen, Kelton (2019) "Noble Savage, Noble Scotsman: The Act of nionU as a Dubious Model for British Colonialism," Augsburg Honors Review: Vol. 12 , Article 2. Available at: https://idun.augsburg.edu/honors_review/vol12/iss1/2

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Noble Savage, Noble Scotsman: Te Act of Union as a Dubious Model for British Colonialism Keto Hose, Augbug Univesty

Introduction and , as well as the myths that arose around the Jacobite It has become almost a cliché Rebellion, putting at the that during the period of intense forefront of the horrors that were to colonialism by the great powers of come when those myths were exploited Europe 'the sun never set on the British by later revisionists.1 empire'. Te reason that this cliché persists is that the idea behind it is "Civilisation" and "barbarism" true: according to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, "[b]y the end of the 19th Te idea that Europe, century, the British Empire comprised specifcally , represented nearly one-quarter of the world’s land 'civilization' while the rest of the world surface and more than one-quarter of was fraught with backwardness arose in its total population" (Britannica). Tis the works of the conjectural historians2: vast conquest was not done on a whim: those who sought to determine how it had deep roots in ideas of cultural societies develop through comparison and economic superiority and, more to of the vast diferences among humanity. the point, the (demonstrably false) idea Chief among these was . that the British Empire represented In Smith's Four Stages of Society, he progress and 'civilization', while the rest stratifes societies into diferent levels of the world represented backwardness of "progress" based on the means by and so-called 'barbarism'. Tese ideas which they survive and how that afects arose, developed, and even to some their respective notions of property extent occurred in Scotland through (479-487). In order, the four stages are the academic works of writers such "frst, the Age of Hunters; [second], the as Adam Smith, William Robertson, Age of Shepherds; [third], the Age of

1 Broadly speaking, historical revisionism is a general term used to refer to any efort to change the narrative about a given historical event. Tis is not inherently a bad thing: James McPher- son (no relation), former president of the American Historical Association, has described revi- sionism as "the lifeblood of historical scholarship" and gone on to say that "[t]here is no single, eternal, and immutable "truth" about past events and their meaning. Te unending quest of historians for understanding the past—that is, "revisionism"—is what makes history vital and meaningful.". However, revisionism is generally seen as bad academic practice when it is per- formed without solid historical evidence to back it up, as well as when it is used to justify or cover up historical oppression. 8 Kelton Holsen

Agriculture; and [fourth], the Age of hierarchy of societal development. In Commerce" (Smith, 479). Smith doesn't William Robertson's essay "Comparative stop at simply characterizing what History", he makes similar claims to puts a society at one stage or another, Smith, drawing comparisons between however; he gives historical and the ancient Germans encountered contemporary examples to justify his by the Roman historian Tacitus and theory, placing the Native Americans the modern-day Native Americans-- in the frst category, the "Tartars although like Smith, he also asserts that and Arabs" in the second, and most "[m]ost of the American tribes subsist of Europe in the fourth (Smith, 479- by hunting, and are in a ruder and more 480). It is important to note that this simple state than the ancient Germans" division is not only ethnocentric, but (Robertson, 677-681). Robertson's also historically inaccurate: while Smith choice to compare Native Americans to dismisses Native American agriculture the ancient Germans raises questions: as "the women plant[ing] a few stalks is there also a modern analogue for of Indian corn at the back of their huts" the Romans that conquered and ruled (479), evidence shows that they in fact over the Germanic tribes? By painting used their felds to grow crops like corn, a picture of 'barbarism'', Robertson beans, and squash (the "Tree Sisters") and Smith also demonstrate what they and even developed irrigation systems consider 'civilization': the peoples that for the purposes of agriculture (Park). they describe as 'barbaric' are described Furthermore, Smith misses the obvious in contrast to the 'civilized' empires that deduction that it would be signifcantly seek to conquer them. As the Germanic more difcult and less practical to tribes were to Rome, went the logic, so develop agriculture in the dry climates were the Native Americans to Britain. where the "Tartars and Arabs" lived. Tis Tus, like Rome, the British Empire saw theory did something very important itself as poised to bring 'civilization' to for justifcations of the British Empire: the uncivilized regions of the world. it created a hierarchy of civilizations in Note that the Scottish which the Empire was conveniently on academics likely did not intend to create top and everyone else was somewhere a justifcation for colonialism: they all below. had their own academic reasons for Te feld of conjectural history the works which they created. Instead, is shot through with the concept of a Smith and Robertson, as well as other

2 Te conjectural historians were a specifc group of historians during the Scottish Enlighten- ment period whose work focused on a theory of societal development based on the compar- ison of contemporary European society to "'rude tribes' (whether of the past or the present)." (Hopf, 1). Key fgures among them were Dugald Stewart, Adam Smith, and William Robertson. Hopf goes on to describe how "conjectural history traces a 'process' or 'progress' between a terminus a quo, namely 'the frst simple eforts of uncultivated nature,' and a terminus ad quem, the 'wonderfully and artifcially complicated condition' in which we fnd ourselves." (Hopf, 2). Conjectural history often involved theories of societal development coming in stages, and also featured a strong tendency to favor European societies when it came time to analyze what societies had reached what stages at any given point. 9 Augsburg Honors Review fgures whose writings inadvertently Te Birth of the Highland Myth justifed colonialism, fell victim to the law of unintended consequences--a In order to learn how Scotland concept ironically conceived in part by was used to demonstrate the British Adam Smith which states that "[the] imperial myth, we must frst examine actions of people...always have efects the circumstances under which that are unanticipated or unintended" Scotland entered the British Empire.3 In (Norton). Whether or not the conjectural 1707, the Act of Union came into efect, historians meant to line up their formally uniting Scotland and defnitions of 'barbarous' or 'backwards' in what would eventually become the societies with the very peoples that British Empire (Emerson, 11). Tis union the British Empire was looking at was not entirely peaceful: the Jacobite colonizing is irrelevant; what matters rebels, supporters of the line of the is that this stratifcation of societies exiled pretender king James II and more between perceptions of 'barbarism' broadly of an independent Scotland, and 'civilization' provided justifcation rose up several times in rebellion against for the centuries of imperialism and the throne, most notably in 1745 when colonialism that would follow. they were fnally crushed at the Battle With the theories of Smith and of Culloden, after which most of the key Robertson, the foundations had been fgures of the rebellion were killed or laid for the idea of Empire. When the exiled and the claimant, "Bonnie Prince propagandists of the British Empire Charlie" (Charles Edward) was forced went to build upon these foundations, to fee to the mainland (Morrill). Te however, they realized that theory Jacobites claimed to represent Scottish would not be enough: to show that the heritage and independence, and thus British Empire was representative of the even after their defeat, "'the king over 'civilization' which, as demonstrated by the water' gained a certain sentimental Smith's logic, needed to spread to the appeal, especially in the Scottish rest of the world, the revisionists would Highlands, and a whole body of Jacobite need to fnd a model that would show songs came into being." (Morrill). the British Empire's ability to bring At frst glance, the Jacobites civilization to an area once thought of might seem like the forces of Scottish as 'barbaric'. A cursory examination nationalism acting in resistance to of the Empire's history up to that British imperialism. Oddly enough, point revealed one example which this picture of the Jacobite Rebellion the revisionists could easily turn to is exactly what the proponents of the their advantage: the now-completely British Empire were working to create. integrated country of Scotland. In 2016, University of historian Professor Murray Pittock argued that "[f]ar from claymore wielding Highland

3 Note that Scotland was not the beginning of the English expansionism that would lead into the British expansionism that was the Empire. Tis arguably began with the Acts of Plantation in the 17th century (Canny). 10 Kelton Holsen savages (sic.) being routed [by] muskets out in his essay "Te Invention of and cannon fre...the battle was a clash of Tradition: Te Highland Tradition of modern armies with the outnumbered Scotland", "[b]efore the later years of the Jacobites defeated by their opponents seventeenth century, the Highlanders use of cavalry and swords" (Braiden). of Scotland did not form a distinct Pittock went on to say that the popular people. Tey were simply the overfow image of the Jacobites being traditional of ." (Trevor-Roper, 15). Although Highland warriors complete with in the present, the fgure of the Scot and sword is the product of the Jacobite dressed in a kilt and tam o' shanter rebellions having been "strongly and and, perhaps, playing the bagpipe is systematically misremembered to ubiquitous with the image of Scotland, emphasise a secure framework for the most of the aspects of that fgure and development of ‘’ and the the "Highland culture" that goes with British imperial state" (Braiden). Tis him were fabricated in the pursuit of propaganda both served the immediate reshaping the image of Scotland's past interests of the British Empire with into one that better ft the noble savage respects to Scotland (by delegitimizing myth. Although there may have been the Jacobites as "savages") and, later on, people like this living in the Highlands, its long-term interests with respects most of the country distrusted them. In to the rest of the world (by painting a 1850, Lord Macauley noted with irony picture of the Empire having defeated that when the king wore a ceremonial representatives of the 'barbaric' past). kilt as a part of his visits to Scotland, Tis deception neither began he was "show[ing] his respect for the nor ended with Culloden. In order to re- historical Scottish nation 'by disguising frame the Act of Union as the triumph himself in what, before the union, was of 'civilization' over barbarism and considered by nine Scotchmen out of ten thus to convince the Scots to accept as the dress of a thief'" (Devine, 355-356). it, the culture of Scotland had to be re- Indeed, the kilt had briefy been banned framed in a way that presented it as in the wake of the Jacobite Rebellion of distinctly 'barbaric' and in dire need of 1715; when it returned, Trevor-Roper progress. At the same time, however, the notes, the garment had fallen out of imperialists knew that they had to create fashion with the working class, who had this picture in a way that would appeal grown accustomed to trousers, but was to the residents of Scotland: being told adopted "with enthusiasm" by the upper that one's fellow citizens are backward classes as a sign of national pride (24). As 'savages' doesn't tend to make one very the Highlander became a romanticised enthusiastic about participating in an fgure, the kilt became more than just Empire run by the very people telling a garment: it became an important one these things. Tus, the myth of the cultural symbol (Trevor-Roper, 24). Scots as "savages" had to be infused with Te fgure of the Highlander a certain degree of pride and nobility; was particularly useful territory for thus, the myth of the noble savage was imperialist revisionism because of the born. relative void that surrounded him. As Hugh Trevor-Roper points Trevor-Roper describes the Celtic 11 Augsburg Honors Review

Highlanders as "culturally depressed"- inherently Scottish at a time when the -cut of from their Irish roots and meaning of the word was becoming regarded poorly by the rest of Scottish unclear. society, they were easy targets for Tus, it was no surprise that historical revisionism that would create even the academics of Scotland readily a new sense of Scottish national identity accepted the somewhat dubious words that was more ftting to the narrative of of scholar James MacPherson when he Empire (16). Te Highlander was already claimed to have found and translated considered a barbarian. Te next step in the works of the ancient Scottish bard the process was to give the Highlander --a national epic that told tales an aspect of nobility; once the myth of of an ancient who had the Highlander as noble savage had settled in the Highlands four centuries been fully ingrained in the Scottish (and before the Irish, and from whom the even the English) psyche, the resulting Irish had stolen most of their mythology narrative could be reshaped: the Act of (Trevor-Roper, 17). Te irony of this, Union could be rewritten as the merge Trevor-Roper points out, is that not only of the best parts of old and new into a was the work a complete fabrication, it glorious future, one that would spread was also plagiarized from Irish myth: the so-called light of Empire to the rest James Macpherson picked up of the previously 'darkened' world. Irish ballads in Scotland, wrote an 'epic' in which he transferred Rewriting History: MacPherson's the whole scenario from Ireland to Ossian Scotland, and then dismissed the genuine ballads thus maltreated Although the Act of Union was as debased modern compositions not turned into a symbol of imperialism and the real Irish literature which until decades after the fact, writers they refected as a mere refection during the time unintentionally created of them" (17). material that would go on to serve as Trough this clever fabrication, the foundations upon which the later which received praise from academics propagandists would build the myth of from to Hugh Blair, Empire. It is important to point out that MacPherson created a new national at this point Scotland was undergoing a identity for Scotland: in Ossian, he national identity crisis: the Act of Union created a fgure that at once represented and the Jacobite wars had thrown their the nobility and the 'barbarism' of the national sovereignty into question, the ancient Scots (Trevor-Roper 18). economy had been steadily worsening A key fgure in these 'recovered' for decades, and the Kirk was in disarray writings was Fingal, the father of Ossian as a result of diferences between who fought a war against ancient Scottish and English theology (Emerson, Rome and ruled in antiquity 11-14). Tis confusion of identity meant (MacPherson, 28-29, 38) MacPherson's that much of Scotland at the time was depiction of Fingal portrayed him looking for something that would defne as almost the idealized picture of a who they were as a people: something noble savage. While in his dissertation 12 Kelton Holsen

Macpherson describes Europe at the forces of 'civilization' and Empire at bay, time of Fingal as "overspread" by "a whereas at Culloden, as the propaganda cloud of ignorance and barbarism", tells it, the noble savage fell at the hands he also writes that "if we have placed of the forces of progress and modernity, Fingal in his proper period, we do bringing Scotland frmly into the present honor to the manners of barbarous and, as the later revisionists would tell, times" (MacPherson, 29, 32). In other into the Empire's mission of spreading words, MacPherson does not deny the that progress to the rest of the world. 'barbarism' of his protagonist; instead, It is important to note that he imbues that 'barbarism' with an MacPherson's goal was probably not innate nobility. MacPherson goes on to to reframe Union as the triumph of so- echo Smith's ideas of societal progress: called 'civilization, or even to praise Tere are three stages in human Union at all. In this case, MacPherson society. Te frst is the result of also fell victim to the law of unintended consanguinity, and the natural consequences. MacPherson was a native afection of the members of son of Scotland and part of an ancient a family to one another. Te clan: at best, he would have wanted to second begins when property is create something for his country to established, and men enter into be proud of. At worst, he was simply a associations for mutual defence, charlatan in search of wealth and fame. against the invasions and injustice Either way, however, Ossian became the of neighbors. Mankind submit, linchpin of the Scottish noble savage in the third, to certain laws and myth: the more that it gained fame as subordinations of government, to a national text, the more the narrative which they trust the safety of their of Union as the triumph of 'civilization' persons and property. (38). over 'barbarism' spread (although its MacPherson later notes that efects were not felt to their full extent "[t]he middle state is the region of until later in the 18th century), and the complete barbarism and ignorance", the stronger the case for spreading that middle state being the stage in which 'civilization' became in the hands of the Fingal's society exists (38). Just as Smith revisionists. had done before him, MacPherson stratifed society into diferent levels of Applications of the Scottish model progress. Te key diference is that, in this case, MacPherson put the idealized It should here be noted that version of his own society--that is, the the introduction of Scotland into the fctionalized 'Highland culture'--into British Empire was nothing like the a lower strata than the newly formed Empire's subsequent conquests. In British Empire. Fingal's fght against terms of implementation, the 'conquest' the Romans, then, parallels with the of Scotland was much more of an Jacobite rising to some extent: the annexation: although Devine notes that key diference is that in MacPherson's the annexation was partly imposed via fctionalized history, the wise, yet economic force from England, the Union barbarous Fingal was able to keep the was based in the traditions of both 13 Augsburg Honors Review countries, and the Jacobites who resisted 36 per cent of volunteers in 1797, 22 per the cause of Union were considered cent in 1801, and 17 per cent in 1804" dangerous by the English and Scottish (Devine, 297). Furthermore, Scottish governments alike even before union regiments were distinctly Scottish in (Devine, 49-55). By contrast, the British their appearance and structure: the imperial conquests involved signifcant soldiers wore the 'traditional' "Highland use of force and often ignored the dress" and were "encouraged to develop sovereignty of the people living in the their own particular esprit de corps conquered area. In general, the Act " based around their Scottish identity of Union and what followed from it do (Devine, 309). Tis, as Devine points not even come close to the bloodshed out, was particularly curious against the and human tragedy that resulted from background of the Jacobite rebellions, centuries of rule by the British Empire, in response to which Britain had taken and its acquisition, as previously noted, actions such as banning Highland dress also occurred via completely diferent and other symbols of Scottish patriotism methods than those which Britannia (309). chose to use abroad. Nevertheless, the Devine argues that the Scots Scottish model served the interests were allowed to show this national and of historical revisionists who chose cultural pride as a way of letting of to reframe the Act of Union from an steam, and that the Highland regiments economic annexation to an exemplar of were a way for the British Empire to imperial "progress".4 channel the "disafection" of the Scottish Not only did the Scots serve people into the service of Empire (310). as the face of the British Empire's Taking this argument a step further, the purported ability to advance a society Scotland which the Highland regiments from 'barbarism' to 'civilization', but took pride in was no longer the old they also served as the face of its Scotland that the Jacobites had longed colonial eforts overseas. During the for a return to--rather, the Highland later parts of the 18th and earlier parts regiments fought for a new Scotland: a of the 19th centuries, Britain fought Scotland which had advanced into the colonial wars across the globe, to modern era and was now a part of the the point that historian T.M. Devine British Empire, while still keeping its remarks that Britain "efectively became sense of cultural identity. Putting the an armed nation in this period" (293). Highland regiments at the forefront of Scots were "grossly overrepresented" their colonial endeavors fed the myth among the soldiers that fought in these at the core of the British Empire: that wars--in 1787, 31.5% of the British army colonization was a transformative in North America was Scottish, and process designed to bring societies into despite comprising only 15% of the the light of a modern era. British population, Scotland "provided

4 Note that the Scottish imperial myth did not arise in and of itself during the time of the Act of Union; rather, later historians used the Act of Union and work by previous revisionists such as MacPherson in order to incorporate the Act of Union into imperial mythos. 14 Kelton Holsen

Enlightened Trusteeship (Boisen). Boisen argues that Locke's theory created "a universal theory of Tis new model of colonialism property without somehow conceding signalled a signifcant shift in the that the Indians owned their land by rhetoric used to justify colonialism. introducing a limited defnition of One of the original moral justifcations labour and making it a moral obligation for colonialism came from John Locke, to engage in that particular type of who wrote that our right to own land is labour", essentially "setting the Natives based on our "duty to God" to cultivate up for failure in fulflling their duty to it, from which followed that the Native God." Americans, who he accused of being Tis line of thinking, however, "parasitic on the land" due to previously began to weaken as the Enlightenment mentioned misconceptions about their movement spread across Europe and agriculture, were failing their duty of care ideas of conjectural history caught on: and thus liable for conquest by the more if native peoples were simply behind 'civilised' Europeans (Boisen). Early in their "development", then taking colonialism had been often justifed in their land away would be like stealing part via the concept of terra nullius , or from a child; instead, a notion of "nobody's land"--that because the areas "trusteeship" to guide the "facilitation of the world colonized by the Empire of civilising" would be necessary in the were home to people who, according new "enlightened empire" (Boisen). to the British, had not sufciently Furthermore, the methods of colonizing developed them, they could not truly themselves had changed: as Gallagher stake a claim to the land. Terefore, and Robinson point out, in the latter part the reasoning went, it was acceptable of the British colonial period, the British for European countries to lay claim to socio-economic sphere began to expand an area of land where a tribe had lived to countries over which it did not even for centuries, send settlers to live there, formally rule in what the authors refer and then use military force against the to as an "informal empire" through "the natives if they tried to prevent their land combination of commercial penetration from being stolen (Boisen).5 Tis logic, and political infuence [which] allowed extrapolated from Locke's writings, was the to best command used to justify the colonial doctrine those economies which could be made of terra nullius , and thus to justify the to ft best into her own" (1, 5-11). Tus, right of European settlers to take land the obligation to 'civilize' as a pretext that had previously belonged to native for colonialism became much more peoples and set up European-style farms appealing in the latter part of the 18th

5 Tis was not the only justifcation given for colonialism, or cause of the British Empire: religious proselytism, the desire for economic expansion, and the desire to hold locations of strategic importance often drove empires of the time to colonize, and technological factors as well as the intentional exploitation of infectious diseases allowed for the easy facilitation of colonialism (Aybar). It was, however, a signifcant justifcation, as it allowed for many of the potential concerns about the natives' right to their own land to be hand-waved away. 15 Augsburg Honors Review century. It should be noted that both of so-called trusteeship. Although the terra nullius doctrine and this new Smith's main proposal for the fate of notion of trusteeship had roots in the British colonies was an eventual intentionally false ideas about Native "decolonization" in which the Empire societies; these justifcations functioned released their former colonies on good as mere tools to smooth over the process terms and subsequently set up military of displacing and exploiting indigenous alliances and trade partnerships, people worldwide. his readers in the 19th century set In this context, it becomes that proposal aside in favor of his clear why the Act of Union and Scotland alternative proposal: that the British as a whole became the centerpiece of Empire merge with its colonies directly the British Empire myth: if the Act of instead of continuing the earlier system Union is the gold standard for the British of imperial federation (Palen). Palen Empire's ability to civilise, the British points out that this theory was taken Empire becomes the gold standard for to such lengths that, by the end of the 'good colonialism'. Te formation of the century, Smith was being used to justify Scottish regiments and for the rewriting the nationalism and imperialism which of Union as the 'civilization' of Scotland he had previously criticized. helped to sell the myth of trusteeship: Te consequences of the lie of that Britain's track record involved British trusteeship still echo today. In 'civilizing' a people so thoroughly that 2016, a poll revealed that 44% of British they could go on to 'civilize' others. Te respondents were "proud of Britain's fact that, even by British standards, history of colonialism" (Osborne). Te Scotland was already a 'civilized' nation propaganda surrounding the Empire as before the Act of Union had by this point a civilizing force was evidently efective, been covered up with enough historical as it still persists even in an era where revisionism that it could be safely information is freely accessible about ignored. what the British Empire actually did. Indeed, historical revisionism Imperial 'civilizing' included methods became more and more prevalent as that were horrifc and inhumane, the justifcations for Empire evolved. including the use of concentration For instance, although his work was camps against the Boer population highly unfair to the Native Americans at the turn of the 20th century and and paved the way for the notion of the Kenyan people during the Mau trusteeship, Adam Smith was generally Mau uprising of the 1950s, as well as opposed to the British Empire, the massacres, famines, and religious devoting an entire chapter in the violence incited by British negligence Wealth of Nations to "a comprehensive in India and Pakistan (Osborne). Even inventory of the economic and moral if these atrocities had not occurred, the aberrations of empire" (Ince). After sheer fact that for nearly three centuries Smith's death, however, the mostly Britain took over almost a quarter of the anti-colonialist positions he had held world and exploited it for resources is in life were misconstrued to support morally reprehensible. the British Empire in its mission Ultimately, the British Empire 16 Kelton Holsen was a systemic moral failure. Te esteemed academics inadvertently reason for this, when analyzed from contributed to the revisionism that a historical perspective, is simple: the would be used to justify the atrocities moral justifcation of trusteeship that that were to come. Although they was used to rationalize the British may have been victims of the law of Empire was based on a series of lies, unintended consequences, the work of misinterpretations, and historical these scholars is nevertheless a key part revisionism. Scotland had the of how the British imperial myth came misfortune of being the spawning bed about. of this deceit, and some of its most

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