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Durham E-Theses Durham E-Theses Burning bulls, broken bones : sacricial ritual inthe context of palace period Minoan religion Cromarty, Robert James How to cite: Cromarty, Robert James (2007) Burning bulls, broken bones : sacricial ritual inthe context of palace period Minoan religion, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1890/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 BURNING BULLS, BROKEN BONES SACRIFICIAL RITUAL IN THE CONTEXT OF PALACE PERIOD MINOAN REl GION By ROBERTJAMES CROMARTY Thesis submitted for the degreeof Doctor of Philosophy, at Durham University, August 2007 Ihe copyright of this dmis too with the it author or the adversity to which was it, submWed. No quotsdon ham or be u6nnatm derived fim it may published wi&out ft prior wrinen conamt of the autbor or uWvctdty, and be any fidDrmation derived hom it should w1mowledged. v4v t. T. a 17 APR2008 ABSTRACT This studypresents a new assessmentof the nature and significance of sacrificial during rituals the Palatialperiods ofBronze Age Crete - commonlyknown as the Minoan period: Such a re-assessmentwas necessaryas a result of, in my opinion,fundamental oversights in earlier scholarship as regards the qualities of this practice on Minoan Crete.A secondaryaim was to place theserituals in an overall context of ritual and religious activity on BronzeAge Crete and, as such, it includes discussionsofother ritualpractices such as libation. The methodologicalapproach adoptedwas very much one of 'back to basics' A detailed surveypresentsevidence relating to various practicesfrom 20 sites across Crete which are zeneralIv viewed as the best known, and extensively published, ofMinoan cult sites. On the basis of this survey a different interpretation of the relative prevalence ofrituals with a sacrificial element becomesapparent. The conclusion is that theserituals were by no meansas widespreadas has been previously thought. Other ritualprocesses such as votive deposition and libation appear muckmore common.Moreover, it also becomesapparent that a commensalquality to the rituals with sac?Ificial elements,which has not been in is overly stressed prior studies, equally important as any sacrificial quality - if not more so. This study is dedicated to my Mother, a truly amazing lady who has sacrificed much to allow me much freedom. Also to the memory of my Father, in the hope that he would be proud. Lastly, to my partner Rachel, who has helped in ways she would not have realised. 2 CONTENTS paff No. me Introduction 5 Chapter 1: Terms, Conditions and Processes 10 1.1 Past studies of Minoan religion and the Importance of Sacrifice 24 1.2 Double Axe 30 1.3 Horns of Consecration 34 1A Ayis Triada Sarcophagus 38 1.5 Zooarehaeology 44 1.6 Burning and Butebery 47 1.7 Zooarchaeology and Ritual 55 Chapter 2.- Site CatabPe 62 2.1 DomesflcýUrban &RdPdace SMdusri" 64 2.1.1 Gournin Shrine 66 2.1.2Karphi 0 2.1.3 Vuossos- Shrine of the Double Axes 72 2.1.4 Knosm - Temple Repositories 75 2.1.5 Malis - Salk P 82 2.2 Peak Sanctmries 85 2.2.1Atsipadhes Konddas Be 2.2.2Gonies 92 2.23 Jukto 95 2.2A Kopbinas 101 2.2.5Petsophas 105 2.2.6Tmostalos lie 2.2.7Vrysinas 115 23 Extra-Urban Sanctuaries lis 23.1 AnemospiNa 120 23.2 Kato Syme 127 2.4 Cove Sanduaries 132 2A. 1 Arkalochori 135 2A. 2 Idaean Cave 139 2.4.3 Kamares 1" 2AA Patm 148 2.4.5 Psycbro 1S3 2.4.6 Skedno 160 3 VOLUME Il Chapter 3: Interpretation 164 3.1 Disaggregated View 168 3.1.1 Faunal remains - including a comparison with secular deposits 3.1.2 Ash Deposits 180 3.1.3 Altars 184 MA Human Sacrifice 189 31 The Ritual Context of Sacrifice 1% 31.1 Libation 197 3.2.2 Votive deposition 206 3.2.2.1Animal figurines 207 3.2.2.2 Humanoid figurines 211 3.3 AggregatedView 216 3.3.1Geographical and Temporal Variation of the Faunal Remains 217 3.31 Minoan Sacrifice 226 3.3.3 The Purpose of Rites and the purpose of Sites 244 3.3.4 Minoan Feasting 260 3.3.5 Use of Animals In Funcrary Practices 269 3.3.6 Maritime Sacrifice 275 3.3.7 Ecstatic Religion 283 3.3.8 "Minoan' Religion 292 Conclusions 303 Appendix 1: Figum 307 Appendix 2: Maps 349 Bibliogmphy and Abbrwkdou 352 4 INTRODUCTION After a century of study, the archaeologyof Minoan Crete has reacheda turning point. With the publication of Labyrinth Revisited.,Rethinking Minoan Archaeology (Hamilalds (ed.), 2002a), a new generafionof Nfinoan scholars voiced their fi-ustrationwith the scholarsof the past and their academicfocus: "The Minoan Crete largely material culture of ... remains mute, especially on a numberof importantissues" (Ibid. 3). While muchis knownof chronology, architecture,iconography and pottery sequences,comparatively little can be said with any certainty about aspectswhich made up much of everydaylife. Minoan religion is such a case. Although it has receivedmuch attention, Minoan religion has never been fully reconstructed,understood or analysed.Too much has been attempted- for the most part academicshave approachedMinoan religion from one viewpoint or preconceptionin an attempt to createa coherentsystem of belief Nilsson, for example,in perhapsthe greatesttreatise on Aegeanreligion, his Minoan- MycenaeanReligion (1950), analysesthe evidencefi-om the aspectof its continuation into the religious practicesof the Archaic and Classicalperiods of Greece.Such an approachis fundmnentally flawed, as from the very outset a degreeof objectivity is lost, and differencesand similarities may be ignored or emphasisedso as to make the systemseem more convincing'. However,,in this study I will make little effort to reconstructan overall systemof belief except I do not suggestthat Nilsson deliberately manipulatedhis study, simply that given his hypothesishis concern is on seeingthese connections between the distant periods perbapsfxyft detriment of the overall study. Nilsson's text remainsone of the most significant pieces of*vik on Minoan religion. 5 where it will elucidatemy primary focus - the role of sacrificial ritual in the religious organisationof Crete in the Bronze Age. As such it is necessaryto view sacrifice in the context of the other ritual practiceswhich were current on Crete at the time. Of course,the nature of the religious systemdoes define the rituals performed within that system.The characteristicsof a monotheistic religious systemare quite different from thosethat polytheism requires. Sacrificial rituals are known from many religious systemsand, of course,each culture has their own nuancesand beliefs attachedto them. This said, in the past sacrifice has generally been viewed as the direct interaction betweenmortal and the divine, often imploring the deity for the benefit of the worshipper: the Classical do des do (Harrison, 1922:.4f However, it notion of ut or ut abeas . must also be acknowledgedthat ritual has a purposebeyond religious activity, often it possessesa secularaspect that is equally as important. For example,the Classicalftcrla rite was directly associatedwith the reinforcementof the notion of community;through the sharingof meatan individual couldidentify himself as being a member of a community of meat-eaters(Hartog, 1989: 170). Thus there was.a religious, communal and alimentary purposeto the 91x1faceremony. The samemulti-layer significance in relation to any possible Minoan rite and this is one factor that must be investigatedin any study of the subject. But even this interpretation can lead to certain preconceptions.Sacrifice can be personal,communal or state-controlled.Each of thesevariants places a different emphasisupon the ritual. Unfortunately,from an archaeologicalperspectiye, 2 sclgive so that you might give". "I give so that you might avael. 6 unlessthey are accompaniedby a textual sourceor the find spot is undeniablein difficult its character-a private dwelling, for example- then it is sometimes to identify which of theseis the most applicableintetpretation. Ultimately it comes to a point where we have to define eachritual within its cultural context. While this study may seemstraightforward from an investigative point-of-view3, and to someextent a study in serniotics,to establishthe existenceand prevalence of I sacrifice'in Minoanculture, there are certain methodological and source- basedproblems. The primary issue is that of the archaeologicalsurvival of the key evidence;this must be addressedas it directly impinges upon any results that may possibly be obtained.The primary evidencefor sacrificial ritual must come from faunalremains in eithercult or burial contexts.The problem is that it is exactly theseremains that are unlikely to survive for 4000 years in the archaeologicalrecord. This is due to not only the conditions of preservation- soil acidity, moisture content and a multiplicity of other factors - but also human activity such as looting or the later develolmnentof sites in ensuingperiods. However, beyond the environmentalconditions, it is the issueof human interventionthat is a key determiningfactor, and it shouldnot be regardedas a problemof the long-distantpast. The actionsof the archaeologiststhemselves, perhapsmore than any otherfactor, affect the evidencewhich we haveat our diSpoSaft 3 However, it must be rememberedflat, if we follow Hawkes' famous 'ladder of reliability' in archaeologicalinference, in which he insists "to infer to the religious institutions and spiritual life is the hardestinference of all" (Hawkes, 1954: 162), the study of religious and ritual Practices may be far from straightforward.
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