DOCSLIB.ORG

Resolving Insolvency New Funding and Business Survival

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Resolving Insolvency New Funding and Business Survival Doing Business 2016 Resolving insolvency New funding and business survival hen Kodak filed for bankruptcy insolvent company will need access to New funding provided to an insolvent in January 2012, few were additional funds.3 It is unlikely to be able company after the start of insolvency Wsurprised. The company had to rely on internal sources to finance its proceedings—known as post- dominated the U.S. photographic film costs—including payments for the goods commencement finance—can enable industry for decades, but technology in the and services needed to continue the busi- the business to continue operating form of digital photography and camera- ness. So the company may need to seek during insolvency. equipped smartphones had advanced fast- external funding (figure 11.1). The authorization of post- er than its ability to adapt. Yet 20 months commencement finance and later Kodak emerged from a successful New funding provided to an insolvent the treatment of the claims of reorganization with a new business focus. company after the start of insol- post-commencement creditors are In between, Kodak had received $950 vency proceedings is known as post- two important areas that need to be million in new loans that were crucial for commencement finance.4 It can become addressed in insolvency law. But half paying vendors and suppliers and running necessary at different stages of insolvency the 189 economies covered by Doing its day-to-day business operations while it proceedings—immediately after the appli- Business have no provisions in these underwent reorganization.1 cation for insolvency, during the prepara- areas. tion and approval of a reorganization plan Clear and effective regulations on post- As the Kodak example shows, businesses or before the sale of assets in a liquidation. commencement finance may improve in financial distress may need new money Besides paying for goods and services the availability and terms of new to survive. Yet lending to companies that essential to continued operation, new funds funding for viable firms undergoing are finding it difficult to honor promises are often used to cover labor costs, insur- insolvency proceedings—funding made to existing creditors hardly seems ance, rent and other expenses necessary that can support their successful a profitable venture. A framework is to maintain the value of the assets.5 But reorganization or enable their sale as a needed that allows access to new funds it is important that post-commencement going concern in liquidation. for financially distressed but potentially finance mechanisms be used judiciously. To Financially distressed businesses are viable businesses while ensuring a high avoid restricting the availability of credit in more likely to pursue reorganization— probability of repayment. Creating such a regular commercial transactions, the use of and more likely to emerge from framework can be a challenge. post-commencement finance should be insolvency proceedings as a going limited to supporting the reorganization of concern—in economies that have When a company becomes insolvent— viable firms or enabling the sale of busi- provisions on post-commencement when it cannot pay its debts as they fall nesses as a going concern in liquidation— finance. due—either the company itself or its and only if new credit would lead to higher Many economies are introducing creditors may start insolvency proceedings. returns to existing stakeholders in the provisions on post-commencement In an efficient insolvency system these pro- distressed business (box 11.1). finance as part of an overall effort to ceedings will result in the reorganization of strengthen mechanisms for business the insolvent company if it is viable or in its rescue. liquidation if it is not. Continued operation of WHAT ARE SOME GOOD the debtor’s business during the insolvency PRACTICES? proceedings is imperative for successful reorganization. It can also be important in Insolvency law can create a predictable liquidation, where the goal is to maintain and enforceable framework for lending and maximize the value of the debtor’s to companies in insolvency proceedings assets.2 But to continue operating, the through provisions explicitly allowing 100 DOING BUSINESS 2016 will be paid. These concerns can be FIGURE 11.1 Post-commencement finance can be critical in helping a business go from insolvency to recovery addressed through provisions in two areas: explicit authorization of post- commencement finance and treatment of the claims of post-commencement creditors. Good practices in these areas have been recommended by a range of international institutions, including Business suffers Business or creditors Business attempts to the United Nations Commission on financial difficulties start insolvency restructure proceedings International Trade Law, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the Asian Development Bank. $ $ $ As a first step, insolvency law needs to include clear provisions authorizing post-commencement finance as well as efficient mechanisms for obtaining such finance.7 The law can grant the power to In exchange, claims of Creditors offer Business needs new obtain new loans either to the debtor or to post-commencement post-commencement funds to continue creditors are given finance operating the insolvency representative managing priority the debtor’s assets. The law can address the form of the new money—loans and other forms of finance from new or exist- ing lenders. And to ensure that the power to take on new loans is used prudently, $ the law may require that the court or the creditors approve all new borrowing.8 Thanks to new funds, Business restructuring Business is rescued, business continues to is successful jobs are saved, In Serbia the law gives bankruptcy operate creditors get paid administrators the power to obtain new loans during insolvency proceedings.9 In Finland a debtor can take on new debt post-commencement borrowing and Several competing interests come without the approval of the insolvency providing some assurance of payment. into play: the insolvent debtor aims to representative as long as the debt is Without such provisions, lenders are continue its operations or maximize connected with the debtor’s regular unlikely to make new funds available the value of its assets (or both); exist- activities and the amount and terms are on acceptable terms—or indeed on any ing creditors want to have their rights not unusual; all other loans require the terms at all.6 recognized and preserved; and potential approval of the insolvency representa- new creditors need assurance that they tive.10 In Japan debtors in reorganization BOX 11.1 New funding comes to the rescue Marvel Entertainment Group—the company behind the Avengers, Spider-Man and the Fantastic Four—went through a tumultu- ous time in the late 1990s. A failed investment strategy and shrinking comic book market had left the company reeling, and its main investors could not agree on the best way forward. Unable to resolve its problems out of court, Marvel filed for reorganiza- tion in 1996. The proposed reorganization plan included large infusions of equity and credit to finance a new strategic invest- ment program. But the company needed immediate assistance to pay its suppliers and employees and to meet its operating and investment needs during reorganization. The court approved a $100 million loan from a bank group led by Chase Manhattan. This loan helped keep the company operating during the several months of negotiations that followed. Marvel proved that it was worth the investment: its latest film, Avengers: Age of Ultron, had pulled in more than $1 billion at the worldwide box office only 24 days after its release in May 2015. Sources: Marvel Entertainment Group 1996; Lambie 2015; Variety 1997; Pedersen 2015. RESOLVING INSOLVENCY 101 proceedings can seek the permission of the priority of existing secured creditors availability of credit for the debtor during the court to borrow money.11 In liquida- without these creditors receiving alterna- the reorganization proceedings. tion proceedings the power to request tive protection—or at least notice of the the court’s approval rests with the bank- change and an opportunity to be heard. ruptcy trustee.12 Second, the law needs to enable debtors CHANCES OF BUSINESS to obtain new funding without security. SURVIVAL Besides explicitly authorizing post- For this unsecured post-commencement commencement finance, insolvency finance, the law needs to grant the Economies around the world have law needs to establish clear rules for claims of post-commencement creditors undertaken reforms aimed at improv- ranking the claims of existing and post- priority over those of existing unsecured ing their insolvency systems (box 11.2). commencement creditors.13 Ranking creditors.16 As a general rule, granting The majority of those recorded by Doing rules determine which creditors get paid post-commencement finance “super- Business in the past five years focused on first, second or last from the proceeds priority” over all existing claims (secured introducing or strengthening reorganiza- received from the sale of the debtor’s and unsecured) is not recommended, tion mechanisms.21 Providing an effective assets. The higher a creditor’s ranking because this approach risks disrupting and efficient framework for saving viable priority, the greater the likelihood that the the extension of secured credit in regular businesses is at the heart of internation- creditor will be paid. So
Load more

Recommended publications
  • II. the Onset of Insolvency Or Financial Distress
    Reproduced with permission from Corporate Practice Series, "Corporate Governance of Insolvent and Troubled Entities," Portfolio 109 (109 CPS II). Copyright 2017 by The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc. (800-372-1033) http://www.bna.com II. The Onset of Insolvency or Financial Distress A. Introduction Because a Chapter 11 reorganization can be expensive and time consuming, a troubled corporation may seek to right itself through an out-of-court transaction—such as a recapitalization, merger or asset sale. These transactions and the directors' decisions concerning them are analyzed under state corporation law. Corporation law also provides a state law alternative to a Chapter 7 liquidation through procedures for voluntary and forced dissolution as well as ancillary remedies such as the appointment of a receiver to marshal a corporation's assets, sell those assets, distribute the proceeds to creditors, and take other steps to wind down a corporation. That said, as discussed below, state law insolvency proceedings have limitations that often make them an unsuitable alternative to federal bankruptcy proceedings. B. Director Duties in the `Zone of Insolvency' and Insolvency As discussed in Chapter I, § 141(a) of the DGCL gives directors the authority and power to manage a corporation, and in exercising that authority directors are subject to the fiduciary duties of care and loyalty. Under ordinary circumstances, these fiduciary duties require that directors maximize the value of the corporation for the benefit of its stockholders, who are the beneficiaries of any increase in the value of the corporation. When a corporation is insolvent, however, the value of the corporation's equity may be zero.
    [Show full text]
  • Creating a Framework for Sovereign Debt Restructuring That Works 1
    Creating a Framework for Sovereign Debt Restructuring that Works 1 Martin Guzman2 and Joseph E. Stiglitz3 Abstract Recent controversies surrounding sovereign debt restructurings show the weaknesses of the current market-based system in achieving efficient and fair solutions to sovereign debt crises. This article reviews the existing problems and proposes solutions. It argues that improvements in the language of contracts, although beneficial, cannot provide a comprehensive, efficient, and equitable solution to the problems faced in restructurings—but there are improvements within the contractual approach that should be implemented. Ultimately, the contractual approach must be complemented by a multinational legal framework that facilitates restructurings based on principles of efficiency and equity. Given the current geopolitical constraints, in the short-run we advocate the implementation of a “soft law” approach, built on the recognition of the limitations of the private contractual approach and on a set of principles – most importantly, the restoration of sovereign immunity – over which there may be consensus. We suggest that in a context of political economy tensions it should be impossible for a government to sign away the sovereign immunity either for itself or successor governments. The framework could be implemented through the United Nations, or it could prompt the creation of a new institution. Keywords: Sovereign Debt Crises, Sovereign Debt Restructuring, Debt Contracts, International Lending 1 We are indebted to Sebastian
    [Show full text]
  • Insolvency, Security Interests and Creditor Protection Paul J. Omar
    INTERNATIONAL INSOLVENCY INSTITUTE Insolvency, Security Interests and Creditor Protection Paul J. Omar From The Paul J. Omar Collection in The International Insolvency Institute Academic Forum Collection http://www.iiiglobal.org/component/jdownloads/viewcategory/647.html International Insolvency Institute PMB 112 10332 Main Street Fairfax, Virginia 22030-2410 USA Email: [email protected] 1 Insolvency, Security Interests and Creditor Protection 1 10 Insolvency, Security Interests and Creditor Protection PAUL OMAR Introduction The purpose of this outline, featuring the relationship between insolvency, security and the protection of creditors’ interests, is to first ask what constitutes the essence of the procedures, known collectively as insolvency, and to outline the role of the creditor in the process. This chapter then looks at the role of debt in the financing of enterprises and its primary use for the acquisition of assets as well as the means by which creditors seek to protect their interests by agreements with their debtor envisaging the use of security. It continues by analysing the nature of security and differences in legal cultures to the protection of the most fundamental of creditors’ interests, the recovery of either physical assets the subject of the agreement or a sum representing the value of the debt. This outline follows this by sketching some of the hurdles facing creditors seeking to protect their interests when the debtor-creditor relationship transcends national boundaries. Because this inevitably involves potential conflict between legal rules and courts asserting jurisdiction, this outline will illustrate specific aspects of the conflict, where choice of law rules have had to be adapted to the specificities of insolvency.
    [Show full text]
  • TR19/1: Debt Management Sector Thematic Review
    Debt management sector thematic review Thematic Review TR19/01 March 2019 TR19/01 Financial Conduct Authority Debt management sector thematic review Contents 1 Executive summary 3 2 Background 6 3 Focus, scope and methodology 7 4 Our findings 8 5 Outcomes from the review 39 Annex Abbreviations used in this paper 40 2 TR19/01 Financial Conduct Authority Section 1 Debt management sector thematic review 1 Executive summary Background 1.1 The debt management sector is a priority area for the FCA and has been since the transfer of consumer credit regulation on 1 April 2014. 1.2 The FCA pays close attention to the sector, with regular intervention. This includes a thematic review in 2014/15 (TR15/8, ‘Quality of debt management advice’ (June 2015)) and sector-wide communications in 2015 and 2016. 1.3 Our previous thematic review in 2014/15 found that debt advice received by customers was very poor, and firms were treating customers unfairly. Firms were carrying out poor assessments of customers’ circumstances, both personal and financial, before giving advice. This led to interventions across the sector including past business reviews and remedial actions by firms. 1.4 We committed in our 2017/18 Business Plan to assess how the market is operating and whether firms are meeting customer needs and our standards. This review included both commercial debt management firms and not-for-profit debt advice bodies. Key findings 1.5 Our findings show many improvements have been made since the 2014/15 thematic review, but firms need to work harder to make sure they consistently deliver good outcomes.
    [Show full text]
  • Insolvency Arrangements and Contract Enforceability
    I. Introduction In the recent past, several large, internationally active firms have entered formal insolvency proceedings, among them Drexel, TWA, Barings, Maxwell, Olympia & York, Enron and Global Crossing. Others have come close to doing so, for example Long-Term Capital Management. The asset size of these actual or potential failures is increasing, and with it the risk of a disorderly and contentious outcome. Since Herstatt, no major financial insolvency has been disorderly, although there have been some close calls. This is due to several contributing factors: a combination of improved risk management, greater transparency, a vastly superior legal framework, international cooperation among authorities, and good luck. This positive history, however, offers few reasons for complacency. The failures to date have been of firms of moderate and intermediate complexity. Firms and markets become ever more complex, more interrelated, and ever larger. An increasingly deregulated market environment is a less cosseted one: greater competition entailing greater risk of failure. Sovereignty remains a fact of life, but business operations are increasingly cross-border, placing greater strain on the legal system. Therefore, the underpinnings of insolvency law are especially salient for large, complex and internationally active financial institutions, and the Financial Stability Forum has been considering issues in anticipating and managing such problems. Both general and financial firm- specific insolvency regimes are relevant. While the principal operations of such institutions are primarily housed in supervised entities, such as banks and securities firms, significant activities may take place in unsupervised holding companies or affiliates. Furthermore, there are now non- financial companies that undertake financial activities on a scale that approaches those of major financial institutions.
    [Show full text]
  • Early Restructuring and a Second Chance for Entrepreneurs a Modern and Streamlined Approach to Business Insolvency Fact Sheet | June 2019
    Early restructuring and a second chance for entrepreneurs A modern and streamlined approach to business insolvency Fact sheet | June 2019 Věra Jourová Directorate-General for Commissioner for Justice, Justice and Consumers Consumers and Gender Equality Every year in the EU, 200,000 firms go bankrupt, resulting in over 1.7 million people losing their jobs. New EU rules on insolvency will help businesses to restructure earlier, fostering innovation and potentially creating an additional three million jobs in Europe. A well-functioning insolvency framework that aims at preventing and mitigating the impact of bankruptcy is essential to support growth and business creation. The European Union has agreed modern and streamlined rules that will facilitate restructuring, give entrepreneurs a second chance and improve the efficiency of restructuring, insolvency and debt discharge procedures. The approach aims to: ✓ Allow entrepreneurs to restart business activities, to keep innovation going and potentially create an additional three million jobs across the EU; ✓ Cut down the number of jobs lost due to bankruptcy; ✓ Bring more legal certainty for cross-border investors; ✓ Turn bad debt into performing credit to facilitate lending. What benefits are these new rules expected to bring? > More viable companies will survive. Viable businesses will be rescued and only the non-viable ones will be liquidated. This could save a significant proportion of the 1.7 million jobs lost to insolvency in the EU every year. > More legal certainty for cross-border investors thanks to harmonised rules on restructuring across the EU. More cross-border risk-sharing and more liquid capital markets and diversified sources of funding for EU businesses will deepen financial integration, lower costs and increase the EU’s competitiveness.
    [Show full text]
  • The Impact of Bankruptcy Reform on Insolvency Choice and Consumer Credit
    Staff Working Paper/Document de travail du personnel 2016-26 The Impact of Bankruptcy Reform on Insolvency Choice and Consumer Credit by Jason Allen and Kiana Basiri Bank of Canada staff working papers provide a forum for staff to publish work-in-progress research independently from the Bank’s Governing Council. This research may support or challenge prevailing policy orthodoxy. Therefore, the views expressed in this paper are solely those of the authors and may differ from official Bank of Canada views. No responsibility for them should be attributed to the Bank. www.bank-banque-canada.ca Bank of Canada Staff Working Paper 2016-26 May 2016 The Impact of Bankruptcy Reform on Insolvency Choice and Consumer Credit by Jason Allen1 and Kiana Basiri2 1Financial Stability Department Bank of Canada Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0G9 [email protected] 2HEC Montréal Montréal, Quebec, Canada [email protected] 2 ISSN 1701-9397 © 2016 Bank of Canada Acknowledgements We thank the Office of the Superintendent of Bankruptcy for providing us with the data and especially Stephanie Cavanagh and Sarah Gaudet for patiently answering all of our questions. We are indebted to Robert Clark, Decio Colviello and Igor Livshits for their thoughtful comments. We also thank Evren Damar, Cameron MacDonald, Jim MacGee, and Adrian Walton as well as seminar participants at the Bank of Canada, HEC Montréal, and CEA (Toronto). Omar Abdelrahman and Andrew Usher provided excellent research assistance. All errors are our own. ii Abstract We examine the impact of the 2009 amendments to the Canadian Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act on insolvency decisions.
    [Show full text]
  • Cancellation of Debt
    Insolvency Worksheet Keep for Your Records Date debt was canceled (mm/dd/yy) Part I. Total liabilities immediately before the cancellation (do not include the same liability in more than one category) Amount Owed Liabilities (debts) Immediately Before the Cancellation 1. Credit card debt $ 2. Mortgage(s) on real property (including first and second mortgages and home equity loans) (mortgage(s) can be on personal residence, any additional residence, or property held for investment or used in a trade or business) $ 3. Car and other vehicle loans $ 4. Medical bills $ 5. Student loans $ 6. Accrued or past-due mortgage interest $ 7. Accrued or past-due real estate taxes $ 8. Accrued or past-due utilities (water, gas, electric) $ 9. Accrued or past-due child care costs $ 10. Federal or state income taxes remaining due (for prior tax years) $ 11. Loans from 401(k) accounts and other retirement plans $ 12. Loans against life insurance policies $ 13. Judgments $ 14. Business debts (including those owed as a sole proprietor or partner) $ 15. Margin debt on stocks and other debt to purchase or secured by investment assets other than real property $ 16. Other liabilities (debts) not included above $ 17. Total liabilities immediately before the cancellation. Add lines 1 through 16. $ Part II. Fair market value (FMV) of assets owned immediately before the cancellation (do not include the FMV of the same asset in more than one category) Assets FMV Immediately Before the Cancellation 18. Cash and bank account balances $ 19. Residences (including the value of land) (can be personal residence, any additional residence, or property held for investment or used in a trade or business) $ 20.
    [Show full text]
  • Finding Relief from Debt: a Long-Term Comparison of Canadian Debt Relief Options Jodi Letkiewicz, York University1 Objective
    Consumer Interests Annual Volume 65, 2019 Finding Relief from Debt: A Long-term Comparison of Canadian Debt Relief Options Jodi Letkiewicz, York University1 Objective The purpose of this study is to evaluate the financial outcomes of Canadians who have completed a debt relief program. The primary research question is whether consumers who used a debt repayment plan are better or worse off than individuals who discharged their debt using another method. Significance This study is both timely and important because consumer debt in Canada is at near- record highs. The OECD (2017) recently reported that Canada is the most indebted nation in the world, with consumer debt topping over 100% of gross domestic product (GDP). Statistics Canada (2017) reports that the ratio of debt-to-disposable income is 166.9%, meaning that Canadians owe $1.67 for every dollar of disposable income. In a speech in December 2017, the Governor of the Bank of Canada, Stephen S. Poloz, said that the household debt of Canadians is one of the three things that keeps him up at night. Of primary concern, he said, is how these high levels of debt make the overall economy more sensitive to inevitable interest rate increases. Credit can play an important role in society, for example, enabling individuals and families to borrow to increase human capital, purchase a home, or start a small business. While consumer credit can have positive effects on consumers and the overall economy, there are also some dangers that come with consumers taking on credit. Aside from the obvious financial strains faced on households with significant debt, researchers have found that debt has negative impacts on health, both physiological as well as psychological.
    [Show full text]
  • Avoiding Fumbles with Debt Management
    Debt Lesson 5: Teacher’s Guide | Rookie: Ages 11-14 Avoiding Fumbles with Debt Management Understanding the costs and benefits of debt is essential to managing it effectively throughout life. This 45-minute module will prepare students to think critically about types of debt, debt loads, and strategies for managing debt. Getting Your Class Game-Ready: Each football Time Outline: 45 minutes total game won is the result of careful planning, strategic plays, and judgment calls. There is a risk with each Subjects: Economics, Math, Finance, Consumer pass and rush that yards might be lost instead of Sciences, Life Skills gained on the path to the goal line. In life, managing debt demands similar planning, Materials: Facilitators may print and photocopy careful decision-making, and a solid understanding handouts and quizzes, and direct students to the of the risks, costs, and benefits. With a solid online resources below. management plan, taking out loans can provide • Pre- and Post-Test questions: Use this short funds that allow you to reach goals such as paying grouping of questions as a quick, formative for college or buying a house. However, debt can assessment for the Debt module or as a Pre- and also spiral out of control, negatively impacting your Post-Test at the beginning and completion of the financial opportunities now and in the future. While entire module series. the topic of debt may seem overwhelming, it’s • Practical Money Skills Debt resources: important to keep your head in the game and take practicalmoneyskills.com/ff40 informed action to reach your goals.
    [Show full text]
  • Sovereign Defaults in Court Henrik Enderlein
    Working Paper Series Julian Schumacher, Christoph Trebesch, Sovereign defaults in court Henrik Enderlein No 2135 / February 2018 Disclaimer: This paper should not be reported as representing the views of the European Central Bank (ECB). The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the ECB. Abstract For centuries, defaulting governments were immune from legal action by foreign creditors. This paper shows that this is no longer the case. Building a dataset covering four decades, we find that creditor lawsuits have become an increasingly common feature of sovereign debt markets. The legal developments have strengthened the hands of creditors and raised the cost of default for debtors. We show that legal disputes in the US and the UK disrupt government access to international capital markets, as foreign courts can impose a financial embargo on sovereigns. The findings are consistent with theoretical models with creditor sanctions and suggest that sovereign debt is becoming more enforceable. We discuss how the threat of litigation affects debt management, government willingness to pay, and the resolution of debt crises. Keywords: Sovereign default, enforcement, government financing, debt restructuring regime JEL codes: F34, G15, H63, K22 ECB Working Paper Series No 2135 / February 2018 1 Non-technical summary This paper provides novel empirical evidence that creditor lawsuits have become a significant cost of sovereign default. Based on a newly collected dataset, we show that creditor lawsuits against defaulting governments have proliferated, with far-reaching consequences for government willingness to pay and for government access to international capital markets. This finding stands in contrast to the common view that sovereigns are largely immune from legal action by foreign creditors.
    [Show full text]
  • Insolvency, Illiquidity, and the Risk of Default
    Insolvency, Illiquidity, and the Risk of Default Sergei A. Davydenko∗ Preliminary February 2013 Abstract This paper studies whether default is triggered by insolvency (low market asset values relative to debt) or by illiquidity (low cash reserves relative to current liabilities), corresponding to economic versus financial distress. Although most firms at default are distressed both economically and financially, the two factors are distinct: A quarter of defaults are either by insolvent firms with abundant cash, or by solvent firms in a cash crisis. Consistent with the core assumptions of structural models of risky debt, the market value of assets is the most powerful factor explaining the timing of default by far, outperforming most other commonly used variables put together. By contrast, the marginal contribution of illiquidity is much smaller and depends on financing constraints that restrict the firm’s access to external financing. Keywords: Credit risk; Structural models; Default; Insolvency; Illiquidity; Cash shortage; Default boundary JEL Classification Numbers: G21, G30, G33 ∗Joseph L. Rotman School of Management, University of Toronto. Email: [email protected]; Phone: (416) 978-5528. Financial support from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) is gratefully acknowledged. Introduction This paper studies the role of insolvency (economic distress) and illiquidity (financial distress) in triggering corporate default. I look at whether the two factors are distinct, how they interact, and to what extent they explain empirically observed defaults. Understanding what precipitates default is central to the analysis of capital structure, financial reor- ganization, and credit risk. Assumptions about the conditions that result in default are always present, either explicitly or implicitly, in any discussion involving risky debt.
    [Show full text]