Copyright by Hannah Rose Baker 2015

The Thesis Committee for Hannah Rose Baker Certifies that this is the approved version of the following thesis:

To See to Read: Dyslexic Students’ Journey Through a Visual Thinking Strategies Museum/School Partnership

APPROVED BY SUPERVISING COMMITTEE:

Supervisor: Melinda M. Mayer

Paul E. Bolin

To See to Read: Dyslexic Students’ Journey Through a Visual Thinking Strategies Museum/School Partnership

by

Hannah Rose Baker, B. F.A.

Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts

The University of Texas at Austin December 2015 Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to that little girl sitting on the rug in first grade with her father who is struggling to read a Bernstein Bears book.

Acknowledgements

Thank you to my parents for believing in me, even when I could not believe in myself. I especially want to recognize my mother who has fought dyslexia with me over the past 29 years. I also what to thank everyone who has helped me edit, or, as I say, translate my writing, including Morgan Catalina, Eva Hershaw, Claudia Calhoun, and my little, big sister Kim Baker. I want to acknowledge Sarah O’Leary and the education staff at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston for their inspiration and guidance. Melinda Mayer who kept me motivated to continuously reach for higher goals. For those days when I did not want to write, Berangér LeFranc kept me motivated.

And finally, L.L.L. for your continuous love.

v Abstract

To See to Read: Dyslexic Students’ Journey Through a Visual Thinking Strategies Museum/School Partnership

Hannah Rose Baker, M.A. The University of Texas at Austin, 2015

Supervisor: Melinda M. Mayer

Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) is a teaching method that provides for an open- ended discussion of visual art objects. The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (MFA) utilizes the VTS curriculum for their Partnership Program with the Boston Public Schools (BPS). Although extensive research has been conducted on the benefits of VTS for school students, no study has looked into specific advantages for those who are dyslexic. This study examined the MFA’s VTS Partnership Program in regards to four pertinent areas to dyslexic students’ academic success. These include student engagement, critical thinking, language skills, and social skills. Within this study, the voices of the participants', from students, to teachers, to museum educators, are prioritized. Sources of data collection were interviews, field notes, and documents from the MFA education department. The data provided indications on how VTS affects dyslexic students socially, emotionally, and academically. In addition, my experience with dyslexia was the starting point for this research. I present an autoethnographic sketch narrating my experience as a dyslexic student in the public schools. My history also renders transparent the biases I hold so the reader can discern how this informs my data analysis and interpretation. vi Table of Contents

Table of Contents ...... vii

List of Tables ...... x

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study ...... 1 Introduction to the Study ...... 1 Central Research Question ...... 2 Problem Statement ...... 2 Motivations for this Research ...... 3 Speculations About This Investigation ...... 4 Methodology ...... 5 Definitions of Terms ...... 6 Limitations of the Study ...... 9 Benefits to the Field of Art Education ...... 9 Overview of Chapters ...... 9 Conclusion ...... 10

Chapter 2: My History ...... 11 First Memories ...... 11 Discovering What it is to be Dyslexic ...... 15 How to Move Forward ...... 17 Fighting for a Way to Succeed ...... 21

Chapter 3: Review of Literature ...... 25 Chapter Introduction ...... 25 Dyslexia ...... 25 Subcategories of Dyslexia ...... 28 Dyslexia’s Social and Emotional Impact on People ...... 29 Museums and Disabilities ...... 32 Museum/School Partnership ...... 34 Visual Thinking Strategies ...... 36 vii History ...... 36 Stages of Aesthetic Development ...... 39 Effectiveness of VTS ...... 42 How We Learn ...... 43 Rudolf Arnheim ...... 43 Lev Vygotsky ...... 44 Summary ...... 45

Chapter 4: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston VTS Partnership Program ...... 47 History of the Partnership Program with the Boston Public Schools ...... 48 Initial Shift to the Thinking Through Art Partnership Model ...... 49 Thinking Through Art Partnerships: 1996-2007 ...... 50 VTS Throughout the MFA’s Education Department ...... 51 Going to Greater Depth: The Partnership Program from 2007-2011 ...... 52 2011-Present: Strengthening the Whole-School partnership model ...... 55

Chapter 5: Methodology ...... 59 Introduction to the Methodology ...... 59 Case Study ...... 60 Autoethnography ...... 62 Selecting the Site and Participants ...... 63 Data Collection ...... 66 Data Analysis ...... 67 Chapter Summery ...... 68

Chapter 6: Data Collection ...... 70 Narrowing the Field ...... 70 Interviews with Gallery Instructor Liaisons and Gallery Instructors .. 71 Josiah Quincy Elementary School ...... 73 Josiah Quincy Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Teachers ...... 76 Josiah Quincy Fifth-Grade Students ...... 77 Data ...... 80

viii Student Engagement ...... 81 Critical Thinking ...... 91 Language Skills ...... 99 Social Skills ...... 105 Conclusion ...... 110

Chapter 7: Conclusion ...... 111 Summary of Research ...... 111 Difficulties in Identifying Dyslexia ...... 111 Results From The Study ...... 112 Support for Growth in Students Confidence and Self-Concept ...... 113 VTS’s Impact on Students’ Emotions ...... 115 Critical Thinking and Self-Confidence ...... 118 Recommendations for Further Research ...... 120 Significance to the Field ...... 123 Conclusion ...... 124

Appendices ...... 127 Appendix A ...... 128 Appendix B ...... 130 Appendix C ...... 131 Appendix D ...... 137

References ...... 139

ix List of Tables

Table 1: A comparison of the average occurrences of supported observations in pre/post writing samples for fifth-grade students...... 98

x

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

This study examined the potential benefits for dyslexic students of Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS), a teaching method that provides for an open-ended discussion of visual art objects. I studied a museum/school partnership program between the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (MFA) and the Boston Public Schools (BPS) entitled the VTS Partnership Program. The VTS Partnership Program at the MFA consists of whole- school involvement from six Boston Public Schools. In each of these schools, teachers facilitate nine in-class VTS lessons over the school year. Once a year the students also visit the museum for a guided VTS Tour. Visual Understanding in Education (VUE), the non-profit organization that runs VTS, has conducted extensive research into VTS under the guidance of co-founders, Dr. Abigail Housen and Phillip Yenawine (Burchenal & Grohe, 2007; De Santis & Housen, 1996; Housen, 2002, NGA Center, 2010). The research conducted by VUE has focused on the impact of VTS on the general school population. However, Yenawine (2013b) believes that VTS has a significant impact on English Language Learners and students with “severe learning challenges” (p. 45), as he has discussed in Visual Thinking Strategies: Using Art to Deepen Learning Across School Disciplines. Yenawine has suggested that research into the effects of VTS on the learning disabled population would be fruitful (Philip Yenawine, personal communication, February 18, 2014). As someone with a vested interest (to be explained later), I chose to focus this study on dyslexia. Museums, as non-traditional learning environments, can aid

1 in dyslexic students’ education with the help of school/museum partnerships, such as the MFA’s VTS Partnership Program.

CENTRAL RESEARCH QUESTION

The following question directed this research: How has Visual Thinking Strategies affected student engagement, critical thinking, language skills, and the social skills of pre-adolescent students with dyslexia, who have participated in the partnership between the Boston Public Schools and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston as described through the perceptions of students, family, and teachers?

PROBLEM STATEMENT

It is necessary for education departments in art museums to create an inclusive space for their visitors. One goal of museum education is to address the needs of a broad range of visitors. For the past forty years, education staffs have been meeting this objective by contemplating how to accommodate the physically disabled population (Steiner, 1981). One area of museum education that would be a good focus for supporting the learning disabled population is through their school programs. Education departments in art museums have a long history of establishing relationships with schools (Berry, 1998). In order for museum education departments to focus on the dyslexic population, they can utilize the VTS curriculum through their school/museum programs. Visual Thinking Strategies has been in the field of art education for over twenty years. It originated in museums and then moved into the school curriculum (Yenawine, 2013b). Yenawine (2013b) suggested that VTS helps students with learning disabilities, but no one has conducted research about VTS and the dyslexic population. Working with

2 the disabled population and schools are two of the goals of museum education department staffs. For this reason it is essential to study the benefits of using VTS in school programs with the learning disabled population. My research addressed the potential benefits of the VTS curriculum to dyslexic students.

MOTIVATIONS FOR THIS RESEARCH

I draw my inspiration for this thesis from my own struggle with dyslexia. My first memory of dyslexia happened in first grade when I could not read a Bernstein Bears book, a story I will relay in-depth in the next chapter. Dyslexia has been a thread throughout my life, from learning how to cope with difficulties in school, to drawing upon my difficulties for inspiration in my artwork. When I was young, I was ashamed of being a “special ed” student. I hid my learning disability from my friends. I wanted to be normal. Dyslexia, however, pushed me towards art. My art classes were the one place where my disability did not manifest itself. I am not sure if I had a talent for art, or whether I just wanted to spend more time with my art projects because they came more quickly to me than writing and reading. Whichever may be the case, I found my way into the art world. I continued with art through my undergraduate studies, and focused my art practice on personal outcomes of dyslexia, one of which was anxiety. The frustration I felt from my dyslexia inspired my artwork. The creative process was cathartic and helped me befriend my dyslexia. During my undergraduate studies, I knew I wanted to provide the opportunity for this same type of feeling for other people, so I began teaching art. While living in Baltimore, Maryland during my undergraduate studies, I worked with a community arts organization teaching afterschool art classes in inner city schools public schools that did not have art classes. After graduating, I volunteered in an art museum in 3

Austin, Texas. There I realized that art museums are the perfect place to combine non- traditional education and art. When beginning my graduate studies, I knew I wanted to research how art can elicit learning for people with dyslexia. My dyslexia pushed me into art, a subject that has provided me with support. Now I want to give back to dyslexia. The field of art education needs to show how art can help students with learning disabilities. Professionally, I want to advocate for further research into how art museums can aid students with learning disabilities. Many museums, such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, are great examples of inclusivity for visitors with disabilities (McGinnis, 2007). Dyslexia programming, however, is almost non-existent in museum education broadly. A few rare examples of institutions that have programs designed to include those with dyslexia are the Eli Whitney Museum in New Haven, Connecticut and The Victoria Albert in London, England (Dyslexia Advantage, 2013; Victoria and Albert Museum, n.d.). Also, The Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool, England created an art show for dyslexia awareness week (Walker Art Gallery, 2013). I would like to create more museum programs and opportunities that focus on supporting the dyslexic population.

SPECULATIONS ABOUT THIS INVESTIGATION

Prior to conducting my research, I expected to observe connections between VTS and dyslexia through the four themes laid out in my research question: student engagement, critical thinking, language skills, and social skills. My personal experience with dyslexia in conjunction with my background preparation for research, which I go into further in Chapter 3, influenced my speculations for this research. I believed VTS would enable social and psychological benefits for the dyslexic population (Lawrence, 4

1987; Riddick, Sterling, Farmer, & Morgan, 1999; Ryan, 1991; Singer, 2005). Another prediction was that there could be benefits of VTS for dyslexic students in relation to language skills. I expected to find evidence on how a museum/school partnership can aid in the schooling of students with dyslexia. My thesis begins to address the gap in VTS research for the learning disabled population. By addressing this hole, I hope to improve the connection between museum education and visitors with learning disabilities.

METHODOLOGY

I used a case study approach as the methodology to best answer my research question. Case study helped me achieve a comprehensive look at the MFA’s unique VTS Partnership Program and its participants (Yin, 1994). A case study considers a specific instance of social participation that is bounded by occurring in the real world and present day (Merriam, 1998). Case study was the appropriate method for this research because I was studying the effects of the MFA’s current VTS Partnership Program on participants who were active in the program. My participants for this study included fifth-grade students and their teachers at one Boston public school. I also interviewed MFA staff involved in the VTS partnership Program, such as administrative staff and gallery teachers. As is proper procedure with case study, I utilized interviews, observation, a field notebook, and documents from the MFA to collect my data (Creswell, 1994; Yin, 1994). I transcribed all my interviews and then applied content analysis to my data (Grbich, 2012). The use of this type of qualitative research enabled me to focus on the participants’ experiences in the VTS Partnership Program In addition, I utilized aspects of autoethnography in my thesis prior to data gathering to reveal my vantage point as a researcher on a broader socio-cultural context 5

(Cole & Knowles, 2001). In keeping with autoethnography, I provide my history with dyslexia to present my bias as a researcher.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Aesthetic Development: a theory created by Dr. Abigail Housen (1999) in which her research demonstrates that viewers of works of art interpret what they see in predictable patterns, which she classified into developmental stages. Critical Thinking: as defined by Scriven and Paul (2008) from the Critical Thinking Institute, it

is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to the belief and action. (para. 1)

Students’ speaking and writing shows their processes of thought and displays critical thinking. Through speaking and writing students have the opportunity to explain with supported details what they are thinking. Constructivism: an educational philosophy based on people constructing their own meanings and learning from activities and interactions with other individuals (Vygotsky, 1978). Visual Thinking Strategies is a constructivist teaching method. Dyslexia: a life-long neurological learning disability that affects the individual’s understanding and comprehension of language (Shaywitz, 1996). Often passed through generations, dyslexia can vary in severity and manifestations. Indicators often include difficulties with reading, writing, spelling, phonetics, and could extend into arithmetic (Shaywitz, 1996).

6

Language Skills: the four basic language skills are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These skills are intertwined and build on one another to aid in a range of areas, such as reading and listening comprehension, decoding, spelling, and written expression. Learning Disability: as defined by the U.S. Department of Education (2012) a learning disability is a

disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. (p. 13) Learning disabilities can inhibit not only the skills involved in reading, writing, and/or math, but also can affect organization, time planning, abstract reasoning, memory, and attention (Learning Disabilities Association of America, n.d.). Phonology: the transfer of letters, and letter combinations, into sound. Language plays a crucial role in the difficulties that children have with reading (Vellutino, 1979). Phonological Model: is a model that Shaywitz (1996) describes as an impairment in the phonological module of the language system that impairs a dyslexics’ ability to break down “the written word into its underlying phonological components” (p. 100). Reading Disabilities: difficulties with reading comprehension, listening comprehension, and decoding (Catts, Hogan, and Adolf, 2005). People with reading disabilities struggle with word identification, which in turn leaves them with insufficient mental funds for comprehension. Dyslexia falls under the definition of reading disability. Self-Concept: The concept one has of oneself through the interpretations of others and the perceived perceptions of others. Students can create an idea of their academic achievement around what they infer from their peers’ and teachers’ perceptions. For

7 example, if students feel that their teachers think they are lazy, then the students can believe that they are lazy when in reality they need more time to complete a task. Social Skills: skills used to communicate and interact with one another. Teachers help students develop social skills in conjunction with other subject areas in school. Deschler, Ellis, and Lenz (1996) write that it is imperative to incorporate social skills while teaching learning disabled students. Schools run the risk of negative academic and social self-concept as well as social isolation in learning disabled students, if social skills do not get taught in the classroom. Student Engagement: described by Axelson and Flick (2010) as “how involved or interested students appear to be in their learning and how connected they are to their classes, their institutions, and each other” (p. 38). The different types of student engagement are social engagement, intellectual engagement, and emotional engagement. In social engagement, students are connecting with peers and teachers, which can be displayed through students working together or with their teachers. In intellectual engagement, students can be observed being active with subjects and coursework. The involvement of students may not be at the same level with every subject, but providing an assortment of activities such as writing, video production, presentations, or other options can increase students’ intellectual engagement. Emotional engagement is a level of comfort in expressing and connecting emotionally with teachers and peers. Students’ emotional engagement in the classroom, through a mixture of activities, can minimize negative behavior. Participation, satisfaction, and willingness to contribute in class all display a student’s emotional commitment.

8

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

I am not focusing this study on how to improve the curriculum of VTS or the partnership between the MFA, Boston and the Boston Public Schools. Instead, I looked at how VTS could affect students with dyslexia. I did not intend to prove that VTS changes all students with dyslexia who go through its curriculum. I examined if and how the VTS Partnership Program could affect dyslexic students. Additionally, I provide initial research into the field of dyslexia in conjunction with museum education and Visual Thinking Strategies.

BENEFITS TO THE FIELD OF ART EDUCATION

While at the National Art Education Association’s annual conferences in 2014 and 2015, I noticed the word accessibility came up frequently in conversations and presentations. As a holistic definition, accessibility includes physical, intellectual, and emotional access points for audiences. Museums are striving to become more accessible to a variety of audiences (McGinnis, 2007; Steiner, 1981). An innovative study in connection with dyslexia and museums could broaden the scope of accessibility to many museums. Spotlighting dyslexia in museum education is a new avenue for institutions to explore and has rich potential. If museum education departments would address overlooked populations, such as dyslexics, then they could create a new reason for schools to utilize their learning environment and resources more thoroughly and frequently.

OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS

The remainder of this thesis contains six chapters. Chapter 2 reviews my educational history with dyslexia from my early memories in first grade to how it led me to conduct this research. Chapter 3 is a review of pertinent literature that is essential to 9 this study, including such topics as dyslexia, museums and disabilities, museum/school partnerships, Visual Thinking Strategies, and learning theories. Chapter 4 reviews the history of the VTS Partnership Program at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. In Chapter 5, I outline the plan used for this study, including the research method, data gathering, and data analysis. In Chapter 6, I describe how I arrived at the MFA, Boston, gathered data, and excavated the data through the four themes laid out in my research question: student engagement, critical thinking, language skills, and social skills. Lastly, in Chapter 7, I synthesize what the data may mean and suggest areas for further research.

CONCLUSION

The research presented in this study came from a need to further investigate a topic that has and does affect me every day: dyslexia. I take my initial hypotheses of VTS and dyslexia and investigate them through the MFA’s VTS Partnership Program. There is a need for museum education departments to include the learning disabled population in their school programming. The MFA’s VTS Partnership Program is the right program to research how VTS affects the dyslexic population. In the next chapter, I provide my education history to give an in-depth understanding of what school can be like for a student with a learning disability.

10

Chapter 2: My History

FIRST MEMORIES

To understand my bias, as well as my motivations for this research, I am telling my own educational story about my life with dyslexia. I find it emotionally difficult to be doing research and writing a thesis about dyslexia, and I dream about the day when I am in a position where I no longer worry about writing. I know that this day will never exist, but right now it is a beautiful fantasy. It is necessary for me to understand my history with dyslexia in order to better understand how it might affect other students. Living with dyslexia has offered me the best possible understanding of how it affects other people. I begin by trying to explain my processes of writing. In general, I describe my frustration as having all these ideas and thoughts in my brain that I cannot get out. I cannot communicate them in a way that is clear to others. Ideas start off in my head, but the second I begin to write something goes wrong. By the time the concept in my brain travels down to my fingers to be typed, the idea has gone through a whirlpool. When the concept comes out the other side, it is unrecognizable. Before I can remember having trouble with writing as a child, I had difficulties with reading. I remember sitting with my father in my first-grade class when he would periodically come to volunteer. We were sitting on the rug reading a Bernstein Bears book. I remember feeling very frustrated; I could not read the book. All my other friends seemed not to have any problems with reading. My best friend at the time would sit with my father and read through the entire book. I was jealous, not of the time she got to spend with my father, but of the ease she displayed with reading. I felt defeated and stupid. My frustrations were clear to my father. It was around this time my parents had become aware of my difficulty with reading. This instance, however, was my first memory of

11 feeling separate from my fellow students and discouraged; this is my first memory of dyslexia. As I began researching dyslexia for this project, I started asking my mother questions about what she remembered from when I was in elementary school. I had distinct memories of how it felt for me, but I was curious what it was like from a parental perspective. My mother shared with me a paper she wrote during her graduate studies for social work about dyslexics in their adolescence. She sent me the research materials she had gathered. As I was going through the files of printed journal articles, I came across her paper. I was taken aback when I came to her account of a study she had done; it was about me. I will use her writings here in conjunction with my memories. In my mother’s accounts of my history with dyslexia she uses an abbreviation “PPT,” which is a Planning and Placement Team. The purpose of a PPT, as described by the Connecticut Parent Advocacy Center (2009), is “to initiate and discuss evaluations; determine eligibility for special education services; develop a child’s Individual Education Program (IEP); or to review and/or revise the child’s program” (para. 1). However, when I was growing up PPT was a term used in my schooling to encompass not only the group of parents, teachers, and education specialists that gathered to come up with an action plan for students with special needs, but also the meeting in which these conversations occurred. PPT also referred to the testing of the student prior to the meeting. The acronym PPT was a catchall. In the following sections I quote from my mother’s writing, where she is describing a case study. When my mother refers to “she,” that is me, Hannah Baker, and the “parents” mentioned are my mother and father. In the following excerpt my mother describes her first memory of my dyslexia:

12

She was diagnosed with dyslexia when she was seven years old and in the second grade. She had a normal early development, and, in fact, was considered a creative and bright little girl. She was recommended for the talented and gifted program in kindergarten. No reading problems were reported to the parents in the first grade. When she went on vacation with her family in the summer after first grade, her mother noticed that she could not read any words in the book she was “reading.” She later discovered that Hannah had “faked” her way through first grade. There were many people with dyslexia in her mother’s family. Her mother brought her to be tested at the reading clinic at Southern Connecticut State University. She also requested a PPT meeting with the school psychologist. Hannah initially qualified as a learning disabled student with a very high combined score on intelligence testing and very low score on processing especially in the area of reading decoding.

It was also at this time, in second grade, that I first felt excluded, abnormal, and weird. I knew something was different about me. I could tell when I could not do the tasks that everyone else in the class seemed to do with ease. My second-grade teacher was a warm, loving woman. Ms. M. was in her sixties at the time. She was not married, but loved her dogs, which she trained as search and rescue animals. Ms. M. was passionate about many things and would share her interest with the class, as she did with sign language. We would have different signs to use in order to ask for various things. One of the signs was for asking permission to go to the bathroom. We would raise our hand with our thumb between our pointer and middle finger and wave it back and forth. Ms. M. created a warm, quiet, safe space for us to grow and learn. After my first PPT meeting, my parents and special education specialist from the school went over the results from my testing. I took the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) test. The WISC is a test that measures a child’s intellectual ability, and it was used in conjunction with a variety of other tests and observations when testing for learning disabilities in the early 1990s (Pearson Clinical, n.d.). My overall IQ score from the WISC test was 127, which indicated superior to very superior intelligence. In 13 addition, I took the Woodcock-Johnson test, a cognitive assessment that identifies strengths and weaknesses in cognitive abilities, processes, and academic performance (Riverside Publishing, n.d.). At this time, my reading level was at grade 1.5 and my writing was 1.6. So, by December of second grade, I was almost a year behind my grade level in reading and writing. In notes taken at the PPT meeting, the test administer wrote that I was not doing what I thought I should be able to do, and that I was aware of my inabilities. I had difficulties with long-term retrieval and auditory processing, and was weak in my ability to synthesize symbols. I have some vague memory of my parents sitting me down and telling me I would be going to a special education classroom a few times a week. In that classroom, I would work with a teacher one-to-one. A clear memory I have from shortly after I was tested follows. One day I was taken outside of my traditional classroom with the assistant teacher to go on a walk in the yard. It must have been the fall, because we went outside to pick up different leaves. I was told we would use these leaves for a class project. This memory has stuck with me since then, and it was not until years later that I figured out why. I thought I was superior to the other students because I had been asked to do this task; no one else came with us. However, when I came back inside, I felt everyone was staring at me. I felt different, not unique anymore. Years later, I realized that my teacher was explaining to the other students that I would be leaving the classroom for periods at a time. I know that her intentions were good. Her idea was to make me feel neither isolated nor different. If the other students knew why I was leaving the class a few times a week, maybe they would not laugh at me or act jealous when I left. I cannot say that it would have been better if she had not told

14 the students, but I can say this was the first time I truly felt different. And, the leaves I collected were never used for a project.

DISCOVERING WHAT IT IS TO BE DYSLEXIC

As I write this account of my memories with dyslexia, I feel that my thoughts go through that same whirlpool I wrote about at the opening of this chapter. As the thought is going down the drainpipe into the swirling rush of water, it keeps getting thrashed around. BOOM, I have to stop my thought–I have to think about how to spell “because.” I consciously spell out b-e-c-a-u-s-e in my head as I type to make sure it is spelled correctly. However, as I am in this process, I forget my train of thought. I start over from the beginning of my idea to attempt to figure out where I left off. If I am lucky, I do not have to stop again to think about spelling another word. If my ideas are flowing, I just continue and do not worry about spelling. Sometimes getting the thought out is more important. When writing the memory that follows, I knew it was important so I do not stop to think about spelling. In this memory my legs are crossed as I sit on the rug in front of my second grade teacher. It is the day of the spelling bee. I am very nervous as we are seated in a circle on the rug getting ready to participate. This is just the first round of the bee, which will determine the two students from my class who get to go and compete with the rest of the school. I want to win so badly. Maybe, just maybe, if I can spell all these words, then it will prove to everyone that I am just like them. I can show my teachers, my parents, and my peers that I am smart. Maybe I will not have to go to that special class anymore. Everything felt like it was riding on the spelling bee. I was placed second in the circle. “Yes,” I thought to myself. The words would get harder the longer I was in, so I had a good chance of getting past the first round. Ms. 15

M. asked the first word to the student sitting to my left, and it was “rain.” I thought to myself, “Oh this is easy: I know how to spell that, ‘r-a-i-n.’” However, I hoped that the kid next to me would get it wrong. If he was incorrect, not only would it be my word to spell, but also I knew the word and he would be the first one out. If he were the first one out, then that would take pressure off of me. The student said “rain, r-a-i-n, rain.” “That is correct,” said Ms. M., and some students gave him a smile and a few “good jobs.” I felt a pit in my stomach. There was more pressure on me now. I was not sure I would know how to spell the next word. If I got it wrong, then I would be the first one out. I would look dumb, and it would confirm everyone’s thoughts about why I have to go to that special classroom. Okay, the moment came; it was my turn. The teacher said, “Hannah, your word is circus.” My internal dialogue went something like this:

Oh no, I do not think I know this one. Okay, I know it starts with a C, or wait is it an S? Circus, C..ircus, S-i-r-c-i-s, C-i-r-k-i-s. Oh no, I do not know, and everyone is looking at me. I am going to get this wrong. I know it. Ok, here I go. Circus, C- e-r-c-u-s, Circus.

Then it was quiet, people were whispering around me, the teacher gave me this look, and I knew I was wrong. She said, “No, Hannah, I am sorry that is not correct. Please take a seat on the other rug.” I got up and sat down by myself. The spelling bee went on and quickly more people joined me. I was not the only one to go out in the first round. The bee went on until there was one person left. However, it did not matter to me. I let everyone down; more importantly, I let myself down. I know now that if I made it to the end, it would not have proven anything about me. I would have still had to go to the special education room. However, my hope left. I felt defeated.

16

HOW TO MOVE FORWARD

Today, recalling my memory of the spelling bee, I find myself in that confused, anxious state of mind once again. I am still going through the same process of puzzlement and second-guessing. I manage to get an entire sentence out on paper. However, when I stop and look back and read it, it does not feel the same as when it was in my head. The thought is foggy after getting thrashed around so much in its journey through the whirlpool. The sentence no longer resembles what the thought was in its original form. I somehow continue with the process, one sentence after another, with each one a little less like the original in my mind. I write as much as I can, and then go over it all. The fully formed ideas are in my head, but somehow, going through the whirlpool, parts were lost. My next childhood memory jumps forward two years, when I was in fourth grade. I had gone to my special education classes in the resource room for two and a half years. I would go for two and half hours per week. One hour was supposed to be one-on-one instruction with the special education teacher, and then one and a half hours in a small group. At first, the time in the resource room resulted in improvements, but I still was far below my academic grade level. I started to resent going to the resource room. Every time the special education teacher showed up in my class to take me away, I felt a pit in my stomach. I did not get along with my special education teacher. She was not warm or sweet, not like Ms. M. She just sat me down, and we went over exercises that did not help. After a while, I no longer saw her one-on-one, but was in a large group. The tasks were just as hard as they were when we began. I hated leaving my regular class to go to the dark resource room attached to the side of the library.

17

During the fourth grade, it was time for me to take another test to determine my progress. Despite all the special education classes, I had not improved, and my parents were concerned. They requested that my triennial testing and review be moved up a year. I went to some weird room again and took some strange test that made no sense to me. For me, it was just another strange thing no one explained to me. In her graduate school writing, my mother recounted the PPT meeting that went over my triennial testing with much more clarity than I am able:

Her second triennial in fourth grade was even more extreme. She was not reading in fourth grade and there was a 60-point discrepancy between her intelligence testing and her cognitive assessment. Writing was also a big problem for Hannah. A specialist from Yale Child Study Center, who conducted the triennial, reported two significant items at the PPT meeting. One was that Hannah had both visual and auditory processing problems and that Hannah’s intelligence test would most likely decrease at every subsequent testing because her disability was so invasive that it would affect the testing.

As the specialist pointed out to my parents, the average difference between a learning disabled child’s intelligence test and cognitive assessment was 15 points, but mine was around 60. The expert from the Yale Child Study Center said that I was one of the most intelligent children she ever tested with the most drastic discrepancy, something they would label as Gifted Learning Disabled. During the PPT, one account from my fourth-grade assistant teacher was read aloud, expressing that she thought I was just lazy. At that point, my mother remembered becoming outraged. My mother's anger, in combination with the extreme difference in my testing results, led to the special education supervisor getting up and immediately starting to make phone calls to make some changes. The results from this meeting led to further testing to count out any neurological defects. When it was determined that it was not a neurological problem, I had more one-on-one time with the special education teacher, more emphasis on phonetic 18 tasks, and a technology review to determine what types of technology would aid in my education. However, prior to these changes during the fourth grade, I would avoid work that involved reading and would not ask for help until the last moment. I knew I could work on a strategy for a book report with my special education teacher, but I did not want to. Fortunately, I had supportive and amazing parents. My mother worked in my school as an eighth grade teacher at the time. She fought for me, and continues to do so today. However, I was ashamed and I did not want to admit that I needed help. I would wait until the night before a book report was due, then start a fight with my mother about something, anything. It would end in me crying and breaking down until I would admit that I had a book report due the next day. I had not even started to read the book yet. Not only would it have been difficult for any “average” student to read a book and create a report in one night, but for me, it was impossible. My mother would calm me down, and we would come up with a plan for how to work through this. She would sit with me and we would read the book together, although I mostly remember her just reading to me at that point. I would choose the option of doing an art project based on the book, instead of a book report, if such an option was available, as it sometimes was. I remember one particular instance with a book report in fourth grade. For this report I chose a book about Helen Keller. I wanted to remake the book cover and I chose an enormous piece of cardboard, probably the same height as me, for my canvas. As my mother would read aloud to me, I would paint a cover image, about Helen Keller’s life. I have a vivid memory of where it hung in the classroom. My classmates and other teachers told me how good it looked. I felt proud and excited to have it hang on the wall.

19

Later I found out that my teacher asked my mother if I could stop making such big pieces. It took up too much room in the class, she explained, and it made the other students feel bad because theirs were so much smaller. At first, I did not think this was fair. This was something that made me feel good and proud in class–a rare feeling. However, now I had to be concerned about how my works made other students feel inadequate. Previously, hearing students read out loud every day with confidence had made me feel small. Through her research, my mother recounted the emotional effect my elementary school years had on me. She wrote:

Hannah was developing physical “illnesses” and reported not wanting to go to school. Her parents sought assistive technology evaluations, counseling, and occupational therapy and physical therapy assessments. She was also given many outside enrichment opportunities including dance, art classes, and swimming to try to bolster her self-esteem. Hannah’s therapist recommended that she continue in her current school despite her severe disability, because she had good social skills and many friends on her same cognitive level. The therapist felt that this was very important to her feelings of self worth.

I especially remember always having a stomach ache in fourth grade. I would frequently complain of feeling sick until my teachers would send me to the nurse. Then, once at the nurse’s office, I would have her call my mother who worked at the school, but in another building. I would create any opportunity to get out of school. I was fortunate to have a mother who knew how to fight for what the school system needed to do in order to provide for me. In fifth grade, she requested an assisted technology assessment, which would give feedback as to how different types of technology could aid in my schooling. My mother took me to the local college, Southern Connecticut State University, where my parents paid for me to get some training with the new technology. I was given a laptop to use in and out of school. I also received my 20 textbooks on tape from a third-party company so that I could listen along as I read the books. I remember my mother being strong and resilient. She still is today. She never will stop fighting for me and has helped me learn to fight for myself. However, that does not mean it did not take a toll on her. During a meeting at the end of sixth grade about my technology assistance, my mom became fed up. The consultant that the school provided did not do the training that was prescribed. The school system was doing nothing to help the conflict. My mother confessed to me recently that she went to her office afterwards and cried because she was so mad. She never let me see her as weak. I also strived to only show strength, because weak was all I ever felt and still feel today.

FIGHTING FOR A WAY TO SUCCEED

Moving into high school was both taxing and a relief. I attended two different high schools. One was a regional high school where I took all my academic classes, and in the afternoon I would attend an arts magnet school called Educational Center for the Arts (ECA). ECA had five different foci; visual arts, writing, dance, music, and theater. I enrolled in the visual arts department from ninth to twelfth grade. It was an oasis for me. I was able to spend half my day taking a variety of specialized art classes that my regional high school did not offer. My experience at ECA did not mean that my dyslexia did not affect my academic classes. I excelled in my classes at ECA and was able to fit in without my dyslexia coming up as a point of discussion. In my traditional high school, I was on the honors track and took a variety of subjects from French to psychology. I excelled in my science and math classes, but English and history still were a struggle. Every day I would be confronted with my disability in reading comprehension and written expression in 21

English and history, as well as other subjects. Since I was in the honors classes, teachers had a hard time seeing me as learning disabled. Many teachers thought I was lazy or did not want to give me “special treatment.” Like many people, my teachers needed to shift their perception of a special education student. Instead of looking at such a student as having problems with their cognitive ability, the perception should be on the progression of the student’s thinking process, and the extra procedures a learning disabled student goes through. My struggles in school, combined with other personal issues, contributed to the development of an anxiety disorder. I had always struggled with anxiety, but kept it well hidden. I did not know there was anything different about me; I thought everyone felt anxiety the way I did. My mother wrote about the different psychological challenges that came up in my adolescent years surrounding my dyslexia. Again, the words of my mother explain my situation:

Unfortunately she also has experienced many of the negative social-emotional challenges related to dyslexia; she had issues with self-esteem and anxiety, which increased during adolescence…. She had the extra help and had an extremely hard time advocating for herself, but became angry when her parents tried to be involved. Even though she had the advantage that her parents were educators in the system, and she had accommodations, modifications, assistive technology and advocacy, she was not in a dyslexic-friendly school system. She did experience teasing and resentment from two sources. The first was by some of the other honors students in the high school. She was in a very competitive environment in which other students perceived her as having special treatment. She also experienced resentment from the teachers. The teachers complained of the extra effort to accommodate her and/or modify Hannah’s assignments. She was told on many occasions that if she could not do the work the way that the others did then she should just move down a track level, even though as a freshman, for example, she received the freshman math award. She also had the tendency to hide her problems and minimize them until they became a crisis.

22

Throughout all of my life, art has been a safe place. It was a way for me to translate the emotions and difficulties I was having in school. Also, it was a place I felt normal. Not only normal, but also successful. I would get praise from peers and teachers, and my dyslexia never entered the equation. My dyslexia, however, brought me to write this master’s thesis about how museums can become spaces for dyslexic learners. But writing a master’s thesis forces me to face numerous aspects of my disability. I have large deficiencies in written expression and reading decoding. Every time I have to read articles that use complex vocabulary, it is a struggle. Every time I have to write, it is difficult. My disability rears its ugly head every day, and I find myself fighting the same fight from which I ran away. Working in academia goes against all the ways in which I learn. To be able to support myself in graduate studies I needed to register with the office of students with disabilities at The University of Texas. In order to register with the disabilities office, I had to be tested for dyslexia within three years of applying. The results of my 2012 testing revealed that I have a high cognitive function with impaired writing skills and difficulties in written expression and reading decoding. I can easily have a conversation about an idea. However, when I have to sit down and read a document with difficult vocabulary and write about those ideas, I am more lost than others, but not forever. I am doing this work not for me, but for those students who I can help in the future. So, I went through this struggle of writing to get to where I need to be for them. From years of edits, critiques, teacher responses, hard work, and pain I have an idea of the confusion someone reading my unedited writing will experience. However, it is difficult for me to explain what it is like for me to read and write. It is difficult to explain that dyslexia does not only affect my reading and writing, but it also affects me

23 socially and emotionally. We dyslexics are different; it is not just that we see letters backwards or simply are unable to spell. Yes, those things could happen, but not in the way most people think. Most people assume dyslexics see a b and perceive it as d. However, for me I do not see a b or d; it is all the same. Moreover, if it were only the b and the d problem, then that would not be so hard. The process starts long before we even start reading or writing; this process begins with the first thought of doing either of these things. The idea of reading or writing a paper, paragraph, or an email overwhelms me. Every time I read and write, it is a hurdle. It is a struggle. Yet, as with all people, I cannot live outside of language. Language forms the boundaries of our lives.

24

Chapter 3: Review of Literature

CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

While exploring my own personal processes with learning, I also took the opportunity to research areas surrounding dyslexia and the art museum. In this chapter, I investigate different facets of pertinent literature that are essential to an understanding of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston’s VTS Partnership Program and its connection to dyslexia. First, this chapter looks at the history of dyslexia, different ways it can be classified, and its social implications. The subsequent sections examine museums and how they address visitors with disabilities as well as museum/school partnerships. Following the section on museums is an overview of the teaching methods and research behind Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS). Finally, I investigate different cognitive learning theories, which are essential for art education and visual thinking strategies.

DYSLEXIA The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) Board of Directors (2002) defines dyslexia as,

characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge. (para. 1) Dyslexia is a life-long disability that affects the understanding and comprehension of language (Shaywitz, 1996). The IDA (2002) lays out dyslexia as a deficiency in the phonological component of language. Phonology is the transfer of letters, and letter combinations, into sound (Velluntino, 1979). This deficiency in the phonological

25 component of language impairs a dyslexic’s ability to segment words into their phonological parts. This process is described as the phonological model. Reading and spoken language rely on breaking down words into their phonological parts, but where they differ is reading goes one-step further. Reading requires one to associate the sounds of the phonological parts with letters. To start to understand the phonological model, it is best to consider the processes of breaking down language in the brain. Common hypotheses say that language is broken down into hierarchical components (Shaywitz, 1996). The phonological component processes phonemes, the smallest segment of language, which is the lowest level, or root of language. Dr. Sally Shaywitz is a leader in dyslexia research and advocacy from the Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity. As Shaywitz (1996) explains, to store, retrieve and use these phonemes, one must break them down and store the phonetic units in the phonological module of the brain. Phonemic awareness involves the ability to isolate the different sound elements in a word, allowing a person to analyze and then interpret these sounds (e.g. look= /l/u/k). This process is a problem area for children and adults with dyslexia (Liberman, Rubin, Duques, & Carlisle, 1985). The first published record of dyslexia is now close to 120 years old, from Pringle- Morgan a doctor in Sussex, England who identified the condition in 1896 (Shaywitz, 1996). Morgan (1896) suggested that difficulties with reading and writing were due to “congenital word blindness” (p.1378). Dyslexia was for a long time considered a visual processing deficiency (Shaywitz, 1996). Today, most research shows that dyslexia is a verbal deficiency. Shaywitz describes the process of reading for dyslexics as a “deficit within the language system at the level of the phonological module [that] impairs his or

26 her ability to segment the written word into its underlying phonological components” (1996, p. 100). The procedure of processing spoken language, though similar, is much less complicated than reading. Spoken language occurs at a preconscious level and is instinctive; exposure to the language is all humans need to learn to speak (Chomsky, 1957/2002; Pinker, 1994). The speaker unconsciously assembles the phonemes into words, and then the listener similarly reassembles them. Both rely on the phonological processes, but reading, unlike speaking, is not natural to humans. They must transfer the symbols of written language into their corresponding sounds. Dyslexic readers have a deficiency of the phonological components of language and struggle to break the written word into its phonological components. In VTS, students are listening to different vocabulary from the participants while the facilitator points to the corresponding visual elements. In this processes, dyslexic students can concentrate on listening to new vocabulary, instead of exerting energy on the written word. Within the hierarchical components of language, above the phonological level is syntax, then grammatical structures, and semantics, which is vocabulary or word meaning. Dyslexics do not have deficiencies in these components, but within the lower level processing. Their deficiency does not lie in their ability to comprehend words, but in breaking those words into their phonemes. In reality, with a few more hurdles to jump, it takes dyslexics longer than traditional readers to get to the end point. Robert B. Katz of Haskins Laboratories specializes in the science of spoken and written word. Katz (1986) describes a study comprised of poor readers, who he identifies as having a weakness in the phonological domain. Similarly, dyslexia is a defect in the phonological domain. Katz documented the challenges poor readers have with correctly

27 naming objects in pictures. The results showed the majority of the poor readers in the study knew what the objects were, but could not recall the proper word for the object in question. Less familiar objects and longer words created more confusion for the poor readers. The comprehension of the objects was there; the poor readers just need more time to explain because of their inability to access the word. Because poor readers participate in VTS, they could be benefitted by the repetition of information though how the facilitator paraphrases students’ comments and the ample time to formulate responses that would afford the opportunity to reconnect the object to its given name. Dyslexic readers can and do learn how to decode words and excel in their academic ability. However, this does not come without a cost. It is common for dyslexics to express how tiring reading can be, which is not surprising because dyslexics exert much more energy when compared to average readers.

Subcategories of Dyslexia

In the field of special education three subcategories of dyslexia are agreed upon; dysphonetic dyslexia, relating to auditory functions; dyseidetic, relating to visual functions; and dysphonetic-dyseidetic, which is a combination of both (Boder, 1970; Manzo & Manzo, 1993; Spafford & Grosser, 1995). In the dysphonetic sub-type, readers have a hard time connecting letters to sounds or phonemes. Dyseidetic dyslexics have a better understanding of phonics, but have difficulty visualizing the word. It is usually smaller, non-phonetic words that tend to be the issue, such as the word “said,” which phonetically should be pronounced “sayed.” The final subcategory is a combination of both dysphonetic and dyseidetic, where the reader has difficulties in both areas. I have both dysphonetic and dyseidetic dyslexia. No matter what subtype the learner is, it is

28 important to use a variety of teaching tools to engage a student with the described difficulties. VTS could be one such tool. When considering what tools to put in a dyslexic student's toolbox, there are two distinct methods to teach reading skills: the top-down theory and the bottom-up theory (Goodman & Goodman, 1982; Gough, 1972; LeBerge & Samuels, 1974; Spafford & Grosser, 1995). In the top-down method, the emphasis is given to understanding a piece of reading as a whole through context and clues, and not focusing on recognition skills. Beginners in the bottom-up method start with letter recognition and sounds before moving up to comprehension. Spafford and Grosser (1995), however, have suggested that a combination of top-down and bottom-up methods have proven successful as a holistic approach to reading. There are many different learning theories and activities that have been developed to aid in dyslexic students’ learning. Spafford and Grosser (1995) suggest that one tool in a dyslexic student’s learning toolbox should be an approach known as “sight-word.” In the sight-word approach, students memorize certain words by images without looking at the written word. Different techniques could include the use of flashcards with images of the objects or labels placed around the room on the physical object. In elementary school, it is estimated that 200-300 sight words make up 80-90% of student reading material (Spafford & Grosser, 1995). With the array of pictures the VTS curriculum uses, the same approach as “sight-word” could seamlessly integrate into a dyslexic students’ program.

Dyslexia’s Social and Emotional Impact on People

A shift in research on disability-related learning occurred in the 1980s, when researchers started to focus their attention on the social and emotional impact of learning 29 disabilities on students, not just the cognitive and academic aspects (Ryan, 1991). Burns (1982) concluded after much research that there was a correlation between academic achievement and self-concept in children. When students are meeting the expectations of their teachers, parents, and their own expectations, they tend to be more self-confident in and out of school. On the opposite side, students who are not meeting these goals tend to devalue themselves at a cognitive and behavioral level. Studies have shown that students who have difficulties reading have lower self- esteem than other students (Lawrence, 1987; Riddick, Sterling, Farmer, & Morgan, 1999). Furthermore, Thomson and Hartley (1980) pinpointed dyslexic students and tested their self-esteem in three different areas. They looked at how dyslexics perceive others, how they believe others perceive them, and how they perceive themselves. Their research included non-dyslexic students as a basis of comparison when looking at the total scores of the three different areas. Thomson and Hartley found the group of dyslexic students had lower self-esteem in all categories than the other students on the whole. As Ryan (1991) points out, dyslexia not only affects students’ self-esteem, but also causes anxiety. When dyslexic students’ performance is erratic, it can provide considerable frustration for students and teachers. Anxiety becomes a common outcome of these feelings, especially when the student has perfectionist expectations (Ryan, 1991). Over time, the students risk developing a fear of failing and a consistent feeling of incompetence. This anxiety can present itself to teachers and parents as a student being lazy or unmotivated, when in reality it is a fear of starting a task without knowing what will come next. As the day-to-day abilities of dyslexic students fluctuate, these students can become fearful of starting new work. Within the VTS structure, students are not right or wrong about the information they contribute to the conversation, leading to an open

30 forum for students to feel comfortable engaging with a subject. Ideally, VTS creates a task where one should not fear participation. Students with dyslexia learn to cope with their daily struggles of self-esteem and anxiety issues within their peer groups. However, as Singer (2005) explains, dyslexic students often cope by concealing their emotional and academic problems. Singer also comments on how these students are not only tasked with tackling their socio-emotional issues, but also expend more energy on academics than average students. As a result, they might lie, shield their books, conceal all signs of disappointment, and withdraw from their peers. These students may resent their accommodations and modifications because, while in some academic areas they appear smart, in others they receive “special” treatment. Students with dyslexia might go out of their way to fit in with peers in ways that could harm them academically. Internalizing these fears and embarrassment can also serve to fuel their anxiety. Through all of this, many successful people have learned to live with dyslexia. Ryan (1991) suggests that three important factors contribute to this success: “First, early in the child’s life, someone has been extremely supportive and encouraging. Second, the young dyslexic found an area in which he or she could succeed. Finally, successful dyslexics appear to have developed a commitment to helping others” (p. 33). Overcoming fear and learning to live with dyslexia can be challenging, but there are advantages to the way these students think. People with dyslexia often find creative ways to succeed in reading and many other areas. As Shaywitz (1996) suggests, dyslexics often find unexpected ways to solve problems. Their ability to look holistically at a problem, instead of its individual parts, tends to lead to creative thinking. This creativity often follows the person through their career and life.

31

When trying to set dyslexic students up for success it is best to look at the students’ learning as a whole. Educators should examine the different specialized strengths, interests, and emerging skills of the students to address their specific learning (Espin, Deno, & Albayrak-Kaymak, 1998; Pretti-Frontczak & Bricker, 2000). To create particular goals and objectives for these students an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is needed where distinct services are supported by recommended practices (Pretti- Frontczak & Bricker, 2000). It is essential for dyslexic students to have an IEP to learn how to thrive in their schooling. VTS could become part of students IEPs as a way to help address not only cognitive deficiencies, but also difficulties within their socio- cultural sphere.

MUSEUMS AND DISABILITIES

It is important to create an inclusive environment in a museum for a wide range of the public. Museums for over 40 years have been providing services for different disabled populations (Steiner, 1981). For example the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City has programming for a wide variety of individuals with disabilities including those with hearing loss, deafness, blindness or partially sighted, dementia, autism, and developmental and learning disabilities. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, n.d.). Rebecca McGinnis is the senior educator overseeing the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s access and community programs. McGinnis (2007) emphasizes how the authoritative voice of the museum can promote positive social change through “involving people with disabilities in planning programming that reflects multiple perspectives; displaying and interpreting objects and works of art relating to, representing, or made by people with disabilities; and discussing the impact of disabilities on the lives of artists” (p. 139). Not only do museum staffs need to consider the design of an exhibition or 32 public space when wanting to become more inclusive, but they also need to incorporate educational programming and publications in these considerations (McGinnis, 2007). The education staffs in museums are the link between museum administration, programming, and the disabled visitor. Visitors create their own meaning making in museum experiences and educational programming (Adams, Falk, & Dierking, 2003; Black & Hein, 2003; Falk & Deirking, 1992, Falk & Deirking, 2000). It is imperative to understand the needs of museum visitors and to respond to these requirements. Many museums are addressing visitors with physical disabilities; motor, sight, and hearing; however, visitors with cognitive disabilities are not given the same attention (Maxwell & Killeen, 2002). Dyslexia is a cognitive disability that few museums are addressing specifically. The Victoria and Albert Museum in London, England posts resources on its website for learning disabled or dyslexic visitors. Examples of these are guided service, text to speech pens, screen readers, other magnification technology, and ear defenders for children (Victoria and Albert Museum, n.d.). The Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool, England created an art show for dyslexia awareness week in 2013 that showcased Hugh Baird College student work done in response to dyslexia (Walker Art Gallery, 2013). Bill Brown is from the Eli Whitney Museum in Hamden, Connecticut, an experimental learning workshop located in the historic factory built by Eli Whitney (Eli Whitney Museum and Workshop, n.d.). Brown discussed at the Conference on Dyslexia and Talent in 2013 how the museum has served many students with dyslexia over the years through their project based learning approach (Dyslexia Advantage, 2013). The Eli Whitney Museum is making strides toward creating education programming geared towards dyslexics. This is one area art museums have not explored yet. The

33 museum/school partnerships that many museums have are excellent opportunities to explore the museums’ connection to dyslexia. The next section explores museum/school partnerships.

MUSEUM/SCHOOL PARTNERSHIP

The multi-faceted approach of a museum/school partnership is an excellent option for inclusion on dyslexic students’ IEPs. Art museums and schools have a long history of working together (Berry, 1998). Many museums’ mission statements emphasize utilizing the museum’s collection for educational purposes. In 1991, the American Association of Museums (AAM) organized a task force to look more deeply into the collaboration between museums and education (Berry, 1998). The AAM published Excellence and Equity: Education and the Public Dimension of Museums (American Association of Museums, 1992) a report on the task force’s findings. In this report, the AAM suggested that museums focus their public service attention on education. One way to put their service into action is to foster healthy relationships with public schools. When museums and schools partner, students can learn through many formats such as reading, writing, looking, conversing, and art making. The museum/school partnership has benefits for both traditional learners and non-traditional learners, such as dyslexic students. Interest in fostering successful collaborations between schools and museums continued through the early 1990s (Berry, 1998). In 1995, the National Center for Art Museum/School Collaboration (NCAMSC) was established to focus on partnerships between institutions (National Center for Art Museum/School Collaboration, n.d.). NCAMSC looked into three programs from Washington, DC; Dallas, Texas; and Portland, Maine. In this research, school groups spoke about their museum visits and how they felt like extensions of the classroom (Berry, 1998). Teacher workshops, 34 supplemental materials, social events, and reduced museum memberships were suggestions for ways the museum could provide further assistance. Many positive outcomes of the partnership program today at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston are the same as these suggestions. By reaching many types of learners, the museum/school partnership brings together formal and informal learning. In The Quite Evolution: Changing the Face of Art Education (Wilson, 1997) from the Getty Education Institute for the Arts, Brent Wilson suggests 12 findings for strengthening the cooperation between museums and schools. One of Wilson’s findings is that: “Long-range planning by district and school leadership is essential to the success of these partnerships” (1997, p. 1). In Boston, the MFA education staff has expressed similar ideas regarding the needs and success of their VTS partnership program (O’Leary, personal communication, January 14, 2015). The research conducted in the 1990s surrounding museum/school collaboration still holds true today; for change to be systemic, museums need to provide ongoing assistance for curriculum implementation. Kim Fortney and Beverly Sheppard (2010) revisited the definition of an ideal museum/school partnership more than a dozen years after the original publication of Building Museums and School Partnerships (Sheppard, 1993). In the quest to revamp what partnerships look like between museums and schools in the 21st century, they turned to over 200 professionals in the field at the annual meeting of the Mid-Atlantic Association of Museums and the American Association of Museums. Some characteristics Fortney and Sheppard (2010) highlight for the ideal partnership include mutual trust between both parties, particularly following through with promised actions; each party disclosing what parts they can and will provide; having the appropriate

35 members from all levels of each institution; conjointly problem-solving; and enacting a program that is special and unique to each institution. Looking deeply into the rewards and benefits of museum/school programs as Fortney and Sheppard have done, only helps validate the MFA’s VTS Partnership Program and also highlight their success.

VISUAL THINKING STRATEGIES

History

Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) is a teaching method and curriculum that provides for an open-ended discussion of visual art objects. VTS is the basis for the MFA’s partnerships between the Boston Public Schools and the museum. VTS supports students in independent observations and the ability to provide evidence for their observations (Yenawine, 2013a). Abigail Housen’s (1983) theory on aesthetic development supports this pedagogy and curriculum, which will be defined later in this section. Visual Thinking Strategies has been in the field of art education for over 20 years. It originated at the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) in New York and then moved into school curriculum (Yenawine, 2013b). In the late 1990s, Phillip Yenawine, MOMA director of education at the time, was asked by the board of trustees to investigate whether or not visitors were actually learning from the museum's programming. He asked Abigail Housen, a cognitive psychologist, to help answer this question. After completing her research, she found that even when asked directly after museum educational experience, visitors were not able to review the image or relate the concepts discussed (Yenawine, 2013b). Housen had been researching the way people looked at art for 15 years and was identifiying a developmental stage theory for aesthetics. She noticed that

36 most viewers at the museum were new to observing art (DeSantis & Housen, 1996). Even though they were curious about the artwork, they did not have much time with what Housen calls “eyes on canvas.” (Hailey, Miller, & Yenawine, 2013b, p. 53). MOMA staff continued to work with Housen and to develop a way of looking at art with their viewers. In 1991, the education staff initiated a pilot program with fifth- grade teachers in New York (Yenawine, 2013b). Using Housen’s research and methods, the program was successful and Visual Thinking Strategies grew out of this relationship. Housen and Yenawine decided to focus their attention on testing and implementation of VTS throughout the country’s diverse populations (Visual Thinking Strategies, n.d.). Over the next 20 years the school based VTS curriculum developed into progressive sets of lessons for kindergarten through fifth grade, building from one year to the next. The program structure consists of 10 one-hour lessons per year, with each lesson including three carefully curated images and accompanying teacher training in the development and implementation of VTS. Three core questions are used to facilitate the discussion: What’s going on in this image?, What do you see that makes you say that?, and What more can we find? Facilitators maneuver through conversations utilizing these questions. Students are asked to look silently at the image, and then the first question is posed: What’s going on in this image? After one student responds, the teacher paraphrases what the first student said and continues to pull out additional elements using conditional language such as “ Jonny thinks this could be…” to keep the conversation open to other interpretations. Then the facilitator asks the first student, What do you see that made you say that?, thereby allowing the student to respond with evidence of his or her findings. The facilitator then opens that conversation back up to the rest of the group.

37

This process is continued and as the conversation builds, the teacher links common concepts shared by students. The teacher remains neutral by paraphrasing comments, which creates an inclusive environment for students where they can safely share ideas. The teacher ends the conversation by thanking the group for contributing their ideas. In 1995 Yenawine and Housen formed a nonprofit organization, called Visual Understanding in Education (VUE), to support the research and development of their curriculum (Visual Thinking Strategies, n.d.). Through this nonprofit organization and the supporting research of Housen, VUE has been able to conduct extensive research while providing a strong backbone for their work (Burchenal & Grohe, 2007; De Santis & Housen, 1996; Housen, 2002). Yenawine (2013b) suggests that VTS helps students with language learning disabilities. As of yet, there is no research supporting his contention (P. Yenawine, personal communication, January 17, 2014). He has gone on to connect the importance of VTS discussion and the way it supports the Common Core Standards (CCS), recently introduced into national dialogue about standards in education. The Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts & Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, & Technical Subjects (CCSS-ELA) outlines seven areas for students who are college and career ready (NGA Center, 2010). The seven areas are, (1) being able to demonstrate independence; (2) building strong content knowledge; (3) responding to the varying demands of audience, task, purpose and discipline; (4) comprehending as well as critique; (5) valuing evidence; (6) using technology and digital media strategically and capably; and (7) coming to understand perspectives and cultures (NGA Center, 2010). Yenawine (2013a) sites specific goals of the CCSS-ELA that VTS addresses, such as having to “read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it” (para. 1). Yenawine explains that these facilitated

38 discussions can aid in achieving these new core goals in schools. (Yenawine, 2013a). Franco and Unrath (2014) go on to say that VTS in conjunction with meaningful art making, “permits our [visual arts] practice to support the standards in rich and powerful ways” (p. 32).

Stages of Aesthetic Development

In Dr. Abigail Housen’s (1983) dissertation, The Eye of the Beholder, she outlines the stages of aesthetic development. This work, which is fundamental to my own research into VTS, explains the different research methods and practices Housen used to develop these stages. It is the root of VTS. To better understand how or why VTS affects students with dyslexia, I have to follow the growth of VTS. Housen’s dissertation research developed her theory and without the dissertation VTS would just not exist. The learners experience, and not age, is the basis for Housen’s stage theory (Housen, 1999). Most viewers are at stage one or two (described below) and do not necessarily move up with age, but instead with exposure to artworks and discussions of them (DeSantis & Housen, 1996). Housen reveals five assumptions she had about aesthetics that she describes as originally naïve and intuitive, but later she understood in a more concrete way (Housen, 1999). Her assumptions were that naïve viewers would provide valuable clues and focus on real experience, rather than abstract generalizations related to artwork. She believed a constructivist approach would be the best guide to aesthetic appreciation, and she wanted to test her theories through the use of empirical research methods (Housen, 1999). These assumptions aided in the development of her methodology. She created an aesthetic development interview (ADI) where participants look at an image and were asked to talk about what they see (DeSantis & Housen, 1996). Through these stream-of-consciousness 39 interviews, where the interviewer did not have an influence on the discussion, Housen established her five stages of aesthetic development. As Housen (1983) describes, Stage 1 viewers, in her coined term, are accountive. They use storytelling when reflecting on an image, employing personal reflections to create a narrative around the work of art. Stage 1 viewers have an immediate response to what they see and could go into a spontaneous inventory of what is obvious to them (Housen, 1999). They often make meaning from an image, relying directly on their senses. Personal associations and emotions can color the comments and narrative as in this Stage 1 viewer’s comment on Cezanne’s The Bather (See Appendix A for image) "Like he's hurt [his arms] when he was swimming or like he was mad or something the way he was holding his arms" (Visual Thinking Strategies, n.d., para. 5). With rare exceptions, most students starting in the VTS curriculum will be in Stage 1. In Stage 2, viewers become more constructive. They use the world around them to form a structure of interpreting the work, bringing in their values, personal social surroundings, and their understanding of society. When the work does not fit within these constraints, they might find the work “weird” (Housen, 2002). Stage 2 viewers focus on building frameworks to make sense of what they see. Viewers can begin distancing themselves from the artwork while evolving remarks show interest in what art is, what an artist does, and what are the artist’s intentions (DeSantis & Housen, 1996). In these shifts, viewers move from idiosyncratic ideas to a broader cultural association, more detailed observations, concrete universal points of reference, and repeated observations (Housen, 1999). Viewers in Stage 3 will classify the work in canons of art history, working through where the work was made, who the artist was, and what style they used. The

40 viewer believes that by categorizing the work in these contexts they will properly reveal the meaning and message (DeSantis & Housen, 1996). Stage 3 viewers can become extremely interested in the artist’s personal history and how he or she fits into the art historical context. For example, in this viewers’ comment on Picasso’s Les Demoiselles D’Avignon (see Appendix A for image) he or she says, "It seems to me that this is one of a number of Picassos that really is very indicative of, of two of his styles that are blending, this sort of monumental style of female drawing and the later Cubist style which you see entering into it" (Visual Thinking Strategies, n.d., para. 3). Accounts can become complex and layered with information. Viewers feel that if they can classify the work, then it can be explained or rationalized. Viewers then become more interpretive. This change marks the move into Stage 4. Viewers want a personal experience with the work, and they allow for subtle differences in their interpretations as they dive further into spending time with the artwork. A difference from Stage 3 to 4 is feelings and intuitions of the viewer take precedent over historical context. The viewer’s previous art historical knowledge aids in these interpretations. He or she is then open to a reinterpretation of a familiar work of art. Few viewers ever move into Stage 5 where they become re-creative, building on their personal history of the work. Artworks can become like old friends, where re- evaluating the work calls for new interpretations mixed with that which seems universal. The changes the viewer experiences over time with one particular work of art can change and bring new realizations. The audience considers the artwork’s history, its travel and intricacies (Housen, 1999).

41

Effectiveness of VTS

Over the years many studies were conducted on the effectiveness of VTS within the classroom and with a museum/school partnership (Artful Citizenship, 2005; DeSantis & Housen, 2007; Housen, 2002; Institute for Learning Innovation, 2006). One of the first studies (Housen, 1994) was MOMA’s pilot program Visual Thinking Curriculum Study implemented from 1991-1994. VUE continued research through studies such as Thinking Through Art from The Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum/School Partnership Program conducted from 2003-2007 (Institute for Learning Innovation, 2006). The Artful Citizenship Project: Three-Year Project Report from 2005 conducted in Miami, Florida highlights findings that support the efficacy of VTS (Artful Citizenship, 2005). The study found that students who participated in the Artful Citizenship Project, which used VTS as its methodology, had significant higher growth rates in visual literacy in comparison to other groups of students who did not experience VTS. A strong relationship between growth in visual literacy and student achievement in both reading and mathematics occurred. The most potentially important outcome for dyslexic students’ socio and emotional impact was how the curriculum promoted good citizenship skills, cooperation, respect, and tolerance for the views of others. In addition, VTS supports the growth of evidentiary reasoning, or critical thinking skills. A study conducted in 1993 in Byron, Minnesota explored the development of critical thinking skills and their transfer in VTS (Housen, 2002). Housen worked with the site director, Catherine Egenberger, in a five-year longitudinal study (Housen, 2002). The results concluded that the three foundational questions of VTS sets up, prompts, and encourages deeper looking from its participants (Housen, 2002). The study found that there was transfer across social contexts and content (Housen, 2002).

42

The previous research on VTS frees my study to focus on specific areas of the curriculum or in my case a designated population, dyslexic students. The result of studies, such as that at The Isabelle Stewart Gardner, highlight areas with potential for further research. Focus can now shift to how VTS can support a selected population, such as dyslexic learners.

HOW WE LEARN

Rudolf Arnheim

Yenawine (2013b) named VTS after Rudolf Arnhiem’s 1969 book Visual Thinking. Arnhiem (1969) explored the relationship between perception and cognition. He argued that they cannot be separated. What is seen and heard is intertwined, and one's perception gets processed in thoughts. Babies hear and see what their parents are saying and learn to speak from example. As described through this process, people see the world around them and then processes it through language. Arnheim (1974) suggests that perception, thought, reason, intuition, observation, and invention are tied together and situated in sensory perception. This understanding of the outward world is a cognitive event, and when these actions are combined cause meaning making (Arnhiem, 1969). In Arnhiem’s (1969) argument, one cannot have cognitive operations without perception. Perceptions are the ingredients of thought, “visual perception is visual thought” (Arnheim, 1969, p. 14). Sight goes through the visual cortex of the brain and sound through the auditory cortex and gets translated into language (Yenawine, 2013b). To an infant, learning the difference between a ball and an orange could be very difficult. Early in our lives we learn the difference between objects, such as an orange and a ball, through examples and

43 our senses. Learning language through our speech is natural, reading through constructed symbols, letters, however, is an invention (Shaywitz, 1996). Being able to focus learning language through sight would fit into a dyslexic’s way of managing language more naturally.

Lev Vygotsky

In Thoughts and Language, Vygotsky (1962) explores the connection between speech and the development of mental concepts and cognitive awareness. Speech is considered to be both silent inner speech and oral language. The process of inner speech develops through outer speech. However, internalization of outer speech can become unrecognizable to outside perspectives. Wink and Putney (2002) expanded Vygotsky’s ideas through the notion of a Venn diagram, with thought existing in one circle and language in the other. Where the two concepts overlap, a verbal thought occurs. Thought and language come together to make meaning and this is called verbal thought. Yenawine (2013b) alludes to an unforeseen impact on VTS; this impact relates to Vygotsky’s idea that the combination of thought and perceptions is the process of meaning making. Yenawine (2013b) suggest that during a VTS discussion of a complicated image, a positive effect on writing could occur. In the beginning of a VTS discussion participants have inner thoughts about what they see in the picture. As these internal thoughts occur, externally different conversations between peers are happening around the same image. Participants go back and forth between thought and perception during the VTS discussion, thus constructing authentic meaning making. In addition, during a VTS discussion there is collaboration with peers. This collaboration is another tenet of Vygotsky’s (1978) theory, which he introduced in is final work Mind in Society.

44

Vygotsky scholars edited the unfinished work, Mind in Society (Vygotsky, 1978) to include critical essays by the psychologist on the idea of the human mind, and to understand the mind cannot exist in isolation from society. A significant outcome of the work, noted in Mind in Society (Vygotsky, 1978), is the introduction of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Vygotsky was not able to fully flesh out this notion before his premature death. Later scholars finalized the conceptions that Vygotsky laid out. Within the ZPD, students learn from their peer groups, their surroundings, and adult guidance to advance their potential developmental level. ZPD is the distance between a student’s actual developmental level in independent problem solving and the potential developmental level with guidance from capable peers (Vygotsky, 1978). The Zone of Proximal Development concept is important to my research, and it admittedly contributed to my initial interest in VTS as well. By seeing that in a VTS lesson, students are not learning just from the facilitator but more importantly from their group of peers, as a dyslexic I identified with this concept. The ideas, interpretations, and vocabulary are produced from peers and not disseminated by an expert. For dyslexic students, this is important for their self-concept within the social structure of a classroom. Through conversations with peers and hearing paraphrasing through the facilitator in conjunction with an image dyslexic’s are able to formulate and express a thought. As a result, the students find more ownership over the work. These ideas are what initially drew me into the VTS programs.

SUMMARY

Students with dyslexia require an IEP to learn how to thrive in their schooling. As non-traditional learning environments, museums can aid in this process with the help of museum partnerships utilizing VTS. As the literature suggests, VTS can improve not 45 only the socio-culture environment of dyslexic students, but also their cognitive learning through these partnership programs. The MFA has taken many steps to try and perfect their partnership program over the past two decades. The next chapter presents the history of the MFA’s VTS Partnership Program

46

Chapter 4: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston VTS Partnership Program

During my internship at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston in summer June 2014, I compiled a history of the VTS Partnership Program. I collected historical information through internal documents and personal communications with current and previous employees in the education department at the museum. The history in this chapter comes from those documents and personal communications1. The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston opened its doors on July 4, 1876 (Museum of Arts, n.d.). Originally in Copley Square, the museum housed 5,600 works of art. By 1909, the number of visitors had grown exponentially, and the museum moved to its current location on Huntington Avenue. Two major expansions over the past 15 years have provided more space for the now 450,000-piece collection. In 2010, the Art of the Americas wing opened with four new floors. In 2011, the west wing was transformed into the Linde Family Wing for Contemporary Art (Museum of Fine Arts, n.d.). From the very beginning, the MFA staff has been invested in educating the public and used its collections to achieve this goal (Museum of Fine Arts, n.d.).

The MFA offers a wide variety of educational programs for the public through the divisions of Studio and Community Arts programming, Gallery Learning, and School Programs and Teacher Resources. The Community and Studio Arts programs offer a variety of opportunities to make art in the museum and with the public. Gallery Learning

1 The current and former members of the MFA education staff who interviewed in the summer of 2014 Suzi Fonda—Manager of Teacher Programs and School Partnerships—July 15, 2014 Barbara Martin—Alfond Curator of Education—July 16, 2014 Judy Murray—Former Manager of the Gallery Instructors—July 17, 2014 Willamarie Moore—Head of School Programs & Teacher Resources—July 20, 2014 Sarah O’Leary—Assistant Manger of School Partnerships and Outreach Programs—July 22, 2014 and July 8, 2015 Tracy Rubin—Gallery Instructor—August 8, 2014 47 provides vast options of events and activities within the gallery walls. The School Programs and Teacher Resources help connect and support a broad range of school groups and teachers. Situated within School Programs are the school partnerships, where in-depth longer-term relationships occur with the city’s schools. The MFA has a variety of programs with different public and private schools.

HISTORY OF THE PARTNERSHIP PROGRAM WITH THE BOSTON PUBLIC SCHOOLS

The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and the Boston Public Schools (BPS) have collaborated for over 50 years with a variety of school partnership programs (From Then, 2000). The MFA’s relationships with the Boston Public Schools has taken different forms over the last 50 years, with the partnership taking more formal shape for the past 30 years. In 1985, the MFA education department, in conjunction with BPS fifth-grade teachers and administrators, formed a program called American Artist: Then and Now (Then and Now). Then and Now supported the then existing BPS curriculum goals in social studies regarding colonial American history, language arts, and visual art (From Then, 2000). As part of the Then and Now program, virtually every BPS school’s fifth grade would receive an in-class visit from the MFA’s Gallery Instructors (GI) and would also experience a museum visit (Report, 1999). Gallery Instructors are volunteers at the MFA who lead tours for the public. GIs have a long, rich history with the MFA and are integral to the education department. They go through rigorous training to ensure they are knowledgeable, comfortable, and fluent in educational standards and techniques (Museum of Fine Arts, n.d.)

48

INITIAL SHIFT TO THE THINKING THROUGH ART PARTNERSHIP MODEL

In the early 1990s, Margret Burchenal, then Head of School Programs and Resources at the MFA, Boston, became interested in the Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) curriculum. Her interest stemmed from the emphasis that VTS places on narratives and exploring pictures (J. Murray, personal communication, July 17, 2014). Burchenal knew about VTS through her friendship with Philip Yenawine, who was partners with Housen and the co-founder of Visual Thinking Strategies (B. Martin, personal communication, July 16, 2014). Burchenal wanted to expand the reach of the MFA’s collection beyond its use in the Then and Now program (J. Murray, personal communications, July 17, 2014). During the same time period, the Boston Public School District was shifting its focus to the development of critical thinking skills. The MFA and BPS were both having shifts that were, in some ways, coming into alignment. Results from a 1995 conversation between MFA education staff members and BPS teachers pointed to a need to revamp the partnership to meet new needs of teachers and students. The museum formed an advisory committee of Boston Public School fifth grade classroom and art teachers, BPS administrators, and MFA Department of Education staff. The committee set goals to (a) align the program with Boston’s new curriculum and pedagogical focus on critical thinking skills, and (b) provide more professional development for teachers (Report, 1999). Abigail Housen, co-founder of Visual Thinking Strategies, was asked to give a presentation to the committee about her research on aesthetic development (B. Martin, personal communication, July 16, 2014). At this time, Housen was conducting her research on developmental theory, and VTS as a curriculum was just taking shape. This presentation had an impact on members of the committee. Barbara Martin, the current Director of Education at the MFA, Boston, was a

49 member of the committee and described her experience of hearing Housen talk as a pivotal moment, that she felt connected to museum learning in a different way (B. Martin, personal communication, July 16, 2014).

THINKING THROUGH ART PARTNERSHIPS: 1996-2007

In 1996, based on the goals of creating a program that (a) increased access to the collection, (b) improved professional development for teachers, and (c) aligned with the BPS emphasis on critical thinking skills, the MFA created the Thinking Through Art partnership program (B. Martin, personal communication, July 17, 2014). This program included the following key components; (a) implementation of VTS lessons in the classroom, (b) a VTS tour at the museum, and (c) continued outreach by GIs. A goal of the education staff was to expand the use of the entire museum collection and not concentrate on the colonial period, which was the center of Then and Now (Report, 1999).

In the first year of the Thinking Through Art2 Program, self-selected fifth-grade teachers and GIs began professional development and implementation of the program. The VTS Partnership Program consisted of the following components (Report, 1999):

• Six starter lessons, five of which took place in the classroom and the last one at the museum,

• VTS professional development for teachers and GIs, along with critiques and reflection on implementation, and

• GI led classroom pre-visit lesson as well as VTS tour in the museum.

2 Current MFA staff and the education department website refer to this program as the VTS Partnership Program. Throughout the rest of this thesis, Thinking Through Art will be referred to the VTS Partnership Program. 50

In the first and second year of the new program, GIs could volunteer for the VTS training. However, by year three all GIs at the MFA were trained in VTS (S. Fonda, personal communication, July 15, 2014). The initial evaluations of the new program format were positive. Teachers and administrators thought that VTS was creating an authentic learning environment. In a report conducted by Visual Understanding in Education for the MFA’s education department in 1997-1998, teachers in the VTS Partnership Program expressed that similarities existed between the learning outcomes of the VTS Partnership Program and Boston Public School’s standards for learning (Report, 1999). Teachers also provided positive feedback on the format of professional development. Teachers said the debriefing after a VTS lesson and troubleshooting enabled time for reflection. The education department staff offered teacher and professional development workshops in conjunction with the VTS Partnership Program. The trainings provided a space for teachers to build paraphrasing, linking, and other skills connected to the implementation of VTS (Report, 1999). The curriculum, as described by teachers, was impacting students' abilities to examine, think about, and discuss art. It also was improving student thinking and communication skills, which they could apply to other subjects (Report, 1999). By the early 2000s, the VTS Partnership Program had adapted to VUE’s new VTS curriculum of 9 lessons and 27 slides (VTS Day 3 PPT, n.d.).

VTS THROUGHOUT THE MFA’S EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

VTS not only had an impact on the partnership program with the Boston Public Schools, but also with the larger School Program department at the MFA. Integration of VTS into the larger context of School Programs was not always as positive. Any school that was not involved in the VTS Partnership Program could sign up for a VTS tour. 51

Teachers at schools not involved in the program felt frustration with the tour style of VTS, however. VTS was an unfamiliar type of touring that focused on students experience with the artwork and did not provide the contextual information surrounding the work. The Gallery Instructors had an all-or-nothing response to this new curriculum: they were either fully captivated by the philosophy behind VTS or they completely rejected it (J. Murray, personal communication, July 17, 2014). GIs felt that the teachers' expectations were not being met on museum tours. In the Then and Now program, GIs had many more classrooms to visit, but in the shift to the VTS Partnership Program there were not as many classrooms visits. Some GIs missed being in the classroom and felt that new recruits to the program were missing out on that experience (T. Rubin, personal communication, August 8, 2014).

GOING TO GREATER DEPTH: THE PARTNERSHIP PROGRAM FROM 2007-2011

This partnership model, in which teachers and GIs opted into the program, ran from 1999-2007. The need for an in-depth look at the program emerged again in 2007, due in part to a lack of consistency among the schools involved from year to year (S. Fonda, personal communication, July 15, 2014). As with before, changes in the partnership program echoed transitions from VUE and their research around VTS curriculum implementation. At the same time, VUE was shifting to a whole-school model, where VTS would be used in every classroom, to help students to build a strong connection with VTS (Housen, 2002). Many relationships with the schools were hinged on one person, such as the principal. However, a principal could leave and, if the new principal did not want to continue with the VTS Partnership Program, then the partnership would not go on (S. 52

O’Leary, personal communication, July 22, 2014). Since schools were not returning year to year, the education staff thought they needed to shift their focus to a connection with entire grade levels in the schools and not individual teachers. It was not beneficial to concentrate on self-selected teachers. There was a need to create a deeper relationship with the entire school. The MFA, therefore, moved from individual teachers to grade cohorts at individual schools (Key Dates, 2015). In 2007, a VTS planning retreat occurred with other institutions in the surrounding area that were utilizing VTS (W. Moore, personal communication, July 20, 2014). Some of the other institutions at the retreat were part of the Boston VTS Consortium established in 2006 and included the Isabella Stewart Gardener Museum; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Davis Museum at Wellesley College; and VUE (Key Dates, 2015). The retreat provided collaborative time to work out problems in the VTS curriculum, enrich engagement with other professional groups, and explore opportunities to learn about how other museums had implemented the VTS curriculum (W. Moore, personal communication, July 20, 2014). The timing of the retreat was serendipitous because of the need for a change in the VTS Partnership Program, as perceived by the education staff. After the planning retreat, changes to the VTS Partnership Program occurred to help strengthen the program. The major changes were as follows:

• VTS-specific tours would only be offered to schools that were participating in the VTS Partnership Program (W. Moore, personal communication, July 20, 2014).

• Schools involved in the VTS Partnership Program included more than their fifth grade to cohort (S. Fonda, personal communication, July 15, 2014).

53

• Started an initiative to focus on research within the program, not only on how to improve school relationships, but also to include longitudinal studies of student progress.

Changes also occurred within the GI program (S. Fonda, personal communication, July 15, 2014). The changes were made in hopes of starting an institutional and philosophical transformation within the Gallery Instructor program. There was a new set of guidelines for GI recruitment, including the implementation of a 10-question rubric for interviewing applicants to the GI program in order to establish a consistency with each interview. The rubric aimed to identify individuals who were philosophically aligned with a constructivist teaching style, such as VTS (S. O’Leary, personal communication, July 8, 2015). VTS and Housen’s research methods on aesthetic stages also influenced the format of the interview itself through the Aesthetic Development Interview (ADI) (S. O’Leary, personal communication, July 8, 2015). In the interview process, some time was used for an ADI, which served the purpose seeing how individuals responded when asked to interact with art in an open-ended manner. After the ADI, the interviewee would be asked how the work of art could be used on a tour (S. Fonda, personal communication, July 15, 2014). A second change to the Gallery Instructor program addressed how GIs were trained in VTS. Rather than being mandatory, in-depth training in VTS was now optional (S. Fonda, personal communication, July 15, 2014). All GIs received an introduction to VTS as part of their initial training in the program. The GIs initial 16-week training introduced them to the entire touring program at the museum. During four of the sixteen weeks of training there was an introduction to VTS and its inquiry-based teaching model. After an introduction to VTS in the initial training, GIs could opt to receive formal

54 training in the methodology through participating in a weeklong institute (S. Fonda, personal communication, July 15, 2014). Emphasis was now on the facilitation skill of paraphrasing and linking in order to help GIs in their practice. Participation in this institute qualified GIs to lead VTS tours, and ensured that anyone leading such tours was someone who had elected to do so. After the changes to the program in 2007, there was a positive response from the schools, Gallery Instructors, and the education staff at the MFA (T. Rubin, personal communication, August, 8, 2014). Despite the positive feedback, there was still room for growth, as noted by both teachers and GIs. Even with shifts to the Gallery Instructor program, there was still some resistance from the GIs about using strict VTS on entire tours (T. Rubin, personal communication, August, 8, 2014). That said, improvements to school-based implementation had positive results at the museum. After conducting tours with the VTS Partnership Program schools, GIs changed their opinions. The success that GIs were seeing among students on the tours helped cause this shift (T. Rubin, personal communication, August, 8, 2014). The education staff thought that the VTS tours at the museum were more cohesive when they only offered VTS tours to partnership schools, instead of any school group (W. Moore, personal communication, July 20, 2014). Finally, strong bonds were created with the schools now that they had more than one or two grades involved (S. O’Leary, personal communication, July 22, 2014).

2011-PRESENT: STRENGTHENING THE WHOLE-SCHOOL PARTNERSHIP MODEL

In 2011, a review and recommendation committee consisting of volunteers from the GI Liaison program was formed (Gallery Instructor, 2013). The committee would help the education staff with yearly evaluations of all the GIs (S. Fonda, personal communication, July 15, 2014). Different themes and trends from the yearly reviews 55 would help form the GI’s professional development plan for the following year. This committee was set up to assist in the continuing improvement of the GI position. The teaching techniques used in VTS are important to the education department because they view its underlying philosophy as essential to any inquiry-based tour (S. O’Leary, personal communication, July, 8, 2015). Even as confidence in the VTS Partnership Program schools was growing, consistency from year to year was hard because of changes in the school system. Although the changes implemented in 2007 increased the program’s reach to more teachers and students, the partnership still proved to be vulnerable to staff transitions. This was because support for the partnership still often hinged on one person, rather than the entire community of the school (S. O’Leary, personal communication, July 22, 2014). The changes made in 2007 were essential to the success of the program, but as an ever- evolving institution, more changes needed to be made. In 2011, the VTS Partnership Program shifted again in (a) the recruitment of new partnership schools, (b) a formalization to the training of the schools’ teachers, and (c) methods for training the Gallery Instructor Liaisons. At that time Sarah O’Leary simultaneously worked for the MFA and VUE, which help keep the MFA connected to the shifts VUE was making in the VTS curriculum (S. O’Leary, personal communication,

July 22, 2014). Sarah O’Leary currently is the Assistant Manager of School Partnerships and Outreach Programs at the MFA. Her experience and her confidence in the curriculum and the VTS Partnership Program strengthened the partnerships with the schools. One setback to the growth of the program, however, was that the Assistant Manager of School Partnerships position was only halftime and the needs of the program were greater than the time allotted. Subsequently, the position was expanded to fulltime,

56 affording the opportunity to focus completely on the needs of the VTS Partnership Program (S. O’Leary, personal communication, July 22, 2014). With fiscal and time commitments from the education department for this position, the importance of growing the partnership programs was clear. In addition, the MFA began implementing VUE’s 3- year professional development schedule for teachers, thus increasing the quantity and quality of professional development (S. O’Leary, personal communication, July 8, 2015). With Sarah’s influence, one change that happened was in how the MFA would start a new VTS Partnership with a BPS school (S. Fonda, personal communication, July 15, 2014). Now emphasis would be placed on building a strong rapport with the entire school starting a year prior to implementation. In the new commitment, schools would agree to an initial three-year engagement and participation from the whole school (S. O’Leary, personal communication, July 22, 2014). This new level of commitment ensured that teachers received the professional development time needed to ensure understanding of VTS and improve their confidence in teaching the VTS curriculum. Training the entire staff also helped to form a joint language across the school in hopes of initiating a cultural shift. In 2012, the education department created an additional training for the liaison position that increased the preparation of the GIs working within the VTS Partnership schools’ classrooms (S. O’Leary, personal communication, July 8, 2015). The GI liaison position had existed since 2003. However, the new training would better prepare the GIs to go into the schools and prepare teachers in VTS (Gallery Instructor, 2013). The GI Liaisons would co-teach, shadow, and lead discussions to work with the teachers in their practice, in addition to giving the VTS tours back in the museum. Other GIs could give

57 tours in the museum, but a Gallery Instructor had to go through an additional training in order to become a liaison able to work in the schools. The education staff found that the new changes to the program were creating longer lasting relationships with VTS Partnership Program schools (S. O’Leary, personal communication, July 22, 2014). In 2011, there were three partner schools and by the 2014-2015 academic year there were six schools. The program has grown as large as it can given the staffing at the MFA (B. Martin, personal communication, July 16, 2014). The partnership is always evolving and the education department continues to look at areas to strengthen the program As of the summer of 2014, teachers were finding it challenging to fit VTS into their already overwhelming agendas and wanted to see more alignment with their own curriculum (S. O’Leary, personal communication, July 22, 2014). These changes would be a means to make it easier to fit the lessons into their classroom teaching. The MFA is focusing on image selection and curriculum alignment for the BPS standards. Museum staff express that this program is helping develop the museum audience of the future. The VTS Partnership Program is creating audience ownership of the museum, and developing a long-term impact in the Boston area (S. Fonda, personal communication, July 15, 2014). Given the history with VTS, consistent collaboration with VUE, and the pattern of evaluation and research, the MFA’s history and commitment to the VTS Partnership Program made it an ideal site to conduct this particular research study.

58

Chapter 5: Methodology

In undertaking qualitative research, the focus is on that which is human, rather than numbers (Creswell, 1994). My research question concentrates on the affects of Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) on students with dyslexia. It is important, therefore, for me to look at students holistically instead of as numbers, yet those living with a learning disability are continually being tested quantitatively in order to track their progress. As a result, these students often consider themselves as a test score, and not as a person. Focusing on such scores draws attention to the negative. To highlight the holistic encounters of the learning disabled community, I chose to conduct a qualitative case study of the Museum of Fine Arts Boston’s VTS Partnership Program. Within this qualitative study, the participants' voices, including students, teachers, and museums educators, are prioritized.

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODOLOGY

Elliot Eisner lays out six characteristics of qualitative research. In his definition, such research is (a) field-focused, (b) constructed so that the researcher is an instrument, (c) interpretive in nature, (d) inclusive of expressive language, (e) highly detailed, and (f) persuasive (as cited in Stokrocki, 1997). These six elements speak directly to my research method and clarify why qualitative research was the most appropriate choice for this study. My own educational narrative directly informs my research on this topic; I am an integral instrument in this research. Through my personal experiences with dyslexia and the background research I have done, I believe it is essential to highlight an individual not only as a learner, but also as a person in any educational system (Burns, 1982; Falk & Dierking, 1992, Falk & Dierking, 2000; Shaywitz, 1996). A learning disability does not

59 only affect the student's ability to learn, but also extends into all aspects of the student’s life. If research narrowly focuses on test scores, the nuances of an individual and their learning processes will remain unaccounted. My research into the MFA is qualitative in nature due to my overt interest in highlighting the participants’ experiences through their own observations. The study did not analyze the Visual Thinking Strategies curriculum itself, as many studies have already looked into the successes of the VTS curriculum (Artful Citizenship, 2005; DeSantis & Housen, 2007; Housen, 2002; Institute for Learning Innovation, 2006). The research method used for this study is case study, which grants a comprehensive look into the unique VTS Partnership Program and its participants (Yin, 1994).

CASE STUDY

When embarking upon a research project, researchers must consider the best practices by which they will be able to address the research question (Creswell, 1994). A case study considers a specific instance of social participation in the real world, understood in context, existing in the present day, and which is bounded by this context (Gillham, 2000; Merriam, 1998; Yin, 1994). Gillham (2000) stresses that it is essential to consider the participants of the study holistically and that seeking to understand the underlying reasons behind concepts is key to apprehending how a system survives. In coming to better know what someone is trying to do, it is first necessary to understand their world and how they behave, feel, and think while in it. In using a case study, the researcher is afforded an in-depth look into a bounded occurrence that can reflect a larger population (Gerring, 2007). Through analysis of a unique site’s details, looking into what has made that case a success or not, a researcher is able to broadcast these findings onto a wider arena. I looked not only into the students' 60 experiences with the MFA’s VTS Partnership Program, but also into the perspectives offered by teachers, GIs, and MFA education department staff members, with the goal of reaching a broader academic audience (Gerring, 2007; Yin 1994). The evidence collected is the base from which the research findings can be translated with meaning to a broader audience The collected results of a case study are of the greatest importance in the process of forming a theory about the study. Evidence is essential to case studies where the accumulated evidence is the basis for the theory (Gillham, 2000). There are different means of data collection: documents, records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts (Creswell, 1994; Gillham, 2000; Yin, 1994). Using multiple sources of evidence offers varied aggregated angles from which a researcher can determine what people say and do, what they produce, and what is said about them (Gillham, 2000). It can be easy for a researcher to look at the data and take what they want from the evidence, which makes it important to acknowledge the biases that one may carry from the outset (Cole & Knowles, 2001; Creswell, 1994; Gillham, 2000). Gillham (2001) acknowledges that in recognizing one's prejudices, the researcher can proceed to decenter herself. There are a number of ways to achieve this decentering: absorbing the culture, looking for discrepant data, triangulation and representativeness of data, asking oneself how I know things, checking one’s own ideas and explanations against those present among those in the culture, and through peer consultation. In order to decenter myself in my own research, I absorbed the culture at the MFA and the VTS Partnership Program, and triangulated the data. I also included a personal history of my educational experiences with dyslexia as background information, which presents my biases and prejudices with regards to the learning disabled community in public

61 education (see Chapter 2). By presenting these influences, I am more aware of what my presumptions are and thus better able to detach myself from the findings.

AUTOETHNOGRAPHY

As seen further in this chapter, I used common data gathering methods associated with case study. Yet, there is an element of autoethnography that informs my research overall, but especially the background to it as I discussed in Chapter 2. Although my research is a case study, the autoethnographic element is important to discuss here even though it as not a part of the data gathering. Because my research is so strongly an outcome of my experience with dyslexia, my personal history affects data analysis and is a bias that as a researcher I must make transparent. Moreover, my experience with dyslexia is the starting point of this research. It was my fight with dyslexia and the school system that brought me to museum education and, as a result, it seemed most appropriate to focus my studies on the issues that brought me here. I have used autoethnography to employ myself as a starting or vantage point from which I could explore broader sociocultural elements and constructs (Cole & Knowles, 2001). I have not experienced the VTS program, but I do know what it feels like to go through an inner-city public school living as a student with dyslexia, and the struggles and burdens that exist in those systems. As Cole and Knowles (2001) address in their work, it is essential as a researcher to understand where my epistemological assumptions stem from and use that self- awareness as a guide throughout my research. In order to maintain the long-term commitment required to do research of this kind, I am pursuing a vested interest in art education and learning disabilities. I carry my beliefs, values, and perspectives as a dyslexic student with me in this process, as much as any other researcher who might not 62 be prepared to admit that they too approach their study with a set of assumptions. However, I am aware of these and am committed to reflecting on how they accompany me in this research. In terms of objectivity, improving my understanding of my own history and the obstacles to my research that may arise as a result, I can better comprehend the experiences explored by my participants (Cole & Knowles, 2001).

SELECTING THE SITE AND PARTICIPANTS

This study sought what Merriam (1998) describes as a purposeful sampling to gain insight into what effects VTS had on reading-disabled students. My choice of the MFA’s VTS Partnership Program came in large part due to their long history with VTS and their demonstrated commitment to the curriculum. After undertaking an initial inquiry into the program and its history, it became apparent that a case study would best highlight the complex program, and that case study with semi-structured interviews was the best tool to allow for the inclusion of participant perspectives. As Stokrocki (1997) describes about qualitative research, “it is a search for an understanding of an idiosyncratic, complex case” (p. 35). In my qualitative research, I choose a case study to dissect a unique situation (Merriam, 1998) in hopes of later translating the findings to a broader field. After selecting the MFA’s program, it was necessary to narrow my population sample (Merriam, 1998; Yin, 1994). The target population for this study was a group of students with dyslexia who have participated in the VTS Partnership Program for three years. I chose the Josiah Quincy Elementary School in the Chinatown neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts because of its history and long-time commitment to the MFA VTS Partnership Program. Prior to starting data collection, I received approval from The University of Texas at Austin’s Internal Review Board and the Boston Public Schools 63

Office of Research, Assessment, and Evaluation (Appendix B). In addition, I received signed site agreement letters from the education department at the MFA and from the principal of the Josiah Quincy Elementary School (Appendix B). Unfortunately, it was difficult to find students diagnosed specifically with dyslexia. In the Boston Public Schools, instead of diagnosing and/or labeling students with dyslexia, schools test student to identify specific skill deficiencies that students may present and treat, such as decoding (E. Wong, personal communication, July 2, 2014). The Massachusetts State Department of Education requires that all students who are in possible need of special education or related services should receive testing (The Federation, 2001). However, they do not label students specifically with dyslexia. One label that Massachusetts does provide for students who have been tested for special education is Specific Learning Disability (SLD) (Federation, 2001). Dyslexia, as well as other disabilities connected to understanding or usage of language, spoken or written, fall under the SLD category (Department of Education, 2012). As a result, teachers know which students have been tested for special education, but do not know from BPS personnel if a student specifically has dyslexia. Moreover, the school could not provide me with personal information about students, such as whether or not the student was identified as SLD and, therefore, also has an IEP. Providing me such information would violate student privacy laws. This posed a challenge to answering my research question, which was focused on dyslexia. Instead of asking the school to identify students with dyslexia, I requested in the cover letter accompanying the consent form the fifth-grade teachers sent home to parents, that they self-select their children for this study. I did not, however, require the parent to overtly

64 reveal their child has dyslexia. It is, therefore, plausible to surmise that the students I interviewed were dyslexic, but I cannot know this with certainty. I interviewed students, Quincy teachers, Gallery Instructors, Gallery Instructor Liaisons, and professionals from the MFA education department as participants of the study. I spoke with two fifth-grade teachers, one fourth-grade teacher, and three fifth- graders from the Josiah Quincy Elementary School. I choose to work with upper elementary schools because these grades included students with the most advanced language skills. The Quincy teachers sent letters of intent and consent forms home with students. After parents had agreed to have their children participate in the study, they returned the parental consent forms (Appendix C). When I sat down with the students who had parental consent, the students then signed assent forms acknowledging that they had chosen to participate in the study (Appendix C). I also talked to three MFA Gallery Instructor Liaisons, one Gallery Instructor with a background in psycholinguistics, and Sarah O’Leary, who worked in the MFA education department as the Assistant Manager of School Partnerships and Outreach Programs. Sarah O’Leary introduced me to a number of GI Liaisons who she felt would be good matches for this research, based on the time they have been in the program and the schools where they had done their work. O’Leary also connected me with one particular GI who possessed a strong history with VTS and psycholinguistics. Teachers and all participants from the MFA signed consent forms (Appendix C). In a gesture of reciprocity to my participants, I provided each of them with a short autoethnography of my own struggles with dyslexia in the school system in order to show my personal investment in this subject and research.

65

DATA COLLECTION

In beginning to try and understand another person's experience, it is best to engage in a conversation (Merriam, 1998). In qualitative research, an interview is considered to be a “conversation with a purpose” (Dexter, 1970, p.136). Interviews proved to be a crucial type of data collection in this research, and were supplemented by observations, pertinent documents, and a field notebook. Each interview utilized a semi-structured approach, designed specifically for this project (Appendix D). The interviews all started with some basic questions about the participant’s experience with the VTS program, but were eventually opened up for broader, open-ended questioning (Merriam, 1998). The semi-structured interview in its best form can seem “natural,” and this flexibility makes it a very productive research tool (Gillham, 2000). As Pinnegar and Daynes (2007) point out, “the story is one if not the fundamental unit that accounts for human experience” (p. 4). In my goal of giving authority back to the participants, I used a semi-structured interview to provide space for their accounts of time spent in the VTS Partnership Program. Education and educational research needs to focus on the personal and social stories of not only the learners, but also the teachers and researchers, as well as the stories they tell to help explain how all of these people interact with one another (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). This is why I interviewed not only Quincy students, but also Quincy teachers, as well as Gallery Instructors and MFA education staff members involved in the VTS Partnership Program. Together with the interviews, I also used a field notebook to record my observations of the VTS Partnership Program (Yin, 1994). In this notebook, I would record my observations of the atmosphere of the school, interviewee reactions during our conversation, teacher and student actions in the classroom, and details of the

66 environmental ambiance. I also used this notebook to keep track of any thoughts or insights that arose while I analyzed the data. Field notes are essential to case study research because they document the researchers’ initial thoughts and observations at the time of observations, data collection, and data analysis (Gillham, 2000). Documents from the MFA were the final form of data I collected. The use of documents in this study as Gillham (2000) describes provided a “formal framework” to which I could relate the “informal reality.” (p. 21) The documents aided in my triangulation of observations and anecdotes from the participants. I collected VTS curriculum descriptions, VTS Partnership Program training materials, and data from internal research conducted by the MFA. Triangulation provides a rationale for using multiple sources to validate research data (Yin, 1994). Triangulation offers credibility to all qualitative studies, including this research (Creswell, 1994; Gillham, 2000; Merriam, 1998; Yin, 1994). When using triangulation through multiple data sources, the conclusion of the study is more likely to be accurate than if all the data came from one source (Yin, 1994). Although the interviews were my primary data source, in analyzing them I sought corroboration from documents and my field notebook. Finally, this study includes an overt admission of my bias as a researcher, which provides transparency and strengthens the validity of the data.

DATA ANALYSIS

In coding data, Yin (1994) encourages the researcher to use a theoretical proposition analysis that structures the data by aligning it with the theoretical perspectives laid out in the initial research for the study. As was stated in my research question, I investigated four pertinent areas to dyslexic students’ academic successes— student engagement, critical thinking, language skills, and social skills. 67

The various theoretical structures described in my literature review that influence my data analysis come from Ryan’s (1991) theories regarding the effects of the sociocultural setting on dyslexic students, Shaywitz’s (1996) descriptions of dyslexic language processing, Vygotsky’s (1962, 1978) sociolinguistic learning theories, and the perspectives of Yenawine (2013b) and Housen (1983) on their development of the Visual Thinking Strategies curriculum. These theories, collectively, were essential to the design of my case study and are reflected in the data analysis. After I completed the data collection, I transcribed the interviews from the audio recordings. Gillham (2000) emphasizes the importance of transcribing interviews because it is not possible to properly analyze the interview from just listening to a recording. I then proceeded with content analysis of my transcriptions, documents, and field notebook (Gillham, 2000). The four areas from my research question became my four imposed codes (Grbich, 2012). I then counted instances of these codes appearing in my data in order to establish which codes emerged the most. In conjunction with my imposed codes, my use of triangulation prevented me from reading into the data what I wanted to find in the results (Yin, 1994).

CHAPTER SUMMERY

In summary, this case study on the effects on dyslexic students of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston’s Visual Thinking Strategies Partnership Program utilized a case study methodology that has enabled the research to highlight the learner in a holistic fashion. I utilized autoethnography as background information to the study and as a means to confront my biases as a researcher. I engaged thorough explorations of the participants' experiences through interviews to highlight their voices. The following chapter explores

68 the results of my research and serves as a testament to the variety of perspectives and types of data employed in this study.

69

Chapter 6: Data Collection

NARROWING THE FIELD

Unknowingly, my search for a site to conduct this research began at a lecture in January 2014 on The University of Texas at Austin campus. Phillip Yenawine, co-creator of Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS), came to speak at the Blanton Museum of Art, and the education department staff at the Blanton invited my graduate class to a small group discussion with Yenawine. At the time I knew I wanted my research to integrate dyslexia and museum education, but I was not sure what would be the best vehicle for implementing this study. An hour into hearing Yenawine talk about his journey with VTS and the benefits he saw in the program, I began to see how VTS aligned with my beliefs on education and dyslexia. Yenawine described how teachers noticed that students who do not generally participate in class, spoke up in VTS discussions in which the emphasis is on neutrality in the paraphrasing, and where the subject is a visual topic, rather than one that is written. Not only could I start to see the benefits to language skills of VTS, but also the social implications of it for all students. As someone who does not like to speak up in an unfamiliar group of people, I began to take notes to formulate a question I felt I needed to ask Yenawine. I got up the courage and asked if he felt VTS benefitted students with language or reading processing disabilities. Yenawine mentioned that based on observations and information reported by teachers, he believed that there was considerable potential. No official study, however, had been conducted to confirm these assumptions. Since we were approaching the end of our time together, Yenawine said he would be happy to discuss this more with me after the meeting.

70

After talking briefly and exchanging email addresses Yenawine said he would be pleased to hear more of my thoughts. I began communicating with Philip Yenawine and described my interest in VTS and dyslexia. He encouraged me to continue with further investigation of this topic and offered his support. Later that semester at the National Art Education Association Conference in San Diego, I received an email from Sarah O’Leary of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (MFA), who works with the museum’s VTS Partnership Program. Yenawine had given her my email address and explained my interest in the program. After hearing Yenawine talk passionately about VTS and Sarah speak highly of the MFA’s VTS Partnership Program, I knew I had found my research site. I spent the summer of 2014 interning with Sarah at the MFA. While at the museum, I trained in the facilitation of VTS and became familiar with the details of the VTS Partnership Program. As part of my internship, I spent the summer informally interviewing current and previous staff from the education department at the MFA. In these interviews, we discussed the beginnings of the VTS Partnership Program and the different changes that had occurred during its tenure (See Chapter 4). At the end of the summer, I was awaiting approval from the Boston Public School’s research office to conduct my study. Instead of pursuing my on-site research in the fall of 2014, I returned two separate times to Boston, January 4-15 and January 31- February 5, 2015, to conduct my official data collection.

Interviews with Gallery Instructor Liaisons and Gallery Instructors

When I returned to Boston the first time I began my data collection by interviewing the Gallery Instructor Liaisons from the MFA. I spoke with three Gallery Instructor (GI) Liaisons and one Gallery Instructor. The GI Liaisons are an integral part 71 of the MFA education department and the VTS Partnership Program. All three GI Liaisons have gone through the same VTS training as other GIs who give VTS tours. They have also received further training to become a GI Liaison for the VTS Partnership Program and work with the teachers in the classrooms (see Chapter 4). I met with Alice, Patti, and Rebecca to discuss their involvement in the partnership program. Alice was born in Peru, and Spanish is her first language. She works with the Joseph Hurley K-8 School (Hurley) in their bilingual classrooms. Patti also works with the Hurley School, where she focuses on the English- speaking classes. Patti has been working with VTS for over 13 years. She began her VTS training at The Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, which is part of the VTS Consortium as mentioned in Chapter 4. Patti still volunteered with the Gardner in addition to the MFA at the time of our interview. She joined the MFA as a GI Liaison to work in the schools and with the students in the classroom. I also interviewed Rebecca, who works with the Josiah Quincy Elementary School (Quincy). Rebecca has an undergraduate degree in psychology and a master’s degree in creative arts and learning from Lesley College. She has a longstanding interest in how viewers learn and grow from art. I also spoke with one GI, Erin3, who has a strong background in language learning disorders. Erin has a doctorate in psycholinguistics and is a clinical speech and language pathologist. Erin has conducted research, owned a private practice, and taught at various institutions. When Erin decided to close her private practice, a good friend of hers who

3 Erin is a pseudonym for the participant who wished not to be identified. All other GI and MFA staff members agreed to have their real names used in this study. 72 was a Gallery Instructor at the MFA encouraged her to apply for the GI position. In 2010, Erin began volunteering as a GI for the MFA. Erin received VTS training through the MFA’s GI training, met the founders of VTS on multiple occasions, and has been to a variety of lectures on VTS. Erin has even been asked to speak to the Gallery Instructors on the development of narrative strategies in children, and how those strategies may relate to the different ways children talk about paintings. Even though Erin does not work within the classrooms as a GI Liaison, she does give VTS tours at the MFA, and her expertise in psycholinguistics was integral to this study.

Josiah Quincy Elementary School

In the 2014-2015 school year, the MFA worked with six different schools: Margarita Muniz Academy, Samuel Adams Elementary School, East Boston Early Education Center, Blackstone Innovation School, Joseph Hurley K-8 School, and Josiah Quincy Elementary School. Each school committed to the Partnership with a three-year guarantee of partnership. To narrow the scope of my research, I choose to focus on one school that had an established partnership with the MFA, so that students and teachers have had time to become familiar with the program With the permission of principal, Simon Ho (see appendix B), I chose as my site the Josiah Quincy Elementary School, which is one of only two schools in their third year of partnership with the MFA. The Josiah Quincy Elementary School is located in the Chinatown neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts. The Chinatown area is surrounded by the Boston Commons, Downtown Crossing, the South End, and borders the Massachusetts Turnpike.

73

I visited the Quincy School for the first time on January 9, 2015. It was frigid, one of the coldest days of winter, with highs in the teens. I drove around, following my GPS through the streets of Chinatown to get a feel for the neighborhood. As I entered the vicinity of the school, I noticed that the street signs were written in both English and Chinese. I knew I was close as I began to see school road signs. When my GPS told me that I had arrived, I looked around and saw a pair of conjoining tan brick buildings that reminded me of 1970s architecture. One of the buildings, which I took to be the school, turned out to be the Chinatown Neighborhood Center (BCNC). BCNC is over 40 years old and primarily serves the immigrant Chinese community in Boston. Among the signs for the community center, I noticed a sign for the Josiah Quincy Elementary School, “Entrance on the corner of Oak and Washington St.” I walked around the block and finally found the entrance. Through the glass doors and down the hallway are two yellow doors. Next to the doors is the buzzer that marks the entrance to the school. After being buzzed in, I found myself in the central office. The main office is a busy place, with teachers walking around making copies, coming in and out of meetings, or finding their name along the big wall of mailboxes. In the back of the office, low to the ground, is a round table with a few chairs placed around it. When I walked in, a student was sitting at the table waiting for an adult. At first, I was confused about where I should check in, though I knew to sign in on the visitors log at the front desk. Many adults walked by without questioning why I was there. It was a busy day at the beginning of January. Students and teachers had only been back a week from their winter break and were still settling in. The school secretary finally asked who I was there to meet, and I told him the fifth-grade teachers were

74 expecting me, and that I would also like to speak with the principal. After I had finished signing in, I waited at the small round table where the student had been sitting. As I waited, I noticed a variety of posters in English and Chinese. I saw a plaque detailing the history of the school. The name of the school came from the second mayor of Boston, Josiah Quincy III (Josiah Quincy Elementary School, n.d.). The old Quincy School was built in 1847. In the 1970s, two schools were combined and relocated to the current building, and the Josiah Quincy Elementary School opened its doors in 1976. At the time, buses brought in students from a mixture of different neighborhoods, making for an ethnically and racially diverse student body (Josiah Quincy Elementary School, n.d.). Previously students were required to go to school in their neighborhoods, which resulted in many schools having one race. The school is still ethnically diverse. More than 50% of the student population is Asian, which correlates to the location of the school (Boston Public School, 2015). However, the rest of the population includes a variety of ethnicities. The total enrollment for the 2014-2015 academic year was 802; 16.2% African American, 15.5% Hispanic, 7.9% White, 56.7% Asian, and 3.7% Multi-Race/Non-Hispanic (Boston Public School, 2015). When it was time for me to meet with the teachers, I headed upstairs to the fifth- grade “pod” to introduce myself. Pods are sections of the building dedicated to one grade level. Within the pod, four walls do not surround the classrooms. Instead, at least one wall is open to the entire pod, creating a communal environment. I went up two flights of stairs and exited on the third floor. The fifth-grade students were heading out to lunch and “specials” (art, music, physical education, etc.) so there were few students left collecting their belongings from the freestanding closets and cubbies located in the common

75 hallway area. On February 4, 2015, I again visited the fourth and fifth grades while students were in the pod. On that day, all the classrooms were taking part in different activities including silent working, group activities, and discussions. The pod and classrooms are colorful and bright. In one corner of a classroom, there was a green, papier-mâché dinosaur. The pods were both quiet and loud, with one class working silently as another held a lively discussion. Not having four walls did not seem to distract students as much as I had expected.

Josiah Quincy Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Teachers

I interviewed one fourth- and three fifth-grade Quincy teachers. I wanted to work with the older grades that had students who were old enough to be able to reflect on their experiences. I talked with Ms. A4, who teaches fourth grade. Ms. A has worked with VTS for over 12 years. Ms. A received VTS training initially at her previous school. When that school closed, she was transferred to Quincy. In Ms. A’s first year at Quincy, the school was not a part of the VTS Partnership Program. Ms. A was excited when Quincy became involved with the MFA during her second year because she knew of the effectiveness of the program. Throughout her first year at Quincy, Mrs. A had incorporated its approaches into her teaching in a range of subjects. I also spoke with Ms. B, a fifth-grade honors teacher at Quincy, who has been teaching there for over 25 years. She has a strong presence in the classroom and a solid reputation among the other teachers in her pod. After our interview on January 9, 2015, Ms. B invited me to present my research project to the rest of the 5th-grade teachers at their weekly meeting. It was clear that the other teachers, many of whom were young and new to the school, looked up to Ms. B.

4 All teachers and students in this research were given pseudonyms. 76

Finally, I spoke with Ms. C. The 2014-2015 school year was her first year teaching in the fifth grade, but she has been with the Quincy School for over 13 years. The three years prior to teaching fifth grade, Ms. C was a special education teacher, and before that, she taught fourth grade. The 2014-2015 school year was also Ms. C’s first time teaching VTS. She had been introduced to the VTS curriculum through professional development workshops with the MFA, but had never conducted the curriculum in her special education classrooms. While working in special education, Ms. C would meet with small groups of students with Individual Education Plans. Since Ms. C had limited time with her students, she was unable to incorporate VTS into her daily teaching until she started teaching fifth grade. Ms. C admits that she was skeptical at first, thinking students would not sit in front of an artwork for an extended period and talk about the art. Ms. C changed her opinion after her first lesson with the students. She talked about her students “that are a little bit more shy and, you know, introverts. They were branching out and really pulling apart the pieces…. From the first time I did the first lesson, I was instantly sold on it.”

Josiah Quincy Fifth-Grade Students

When I returned to the school on my second research trip to Boston on February 4, 2015, I spoke with three students in the fifth grade; Sam, Amy, and Emily, who have all been at Quincy since they were in kindergarten. I sat down with the three of them around a table in the hallway of the pod as they ate their lunches. It had been snowing on and off for a week with a record-breaking depth of snowfall in Boston. Boston Public Schools were canceled more often than not when I was in Boston from January 31 to February 5. I had planned to speak with four students, but one girl, whose parents had given me permission to talk with her, ultimately chose not to participate. 77

Sam volunteered to talk with me first. Sam and I went to a table down the hallway where it was a little quieter. Sam was a cheerful, energetic, African American, male fifth grader. He told me about the different games he played in the snow over the weekend with his friends. Sam warned me that his handwriting might be hard to see on the permission form, and then signed it. I reassured him that I have always had atrocious handwriting as well. We laughed. Sam told me that math is his favorite subject, but he also finds it difficult. He has a hard time with reading. He seemed very concerned with proving to his teachers that he knows what he is talking about. He loves VTS and wonders what other schools use it. He wanted to know if they only use it in Boston, or whether it is also used in Texas, where I live. After our interview, Sam returned to the table where the children were eating their lunches. Next I spoke with Amy who joined me at the table down the hallway. She was talkative as well. She bantered back and forth with Sam a lot. I thought at first they were good friends, but when I sat down alone with Amy I found out that Sam is her brother. Amy is an African American, female fifth grader who thinks a lot before she answers questions. She likes to participate in class, and art is one of her favorite subjects. She told me about the clubs they have at school. She is in the Chinese dance club, and she seemed excited about an upcoming performance at the Chinese New Year show. At first Amy said that she does not have any subject in school that she finds difficult, but quickly she started to backtrack. Her mood shifted, and she put her head down as she thought. I did not push her to reveal what she was thinking. At the end of our conversation, Amy asked me if there are real big differences between the pictures in Texas and the pictures in Boston. I was confused initially, until I figure out that she was referring to pictures in art museums. I told her that the images she sees in VTS were the same, in all states, and I

78 then explained a little bit about the museums in Texas, but also how lucky she is to be near the MFA. After Amy and Sam were finished with their interviews, they ask if they could join the rest of their classmates because it was almost time for gym. They packed up their lunch and headed downstairs. Emily and her classmate were still eating. I asked Emily if she would like to go next. Emily is an Asian, female who had been much quieter than the other students. She mostly kept to herself while she ate, and only occasionally spoke to the classmate next to her. When we began the interview, she perked up a little. Emily remembered many of the images that she saw in class and at the museum. Emily said she liked to tell her peers what she likes and sees in the pictures. She also told me she thinks about what might happen next to create a narrative around the images. Emily said she liked school, but it was even better when they started doing VTS. Emily said one of her favorite subjects in school is “clubs,” especially cooking club where they get to make different types of food. Emily was very curious about where the information from our interview would be used. I explained to her again that I am working on research for my master’s thesis. She was curious about how many people I have to interview. She thought maybe 100 different people, and I told her “no, more like 15.” She was shocked when she found out that I might have to write 100 pages on the research. After completing the interviews, I immersed myself in the data. The substance of the interviews from the GI, GI Liaisons, teachers, and fifth-grade students appears in the next sections of this chapter. The rest of this chapter is organized by the order of the frequency my themes appeared in the data from the greatest to the least frequent. The details of the themes are discussed in the next section.

79

DATA

In reviewing my data (interviews, field notes, and documents from the MFA), I combed through identifying and coding different areas that pertained to the four themes laid out in the research question: student engagement, critical thinking, language skills, and social skills.

• Student Engagement—Student Engagement is shown through social, intellectual, and emotional engagement. To measure social engagement, it is important to look at how students work together. For intellectual engagement it is necessary to consider what students’ interest level are and how engaged they were in different subjects and course work. Finally, students’ emotional engagement skills are measured by what options of support they have through a variety of activities.

• Critical Thinking—Critical thinking is described by a student’s ability to gather and synthesize information, and then use that information to support opinions. These skills are evaluated from a variety of tasks, such as class discussions, written expression, and art making within the classroom.

• Language Skills—Language skills are different techniques used in language acquisition. These skills arise around the four main areas of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The combinations of these skills are needed for reading and listening comprehension, decoding, spelling, and written expression.

• Social Skills—Social skills are those used to communicate and interact with one another through verbal and non-verbal gestures. It is imperative to incorporate these skills in a student’s education to create opportunities to develop a positive academic and social self-concept, and for social integration.

80

When I read through the transcriptions of my interviews, I consistently looked at the data for these four themes. I identified different quotes from each participant that supported student engagement critical thinking, language skills, or social skills. I also excavated my field notebook and the documents from the MFA for the same themes.

Student Engagement

School can be a scary place, and creating an environment that is safe for students to explore ideas and learning is essential. All the students expressed an eagerness to participate in VTS discussions, all the teachers described the level of comfort enabled for the students through VTS facilitation, and three of the Gallery Instructors were able to observe this environment in their work. My interview with Erin and Sarah from the MFA highlighted student engagement in learning disabled students. While interviewing Amy, one of the fifth-grade students, she explained that some of her favorite parts of VTS are “describing what I see in the picture and looking at the paintings. Just thinking about what was happening in them as well.” Amy brought up engaging with the artwork and her classmates six more times in our interview. In those six instances, Amy discussed memories she had of conversations in front of art with her peers and the VTS facilitators, as well as how she felt when her peers contributed to the conversation. We then went on to talk about her perceptions of how the VTS discussions had changed over the past three years that she had participated. Amy said that “NOW [she] understand[s] the photos more and [I] have more ideas about what is going on in the image.” I asked if she participates in the discussions, and she enthusiastically responded, “A LOT!” I was curious if Amy contributed to discussions in her other classes. Amy let me know that she does like to participate in class, but she does it “a lot, a lot” in VTS. I 81 asked, “A lot, a lot? How it is when you hear other students who have a similar idea to yours?” Amy said she felt frustrated, but it is okay because she still has more things to say. For Amy, the openness of VTS means that she does not get angry with her classmates because there is so much she can say about the artwork. Emily also said that she likes to share with her peers her thoughts about the artwork during VTS discussions: “I like telling them what I like and what I see and… sharing what I see and what I think.” Since Emily enjoys sharing during VTS she is willing to participate in the discussion. We did not discuss how often Emily contributes to the class in or outside of VTS. Emily primarily mentioned her memories of the images during the rest of the interview. However, she did go on to explain that the focus is different with a painting than it is when her teachers are writing on the board. When I asked Sam what his favorite part of VTS was, he explained why he likes sharing his ideas:

Saying what you think is what you see. Like if you see, for instance, you say you see a dog in the corner, they do not say, “oh that is wrong”…and I like to explain, show that I know what I am talking about.

Sam was aware that the facilitator is not going to judge if his answer is correct or incorrect, and he felt a freedom in expressing his opinion as a result. Sam and I were discussing the differences between school before and after VTS was introduced to Quincy. At first it was hard for him to think about what it was like before VTS; he would have been in second grade. However, after some time he started to explain how he remembered they would be “just focusing on that one thing, but then I was always happy when VTS came because I always wanted to participate.” Sam confirmed that he raised his hand a lot because he wanted to take part in VTS. I followed

82 up with Sam to find out if this was true in other subjects or at other times of the school day. Sam simply said “No.” Earlier in the conversation with Sam, I asked for some of his memories of VTS discussions. Sam said, “I remember there was a lot of free, a lot of free things. What you think the picture was about, and there was no wrong, right or wrong answer. It is just what you see.” This was the first memory Sam has of the discussions. Not what images he saw, or in what grade levels he participated in the VTS Partnership, but rather the freedom VTS gave him. When Sam says that he feels “free” in the VTS discussion because he can share ideas without the threat of being right or wrong, this could be indicative of his increased confidence and desire to engage in the lesson. In my interview with Ms. C, she mentioned student engagement seven separate times. The first time it came up was when Ms. C recounted her first experience teaching with VTS:

I was a little skeptical at first, but then I did the first lesson and it was amazing! I think it is because it is their third year; they are used to it. But even some of my students that are a little bit more shy and introverted, were branching out and really pulling apart the pieces.

Ms. C did not elaborate on why she thinks her shy students participated. Initially, Ms. C spoke of her unease with the VTS curriculum, until she noticed that her shyer students were “branching out and pulling apart” the artwork, an observation that changed her mind about the program. It was through the students’ engagement that Ms. C began to appreciate the VTS curriculum. When I asked what some of the advantages of VTS were for her students, Ms. C. responded that VTS,

holds them accountable for their thinking. [It] gives them a different venue to use the classroom strategies. They are so used to having to read and then write. Now 83

they can look and explain verbally. They are using the same comprehension strategies, but just in a different form. Student engagement involves a variety of forms from listening and speaking to engaging with peers, the teacher, and the classroom. Ms. C was noticing how students can engage through these different forms of communication. Ms. B only talked about student engagement on three separate occasions. I asked Ms. B if she saw any differences with students when conducting VTS instruction compared to other strategies she used during the class day. She explained, “I think that when we present [students] with an image, they are keen to share their ideas. From year one to year three I have seen a more substantial response to the images.” I wanted to know about the advantages Ms. B sees to having the VTS program school wide for several years. She explained that “the quality of the responses is richer. The level of participation is higher from the get-go.” In my interview with Ms. B, I was curious what her students’ behavior is like during the VTS discussions. She said, “They are engaged for sure; I mean my class is different in the sense that it is the honors class, and so they are highly motivated students, so they are always also very curious students.” Ms. B said she had a hard time speaking to the effects on students with learning disabilities since she teaches the honors classes in fifth grade and believes they do not have learning disabilities. All the teachers I interviewed expressed how VTS promotes student engagement, but Ms. B did so the least. Ms. A, however, had the most to say. She discussed how VTS helped a wide array of students, including those with IEPs or with reading deficiencies. When I interviewed Ms. A, there were 16 separate instances when she mentioned that she observed student engagement with VTS. I asked Ms. A if she saw a difference between students prior to the inclusion of VTS compared to after it was implemented in 84 the classroom. She said that students who had gone through the program were more comfortable taking risks and sharing aloud. Ms. A stated:

Yes, the very first year it was all very new to everybody, but the more that you did the slides and continue with the questioning you can see how students…were building vocabulary. Students felt more comfortable taking a risk and sharing aloud. Then students were able to build on each other’s ideas and learn to respectfully agree or disagree, and state why.

I then asked Ms. A if she noticed any particular effects of the VTS discussion or using VTS in other subjects on students with reading deficiencies or processing disorders. Ms. A said that students with reading deficiencies “feel comfortable in participating and sharing. They know that as long as they can provide the evidence for their thinking, there is no right or wrong answer.” Ms. A incorporates the VTS line of questioning throughout her teaching. She also sees the benefit of using the familiar type of questions in a variety of subjects with a learning disabled group of students. Ms. A explained, “You know when using those questions during reading or other subject areas to those particular students, they are so used to it. It is so ingrained in my instruction that they have a natural feel for it and are able to do it.” Within the VTS pedagogy, students can disagree with one another, if they are able to back up their viewpoints with evidence. Ms. A believes the openness, in conjunction with providing evidence, released any stress or tension among students with reading deficiencies “because a lot of kids don’t want to participate in fear of getting something wrong.” At the end of my conversation with Ms. A, I asked her if there was any last thing she would like to share. In response, she spoke about how she has seen VTS build confidence in her students over the past 11 years. She has had students who are low in

85 reading comprehension successfully express what they are thinking verbally, which can increase their confidence as learners. She explained:

I do have some students that are on IEPs for reading or math. Even those students have confidence when they are sharing. Even those students that are not on IEPs, but are very low in reading and their comprehension or their fluency. Verbally the way they can express what their thoughts are and they can do it successfully. I think that it helps with their confidence. The program is such that it allows for the success of every student. No matter what their abilities are in the classroom…[VTS] builds a community of students that learn how to listen to one another, take each others ideas and either expand on it [or] support it. Or even disagree because they might see something different.

Ms. A sees the VTS program as a place in which every student can succeed, but also as an opportunity for growth in students with learning disabilities. Gallery Instructor Liaisons also observed student engagement. The three GI Liaisons who I spoke with not only saw students engaged in the classroom, but also while on their tours in the museum. Rebecca, one of the Liaisons, reflected on her time working with students at Quincy in our interview. She observed that students involved in the VTS Partnership were more comfortable in the discussions, in agreeing and disagreeing with one another, than were students who have not gone through the VTS partnership program. Rebecca commented on students’ engagement and comfort level six different times throughout our interview. Rebecca said, “certainly the kids with VTS are more comfortable making observations and looking at the art.” She speculated on the root of the students’ comfort level, suggesting that either the conversation encourages students who are not sure of their opinions to build off of one another’s comments, or that the program increases students’ awareness that they can share their ideas without fear of being wrong. (The latter aligns with Sam’s experience.)

86

When I asked Rebecca if she feels there is a level of respectfulness within the students, she questioned if it was something the school was working on, but she also said,

It is in terms of again getting the kids to feel comfortable. Either they are not sure of having their own opinions so they can repeat something that someone else said or just that they can share their idea knowing that it is not going to be wrong.

Towards the end of our interview, I acknowledged that Rebecca might not know if students have dyslexia or a reading disability, but does she find her experience with VTS having potential benefit with this type of student population? Rebecca remembered a story of when she was on a tour at the MFA with a VTS Partnership group and responded,

Yea, definitely…I remember the chaperone told me, my sense was that she had some differences, learning differences. The chaperone said, she has never heard this girl reply so much. That was feedback, and again I think that was the process. Rebecca is unsure of what disabilities this student might have had, but she speculated that VTS could potentially benefit students with a wide array of disabilities. When I interviewed Alice, we talked about how some students take longer than others to participate, but throughout the VTS discussion the quieter students tend to participate further along into the discussion. Dyslexic students commonly pull back and retreat in the classroom, thus falling into the quiet student category. While examining how it takes some students longer than others to formulate their thoughts, Alice commented that students who do not speak up often in VTS, who do not “necessarily [have] the first hand raised, but as the conversation goes on, sometimes they get a chance to really process all of this and then they share.” In the middle of my interview with Alice, I started to explain what dyslexia is and the differences between auditory and visual dyslexia. Alice confirmed her thought with me about the process of transitioning spoken or written language into the visual world 87 and how it could be helpful for a dyslexic student. Then Alice said, “But in VTS your peers can do the talking as well and you are still participating.” Alice also commented that to be an active participant, students do not have to share during the discussion. Even if students are not eager to share their comments, there is still a place for them within the discussion. In reference to students who do not share during discussion, Alice said, “You know they have been processing, you can really see that even though they have been quiet that they have been processing all along.” She could see that students who are not sharing in the discussion are still present and engaged. Directly after talking about quiet students, Alice went on to say, “more specific towards dyslexia, I can see right away that confidence building would be huge to dyslexic students.” Even though Alice does not have dyslexia, or specialized training, she was sure that VTS could support confidence in dyslexic students. Patti agreed with Alice about quiet students’ active participation. Patti does not put a premium on having every student participate, allowing some students to watch and be more of an observer. She explained:

There will still be kids that hang back. They either do not feel comfortable in saying something; maybe they do not want to say anything. So there are kids that hang back. I do not put that much of a premium on having everybody contribute, every single student, because there are some that will not, do not want to. I am not going to pressure them into doing that. But, you can tell that they are involved in the conversation because they are not wondering off and looking at something else. They are listening very intently and you know things are processing.

Some students might also need more time than others. Patti finds that the same students who did not participate in the beginning do tend to talk more towards the end of a discussion. Patti explained how using linking and framing in her paraphrasing creates a space where participants feel comfortable sharing their ideas. Patti stated:

88

You are driving that conversation and you are really making it comfortable for everybody to contribute. I do find that eventually that does happen…they find their voices. But there are always those kids that really do not want to say anything.

Patti continued to discuss the responsibility she has as a facilitator in this process and how it is “On [me] to try and figure out ways to paraphrase differently or really listen more carefully. Pull out ideas that maybe we have not pulled out yet. Or…pull out the idea of linking and framing.” Patti was hesitant about commenting on how VTS could help students with dyslexia or reading processing disorders. She explained that her background was in biology, and none of her children or grandchildren have similar issues. However, Patti did say “[dyslexic students] might not be able to read the words, but they can look at a picture and describe it verbally. They get the understanding and get confidence in their thought processes.” She hypothesized that that dyslexic students could build confidence through the VTS discussion. When I interviewed Sarah O’Leary, the Assistant Manager of School Partnerships and Outreach for the MFA, we discussed some of the work she does with the special needs inclusive classes at Quincy. Sarah goes into such special needs classes to work with the teachers and students instead of the Gallery Instructor Liaisons. Sarah mentioned that students in these classes had a variety of disabilities, including some with multiple disabilities. Some students in these inclusive classrooms are nonverbal. Sarah said, “flexibility with the method and what information looks like is the biggest element that varies, based on the needs of the classroom and the needs of the particular reader.” Student engagement looks different in this classroom setting. Sarah described what engagement looks like: 89

It focuses more on what do you see and working with the teachers to see what are the goals that you are working on for your students. Is it identifying numbers, colors, or shapes? Trying to weave back in that open ended questioning or student directiveness…some of the verbal students still point to [the image], paraphrasing where students are pointing.

The students who are in these inclusive classrooms have disabilities ranging from the autism spectrum to being nonverbal or blind. In my interview with Erin, who has her Ph.D. in psycholinguistics and is a VTS trained Gallery Instructor at the MFA, but does not go into the BPS classrooms, student engagement came up eight different times. In our conversation, I asked Erin where she sees VTS fitting in with students’ learning, especially in regards to language processing. (I will go over more details of language processing that we discussed later in this chapter.) I shared some of my struggles in school with Erin, which led the conversation to how VTS could support students with learning disabilities. The VTS discussion is shaped by student engagement, by building on each other’s ideas, and additive conversation. One area where Erin sees potential growth for students with learning disabilities is through this additive conversation. Erin explained,

I think the fact that in a group, it is really good for those children who are struggling because for some of them it helps having somebody else get started. It helps with any kind of executive function difficulties that a child might have and the fact that it is an additive type of processes. People talk, they give opinions, and people either agree or disagree politely.

The facilitated conversation creates and builds a respectful atmosphere for students, especially for students who are struggling with a learning disability, Erin suggested. Erin again brought up the idea of respect that students can build for one another when I asked her about her experience working with VTS in the museum. Erin said that something she finds wonderful, especially in the age of cyberbullying, is that,

90

there is a healthy respect for one another’s comments that come out of this. It is an especially important thing when you are looking at art that there are no incorrect responses. It is terrific for the field. Children who have been through this kind of training are eager to respond, but they listen, they listen to one another.

The respect that students build in this type of facilitated discussion supports the growth of social skills in students, which is discussed further later in this chapter. From this respect, Erin sees readiness from students to participate. The neutrality built into VTS is displayed through the facilitated discussion and builds respect within students thereby creating a comfort level for the participants.

Through this comfort, students such as Sam, Emily, and Amy are able to build confidence in their ability and a desire to share their opinions. The data presented in this section displays the potential for growth in student engagement. In the next section I present my findings on critical thinking.

Critical Thinking

When looking at my data through the lens of critical thinking evidence emerged by way of observations from one student interview, two Gallery Instructor interviews, three teacher interviews, and documents collected from the MFA education department. A key component of critical thinking is supported observation. Supported observation is the basis of question two in the VTS curriculum, “What do you see that makes you say that?” This question prompts students to take a closer look at the images and provide evidence for their statements. Students’ ability to gather information and synthesize it to form an opinion is essential not only in their education, but also in life. In interviewing the three fifth grade students, Amy and Emily did not allude to critical thinking. They both expressed how they like to participate in the VTS discussion by describing what they see and like in an image. Sam, however, was much more

91 observant of his thinking process and how VTS pedagogy supported that process. The first question I asked Sam was what he thought VTS was. Sam’s response was, “VTS is a good program for kids to look at pictures and observe so they can learn and observe different strategies. It will help them with other things in school, with observing and looking and explaining what you see.” He was very aware of the process of VTS and continued to describe to me how the teacher facilitates supported observation, a type of critical thinking, through questioning. Sam said that the portion of the VTS discussion when he supports his opinions with evidence is his favorite part of the VTS program. He said, “I like to explain, show that I know what I am talking about.” Sam shows his teachers his thoughts through providing evidence for what he thinks. Sam also said that backing up what he thinks in VTS “just helps me with when I am in class to do things like that.” Later in the conversation, Sam told me that he finds reading difficult and that it is one of his least favorite subjects. However, Sam is aware that VTS helps him with reading through critical thinking. When I asked if he thinks VTS helps in other subject areas Sam said, “Yea, like reading. If, for example, it says back up your evidence or what you think.” He then went on to explain, “then it helps me describe what I see in context clues in the book.” In my conversations with the Gallery Instructor Liaisons about VTS, we mostly spoke about student participation, vocabulary building, and confidence, which I highlight in other sections of this chapter. However, Rebecca and Alice both brought up critical thinking. When I spoke to Rebecca, she reflected back to her time at Quincy. She said that now the students, “are giving more detailed descriptions and more often they are providing the evidence for what they see and making, …attributing other ideas to it.”

92

According to Rebecca’s observations, students who have gone through more years of VTS are less likely to need a prompt to provide evidence for their observations. She sees this, especially when giving a tour at the museum to a non-VTS Partnership school. Similarly, when I was talking with Alice about differences she sees between VTS partnership schools and general BPS schools, she noted the ease students have with backing up their thoughts. Alice mentioned that when working with students who have a few years of VTS, they offer evidence prior to being asked, “What did you see that makes you say that?” She describes the conversation she has with her VTS Partnership Program students as “perceptive,” “involved,” and “richer.” All three Quincy teachers expressed that one of the aspects of VTS they appreciate is how the students support their thinking. In my interview with Ms. A, ten different times she explained how VTS supports critical thinking. Ms. A said that critical thinking is a core skill in her classroom. Ms. A commented on the influence of critical thinking, “I think that VTS helps support skills for all students. I have seen great improvements with students over the years…students of all abilities.” I asked if Ms. A saw a difference between students prior to being introduced to VTS, when compared to students who have had VTS. She explained not only how she sees students building evidence, but also the transfer of this skill into other subjects. Ms. A explained how VTS encourages critical thinking skills in reading:

They were using evidence from the artwork to support and justify their speaking. So taking that and then incorporating those questions into reading, when you look at a book and you want to make a prediction.

Ms. A reported that at Quincy, in the year prior to the VTS Partnership Program, she used the VTS’s line of questioning throughout her teaching, because she had experience with the program from her former school. I asked Mrs. A to elaborate on how 93 she used the questions with different subject areas in her classroom teaching. She explained that when she is preparing to read a new book with the students, they might use VTS with the cover or any illustrations in the book. Ms. A discussed how she uses the VTS line of questioning to support critical thinking in reading and writing. She described what adapting VTS might look like in her classroom:

What do you see going on in what the character is saying? What do you see that makes you say that? It helps with inference, which is a key skill, and then being able to transfer that into writing. So, when they are inferring meaning, they need to go back and find the evidence.

Ms. A has seen considerable improvements in her students over the years. Ms. A emphasized how she sees improvements in students of all abilities including English Language Learners (ELL), but then she goes on to say, “It really helps everybody.” Further in our interview, I again asked Ms. A to elaborate on how she incorporates VTS into other subjects. She responded that she tweaks the questions in order to support students’ critical thinking in other topics. In preparation for writing, she described how she might shift a VTS question during a discussion to “What do you see going on in your story?” Using a similar line of VTS questioning supports critical thinking skills in other subject areas and helps students with the task, according to Ms. A. I asked Ms. A if she perceives VTS to make any difference with students who have reading deficiencies or processing disorders. Ms. A talked about how VTS is so ingrained in her teaching methodology that the students have become accustomed to its type of questioning. Ms. A said when Learning Disabled (LD) students are able to provide evidence for their thinking it helps them feel more comfortable participating and sharing. Building those critical thinking skills supports LD students not just in the VTS

94 discussion, but also Ms. A goes on to describe how it could help these students when she transfers the skills to other areas of the curriculum. Ms. A stated:

They can derive meaning more from the illustration, once we read the text and see how the text might support the picture, and then it is probably more helpful for them to infer meaning. Then, looking at the text for the evidence, instead of just relying on their thoughts based on the images. So they do need additional prompting; What is it in the text? Where do you see that? What might match with what the author is saying to what the picture shows us? A little bit more guidance; it is not always very clear, but you know they get it, they get it.

When speaking of LD students, Ms. A said that “for them some sort of picture or visualization and that line of questioning helps them move along, or helps them process information a little bit better.” In addition to Ms. A, Ms. C, and Ms. B both spoke to the ways in which VTS holds students accountable for their ideas through the use of critical thinking. When I asked Ms. C and Ms. B about what benefits they see in their students from VTS, they both mentioned that it supports students in finding evidence for their thinking. Ms. C said “it keeps going back to them being really accountable and finding evidence to support their thinking,” Ms. B said, “Now they are drawing conclusions from looking at the images…and they explain their rationale for their statement.” All of the teachers expressed that critical thinking is an important skill to nurture. When looking at how VTS and the skills developed through the curriculum can aid a student’s broader education, Ms. B spoke specifically to the Common Core. As discussed in Chapter 3, BPS standards are based on the Common Core and are used as an evaluation method for students. Speaking to the curricula standards in the Common Core, Ms. B said, “in particular writing, our focus in fifth grade is expository and persuasive writing. So obviously there is a natural blend.” Statewide, students need to

95 perform well on tests to show progress. However, teachers can use different assessment of students’ skills in the classroom through various observations, which Ms. C notes as an advantage to VTS. When speaking with Ms. C about how she could see VTS fitting into students IEPs, her initial response was “absolutely!” She suggested that it would be especially beneficial for those students who are more visual learners. For three years prior to the 2014-2015 school year Ms. C worked in a special education classroom with students who have IEPs. When speaking with Ms. C about these students she said, “most of those students have a poor repertoire with their writing.” One of the advantages of using VTS with these students would be “to measure their thinking and their understanding verbally.” She is speaking not only to the advantages VTS could have for LD students, but also for teachers in comprehending their students’ abilities. Ms. A, Ms. B, and Ms. C all use VTS techniques in reading and writing. Social studies, math, and science also came up as subject areas in which they use VTS. Ms. A and Ms. B use VTS in math; word problems can be broken down and explored. Ms. C uses VTS in science and social studies. She explained that in her social studies and science lessons there are a lot of different visual artifacts that students “have not seen before.” Ms. C used VTS’s “three questions a lot in those two subjects” to explore the new visual artifacts. In addition to the interviews I conducted with all the participants, I looked at Quincy students’ pre- and post-writing samples from the MFA VTS Partnership Program. The MFA conducts pre and post-writing samples with all students who participate in the VTS Partnership Program. These writing samples come from an image, about which students are asked to write what is going on. The writing samples are then returned to the

96

MFA and coded using similar criteria to the codes used by Housen’s aesthetic development interviews. One of the criteria that the education department used for coding the writing is supported observation, a type of critical thinking. The MFA defines supported observation as “remarks that back up a statement with evidence” (VTS Day 3 PPT, p.7). I looked at the combined result of the writing samples from the 2014-2015 fifth- grade Quincy students, which includes Sam, Amy, and Emily. I was able to compare the entire grades’ writing samples from the 2012-2013, 2013-2014, and 2014-2015 school years. One area for which the MFA education staff coded the writing samples was instances when students gave support for their observations. In the 2012-2013 academic year, the fifth-grade students were in third grade. The pre-test resulted in an average of .76 occurrences of supported observations in the students’ writing samples. That same year the same students had an average of 3.97 occurrences of supported observation in their post-test results. In the 2012-2013, the initial year the VTS Partnership Program was implanted at Quincy, the class that incudes the participants in this study went from 66% having no supported observations to just 16% by the end of the school year. In that same year, the highest number of supported observations in the pre-test was 9 occurrences in a sample, compared to 16 occurrences in the post-test. The same students were tested again the next year. In the 2013-2014 school year there was an average of 2.42 supported observations in their pre-test writing samples. (The decrease from the previous years’ post-test was likely due to the fact that students did not receive VTS over the summer months.) In the post-test of that same year, there was an average of 3.56 supported observations. In the students’ final year, 2014-2015, the averages from their pre-test was 2.81 and post-test was 3.22 occurrences of supported

97 observations from their writing. The averages of supported observations in the post-test dropped from the initial year VTS was implemented at Quincy. However, every year the pre-test increased supporting a longitudinal effect on students.

4.5 3.97 4 3.56 3.5 3.22 3 2.81 2012-2013 2.5 2.42 2013-2014 2 2014-2015 1.5 Supported Observations 1 0.76 0.5

0 Pre-tes Post-test

Table 1: A comparison of the average occurrences of supported observations in pre/post writing samples for fifth-grade students.

It is hard to get a full grasp of student growth over these three years by just looking at the averages of students supported observations. These results do show, however, that growth is happening over the three years, with some drops occurring from the end of one school year to the beginning of the next. From year one to year three, there was a noted increase in the number of supported observations that occurred as well as a rise in the number of students who were providing more supported observations.

98

In addition to the data from the writing samples and from speaking with the teachers, students, and GI Liaisons, Erin provided some insight into how the skills related to critical thinking could support LD students. Erin suggested that VTS helps students develop viewpoints based on facts and helps students build the tools to support their views. In my interview with Erin, we discussed how VTS could support children with language-based defects. In addition to aiding in the management of cognitive processes and vocabulary building, which is discussed later in this chapter, Erin also believes VTS develops the skills required to write opinion papers based on facts. Erin suggested that VTS “pushes the envelope in terms how a child gives support opinions.” The growth of critical thinking skills is apparent though the observations from teachers and GIs, students’ reflections, and the data collected from the MFA’s education staff. Part of assessing students critical thinking skill occurs through their language skills. The next section looks at the data through a language skills lens.

Language Skills

The third theme I looked for in my data was language skills. The four main areas of language skills are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The difficulties that dyslexic students have within the phonological processes fall into such language skills as reading and written comprehension, decoding, and written expression. The VTS curriculum utilizes listening and speaking through facilitated discussion. A variety of senses are being used when students slow down and listen to one another, the facilitator, as well as in combination with the conversation based on a visual object. Teachers are incorporating the VTS line of questioning into a variety of other disciplines. In the cross- disciplinary usage of VTS, students are engaging in reading and writing. In addition,

99 listening to repeated words and connecting those words to visual objects supports vocabulary building. In my notes of observations and in the interviews with Sam, the GI Liaisons, and teachers, I found data supporting the development of language skills. This data highlights that through listening to peers, the facilitators’ paraphrasing, and close looking, students can build skills to aid in their language acquisition. Close looking, spending an extended period of time looking and examining one object, is an important part of the processes of VTS. Sam reported that VTS helps him in other areas of school, areas he finds difficult. When I asked Sam what subjects in school he finds hard he told me “reading, if it is with something that I do not really understand.” Earlier in our conversation when I asked Sam if VTS helped him with any other subjects in school, he also identified reading. Sam said, “Yea, like reading, if for example it says back up your evidence of what you think you are saying.” Sam did not say that VTS assists him with the reading of the words or sentences, but it does make him more able to demonstrate his comprehension of the material. As mentioned in the student engagement section of this chapter, Sam said that his favorite part of VTS is to “show that I know what I’m talking about.” Sam was unique in his awareness of how VTS helps him learn not only in the discussions, but also in other areas of his schooling. Amy and Emily did not talk about how VTS helps them learn. Emily said that she “likes sharing what I see and what I think,” which is similar to what Sam said, but she did not take the step further to say why she likes sharing her perspectives. When I interviewed Alice, one of the GI Liaisons, she was very clear about how she thought VTS could support students’ language skills. She mentioned aspects of

100 language skills eight different times in our interview. The area that she felt was most supported by VTS was vocabulary building. Out of the eight instances she brought up language skills, five were about building vocabulary or the process in which students build vocabulary. Alice also attributed the development of vocabulary with students’ listening to their peers, but she additionally credited paraphrasing from the facilitator. Alice said, “The structure of it is perfect for learning new vocabulary, for practicing oral skills. [When you] paraphrase, you insert the vocabulary,…you learn from each other.” From the very beginning of our interview, Alice spoke about working with students who are learning English. She commented:

VTS is an amazing tool for learning a new language. It is built; the structure of it is perfect for learning new vocabulary, for practicing oral skills. In paraphrasing, you insert the vocabulary. You learn from each other. It is just perfect for learning vocabulary, a new language, everything.

Two more comments made by Alice about language skills attributed VTS facilitation paraphrasing to aiding students’ vocabulary. Alice went on to compare her thoughts on learning a new language through VTS to adapting that to dyslexia. When we were speaking about dyslexia, and as I was describing the types of dyslexia, Alice said,

sometimes they do not know the word, it is like “this right here,” and in the paraphrasing you insert the word. It is a very similar way to learn, but you are not telling them, you are just repeating what they said, just enriching what they said.

Alice admitted that she had not given dyslexia much thought previous to our conversation, but she would expect since “it helps in so many ways,” that it has potential for the dyslexic population. Later in our interview Alice further considered how VTS could support students with dyslexia. She reflected that, “Because it is so oral and visual that students with

101 difficulties with reading and writing are not as intimidated.” The feeling of not being intimidated is discussed earlier in the student engagement section of this chapter as well. When I interviewed Rebecca, one of the GI Liaisons from Quincy, I described my experience partaking in a VTS discussion as a participant and how it gave me insight into how students could learn vocabulary through VTS. After I told this anecdote, a memory sparked for Rebecca. She shared a story from one of the Quincy tours she led at the MFA:

I used in my paraphrasing a word and the student repeated it. Then later I think the teacher had not been listening, but the student said it again. The teacher said, “Oh you are using a vocabulary word." So, for me that was interesting because I modeled the word, the student repeated it, and then it made a connection to him. It had been one of the words that they had been learning about in the classroom.

Rebecca’s story demonstrates that she is not just modeling vocabulary building, but also is showing how VTS can support other subjects in school. In addition to the GI Liaisons observation from inside the classroom, Erin provided insight into students’ language development. Aside from her knowledge of VTS and her expertise in psycholinguistics, Erin has given numerous tours to students in the VTS Partnership Program. On the topic of how VTS assists students’ language development, Erin suggested that through close looking students are given the opportunity to develop a vocabulary of nouns, verbs, and adjectives. When asked what areas of VTS could fit into students’ learning, Erin responded,

The way the early grades are developed, in terms of just looking at what’s in this picture, not talking about what’s going on, but finding the elements in the picture, it pushes them to do close looking and it also gives them an opportunity to develop vocabulary.

Erin went on to describe how the development of a narrative helps build the language of transition words in students. She suggested that through students’ use of transition words, 102

“they can describe cause and effect.” Paraphrasing by the facilitator supports this type of acquisition. Also, VTS develops the skills required to write an essay or opinion paper because it pushes the envelope for the child to give support to their ideas. Erin described that “talking about something occurring in sequence, occurring as a result of [something else]” can support the skills needed to write an opinion paper. The specificity that students can get with question two, What do you see that makes you say that?, is most helpful for prompting students to support their opinions. The importance of question two and how it prompts students to provide details to support their observations was also discussed in the section on student engagement. Further in our conversation, when speaking specifically about students with language difficulties, Erin suggested that VTS helped to give students words for objects. They notice objects in the picture and hear the identifying word repeatedly; this is an observable way of building vocabulary for students with language difficulties who have strong visual processing skills. She said, “I think it is an obvious way.” For those children who are struggling, Erin also suggested that it is an advantage to have a facilitator paraphrase ideas to start the conversation. Ms. B, the fifth grade honors teacher, gave an explanation of the process that Erin described. Ms. B explained that each time a student contributes a comment,

another classmate then focuses in on that particular element of the image and the child adds to that. It has a domino effect and requires students to look over the image again and again and again to refine and fine-tune their ideas.

Ms. B explained how students build vocabulary through a VTS discussion. In addition to vocabulary, Ms. B described that VTS is particularly useful in the fifth grade because

103 their focus is on expository and persuasive writing. Ms. B said, “so obviously there is a natural blend” with their curriculum. A large focus for BPS is the Common Core. Ms. B shared with me a direct connection in which VTS supports the schools’ preparation for the statewide test. She described an area that the Common Core focuses on called close reading. Ms. B described that close reading “requires students to read a passage three times, the first time to just sort of read it, second time to really focus in, and then the third time to target specific elements that they want to focus on.” She suggested that VTS has a similar process, but with a visual object instead of a writing sample. When I spoke with Ms. C, she described a similar advantage to using VTS, but it was not about the Common Core. She perceives that when students “look and then explain verbally, they are using the same comprehension strategies, but just in a different form.” Ms. C also notes that VTS gives students “a different venue to use the classroom strategies. They are so used to having to read, then write.” As I mentioned in the student engagement section, when I asked Ms. C about fitting VTS into a student’s IEP, she enthusiastically said, “absolutely.” VTS provides a way “to measure their thinking and understanding verbally.” Ms. C also went on to explain how little time special education teachers have because of the “constraints that we have to abide by” for LD students. However, she said VTS would be very beneficial for this population. The lack of time special education teachers have with their students makes it more important to have VTS regularly in their traditional classrooms. In my interview with Ms. A, language skills came up ten different times. It first appeared when Ms. A compared the students she taught prior to Quincy being involved with the VTS Partnership Program to her current students in the 2014-2015 school year.

104

She reported seeing a broad range of students varying in reading proficiency build vocabulary through VTS. She said, “The more you did the slides and continued with the questioning, you can see how students…were building vocabulary.” Ms. A incorporates VTS into many areas of her classroom. She described how she takes the questions and incorporates them into “reading when you look at a book and want to make a prediction.” The VTS questions are so ingrained in Ms. A’s teaching that she has them posted on three posters over her white board in the front of the classroom. Many of the connections to student engagement that Ms. A referenced apply to language skills. To listen closely to your peers, waiting for your turn to speak, and adding on to one another’s ideas all support the potential benefits of language skills for students. The data presented in this section supports the idea of VTS contributing to the growth of language skills for students with learning disabilities. In the next section observations from teachers, GIs, and students display how social skills fit into VTS and the support of students with dyslexia.

Social Skills

Part of students’ growth and learning in the classroom is centered on their social skills. Social skills work with the student as a whole person in society; learning to work in a group, advocate for himself or herself, or with problem solving. The way students interact socially in the classroom can support a student’s self-confidence within the school’s social structure. Interviews with students, Gallery Instructor Liaisons, and teachers revealed how facilitated discussion in VTS builds respect and a level of comfort for participants. When I conducted my research the subject of social skills came up throughout the data sets.

105

Students learn and teachers assess social skills within the classroom. Museums are typically a new and different social context for students. Observing the transference of social skills learned in class to other settings, such as museums, is a way of evaluating the solidification of those skills. In addition, social skills can be built in the museum, as it is usually a new social context for students. When students are in the museum, they exhibit social skills in addition to what is being learned in the classroom. One of the lessons included in the VTS curriculum’s set of ten for the school year takes place in the museum. Each classroom of students who participate in the Partnership Programs visits the museum every year. The students’ experiences in the museum was brought up in all the interviews I conducted. One area that I asked teachers specifically about was how students act during their museum visits. All three teachers had very different reactions to the museum trip. When recounting the museum visit, Ms. B’s responses were very sterile. Ms. B said that it was important for students to see the actual pieces of art in the proper setting in order to appreciate the artwork. However, upon asking if she thinks her students feel comfortable in the museum, Ms. B instead spoke of the museum environment. She said, “I don’t think that the Museum of Fine Arts is, I think they are working towards making it a child- friendly place, but they have to work at it.” Instead of commenting on how the experience affected her students, she appeared to project her opinion of discomfort with the MFA. I was taken aback by Ms. B’s response and did not push her to explore further her students’ experience. Like Ms. B, Ms. A believed that it is important to have students in front of the actual pieces of art. Ms. A’s response to the museum itself, however, was the opposite of Ms. B’s. Three times Ms. A said how comfortable she thinks the students feel in the

106 museum. Ms. A reported seeing her students walking around the museum as if they know the place. Ms. A also noted how VTS

build[s] a community of students that learn how to listen to one another. Take each other’s ideas and the ability to expand on it, support it, [or] add more to it. Alternatively, even disagree because they might see something different.

In her final thoughts during our interview, Ms. A emphasized the safe community that VTS creates. That community is part of the reason her students feel safe to express their ideas. Teachers and GIs see this type of security not only in the museum, but also in the classroom. Many of the points mentioned by Ms. A and presented in the student engagement section by Ms. A tied into students’ potential for growth in social skills, such as the release of any “stress or tension.” She described how her linking and framing when paraphrasing the student comments supports students’ ability to work politely and listen to one another:

I find that socially they listen better to one another because they are all sharing and it is one piece of artwork. They all want the opportunity to share and be heard. They do not want to be repeating what other students are saying. They understand if they did, I might use a que, “Oh, so you agree with so and so, they had mentioned that, and you are saying the same thing, so you must be in agreement.”

She sees her students paying attention, listening to one another, and respectfully taking turns. Ms. A was aware of the way her students felt while participating. She notes, “Nobody feels bad about themselves or thinks that he or she has gotten something wrong. It gives everyone a little bit of confidence and success in what they do.” Early in our interview, Ms. A expressed how her students with IEPs gain confidence through VTS. Ms. A said, “verbally, the way they can express what their thoughts [are] and they can do 107 it successfully, I think it helps with their confidence.” The way that students feel about themselves in the conversation relates to how learning-disabled students can build confidence and their social skills in the classroom. When I spoke with the students about their museum experience, they mostly expressed feeling happy or recounted specific paintings they liked. Sam, Amy, and Emily all remembered visiting the museum over multiple years. Sam and Amy both recounted specific paintings they saw when in the museum. Amy enthusiastically recounted her memories of the museum. She told me about how she feels when she gets to go to the museum. Amy's voice got very low and sad; she said visiting the museum is not like “ohhh, we are going again.” Then, abruptly, as noted in my field notebook, Amy perked up, and she had a smile on her face as she said, “yes, we are going to the museum again!” When I asked Amy if she would want to go back to the museum after the Partnership Program ended, she said, “YES!” very quickly and with a huge smile. The MFA is a place that Amy likes to go and gets excited to visit. Visiting the museum year after year helps students like Amy feel more comfortable outside of school. The Gallery Instructor Liaisons, and GI Erin, shared their observations of noticeable differences between students who have participated in the VTS Partnership Program compared to students who have not gone through the VTS curriculum while they are touring the galleries. The GI Liaisons responses were illuminating because they see a variety of students in the museum, including many who have not gone through the VTS Partnership Program. The GIs reported that students who have been through VTS are much more comfortable in the museum and eager to participate on the tour. The level of comfort that the GIs are observing in the museum is a reflection of the social skills of

108 the students. GI Liaisons also do not see the same distraction level as with a traditional tour group. When speaking with Rebecca about the differences she observes in the VTS Partnership Program tours, she expressed that “certainly the kids with VTS are more comfortable making observations and looking at art.” One reason why students could be more comfortable is the respect that is built. Erin explains, “there is a healthy respect for one another’s comments that come out of this. I think this is especially important to find when you are looking at art.” Later in our conversation, Erin expressed how this respect is a social skill. She said, “I think that children who have been through this kind of training are eager to respond, but they listen, they listen to one another.” In terms of the implications of VTS on social skills, Erin noted that because the conversation is about a third object, “not students themselves or their peers,” VTS takes pressure off of the students personally and provides a more neutral means of communication. Erin reflected:

When you think about what you do in social skills groups, where you have them make sure that they can look at another person, ask a question, and wait for a response. The fact that they are in a setting where they are not talking about themselves, they are talking about a third object. So it takes a lot of the pressure off of them, socially. But it is also allowing them means of communicating in a very kind way to one another. When I first began to explain the focus of dyslexia in my research to Alice, she responded, “I would think because it is oral and visual that students with difficulties with reading and writing are not as intimidated.” The most impressive part of VTS for Alice is the social structure of the classroom that is created in a VTS discussion. She sees a variety of academic skill levels in her students, especially in the lower grades. Alice explained that she is most impressed when, “I go into kindergarten classes and there are

109 such different levels or languages. Kindergarten through first grade the levels are so different. But VTS works great even at different levels.” Alice’s observation shows that there is potential for students to work together through various cognitive or social differences. The students expressed an admiration for VTS in and outside the museum. Students build off of one another thoughtfully and respectfully through the VTS discussion. Teachers and GIs observe this healthy respect that students share for one another. The reverence for VTS that students are displaying is a result of the growth of their social skills.

CONCLUSION

My research question set out to learn if there is growth for dyslexic students through the MFA’s VTS Partnership Program. I evaluated my data based on four themes student engagement, critical thinking, language skills, and social skills. These four themes led my excavation of my interviews, field notes, and the MFA documents. These four different areas highlighted benefits for dyslexic students in the VTS Partnership Program. I discuss the significance of my findings in the next chapter.

110

Chapter 7: Conclusion

SUMMARY OF RESEARCH

The goal of this study was to investigate the benefits for students with dyslexia of the Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) curriculum as offered through the Museum of Fine Arts’s VTS Partnership Program with the Boston Public Schools (BPS). My research question focuses on four distinct areas significant to learning for dyslexic students: student engagement, critical thinking, language skills, and social skills. I used these four themes to analyze the data I collected from interviews, documents from the MFA education department, and my field notebook. This chapter looks at the different prominent findings that emerged in the data and how they relate to supporting students with dyslexia. The results from this study also provided evidence for further research. I also discuss why this type of research is important for the field of museum education.

DIFFICULTIES IN IDENTIFYING DYSLEXIA

Ideally, I wanted to interview students diagnosed with dyslexia. As I explained in Chapter 5, BPS rules made it difficult to positively identify dyslexic students for this study. To review, Massachusetts bases their special education policies on the Federal Special Education Law as well as the State's Special Education Law (The Federation, 2001). Students who are possibly in need of special education can request testing through parents, professionals, or school personnel, and then schools are required to test these students. Unfortunately for this study, these tests do not identify dyslexia explicitly. Instead, they focus on the learning skills that might be affected by a disability. Therefore, to move forward with this research, I met with the Quincy fifth-grade teachers, explained the details of this study, and had them distribute the consent form to their students, who would then take it home to their parents. It was my objective that upon reading the 111 consent form and its accompanying cover letter about my research and my own experience with dyslexia, parents with dyslexic children would agree to allow them to participate in the study. Since the parents did not have to overtly reveal that their child had dyslexia, I cannot know with certainty that Sam, Amy, and Emily are dyslexic. Additionally, the school could not provide me personal information about the students in order to protect their privacy. I, therefore, did not have access to the students’ IEPs, if they had them. I was only able to determine the subject areas with which the students I interviewed had learning difficulties from their own accounts. Many of the comments from the three students, especially Sam, resonated with my own experience in school and my findings from the background literature on dyslexia. In order to answer my research question, I shifted my focus to what the students said about their VTS experiences, the teachers’ observations regarding reading deficiencies in general, and the GI Liaisons observations of the VTS Partnership Program.

RESULTS FROM THE STUDY

The results of my data analysis showed that students, teachers, GIs, and MFA documents reported evidence of growth in these four areas. However, as I coded the data and organized the results, I found that significant to this progress by the students was a corresponding increase in their confidence, self-esteem, and self-concept. VTS impacted these emotional contexts, which in turn enabled development in academic achievement and the teachers’ assessment of the students’ accomplishments in the classroom. In other words, the students growth in engagement, critical thinking, language skills, and social skills, which are areas vital to learning success for dyslexic students, was often related in the data to the more affective areas of confidence, self-esteem, and self-concept. VTS enabled an emotional development in students, which advanced their academic progress 112 and the teachers’ assessment of the students’ accomplishments in the classroom. In the following sections I will discuss the significance and meaning of VTS’ impact on self- concept, confidence, and self-esteem as well as students’ emotions.

Support for Growth in Students Confidence and Self-Concept

After reviewing my results, it became apparent that self-confidence was a thread throughout the four themes. Students talked about feeling confident, teachers observed this confidence in LD students, and GIs noted a difference in conviction between VTS and non-VTS students. Ms. A observed that VTS discussions were a safe place for students with learning disabilities to express ideas. If dyslexic students had the ability to voice their ideas verbally, without the added stress of translating their ideas into writing, it could create the opportunity to build their confidence in the classroom. In reviewing the data, I found that VTS has helped students such as Sam to feel confident. When students feel more confident in their abilities, they also feel more comfortable and engaged in participating in class. Building a students confidence in the classroom will shape a students’ self-esteem in the long run. Sam explained that he is satisfied when he provides evidence of his thinking to his teachers through the VTS discussions. As I could not positively identify Sam as dyslexic, Ms. A's observations had a greater foundation to support dyslexia than Sam's comments. Ms. A observed improvements in students with reading deficiencies when she utilized VTS. Sam felt confident in expressing his opinions during VTS. Similarly, Ms. A observed that LD students feel that same comfort and confidence when providing evidence for their thinking during the VTS discussions. Ms. A spoke about how she uses VTS techniques in various parts of her classroom teaching. Thus, the confidence that Ms. A builds in LD students through VTS is transferred to other subject areas when she uses 113 the same VTS skills. The transfer of VTS skills throughout different subject areas helps create a level of comfort throughout the class for LD students. When Ms. A, Ms. B, and Ms. C use VTS in a variety of subjects, it provides a familiarity throughout these areas for students where they can express their opinions with confidence. Dyslexic students become familiar with VTS lines of questioning, and this familiarity provides an avenue into other subject areas that they find difficult. Through the VTS line of questioning, LD students build greater confidence in their learning ability, which in turn increases their self-esteem. Shaywitz (2003) suggests that dyslexics often find creative ways to solve problems. The VTS type of questioning used in science or math lessons could help encourage this creative problem solving. Erin, the Gallery Instructor (GI) with a background in psycholinguistics, attributes the additive processes used in VTS discussions combined with practice in verbal expression to a positive result for LD students. When students see positive outcomes in a subject matter, such as what Erin is describing, then it creates a confidence in that subject and in oneself. The use of neutrality in the paraphrasing of student responses used by the VTS facilitators is another way VTS creates a safe place for students to build assurance. Sam knows the facilitators are not going to tell him he is wrong through the neutral language they use in their paraphrasing of his comments. The safe space of VTS discussions, the neutrality, and the additive process adds to the building of students’ confidence. Teachers who use VTS as a way to assess students’ academic achievement can provide a way for LD students to feel more self-assured in the teacher's perception of their academic abilities. Ms. A and Ms. C have observed LD students express a high degree of self-confidence. Erin, Patti, Alice, and Rebecca, from the MFA, have noticed a

114 greater level of confidence from their VTS students than seen in students on non-VTS school group tours. Finally, Sam shared that his favorite part about VTS is showing his teachers he knows what he is thinking. If LD students are feeling secure in their responses, as Ms. A has witnessed, then there is potential to grow their self-concept in the classroom. Students improve their self-concept by building confidence and a level of comfort in their academic setting. This development can lead to students having better self-esteem. This growth is essential to the overall success of students with dyslexia. Students’ self-concept closely relates to their self-confidence in the classroom. If students feel confident about their abilities, then their self-concept can increase. Burns’ (1982) research shows there is a correlation between student’s academic achievement and their self-concept. Students have greater positive self-concepts when they are meeting the expectations of their teachers, parents, and their own expectations. One way teachers can gauge their expectations of students’ cognitive abilities is through VTS. They can then affirm their students’ learning. A student who is assured of their academic ability is a student with a healthy self-esteem.

VTS’s Impact on Students’ Emotions

It is essential for a dyslexic’s academic success to identify different curriculums that grow student engagement, critical thinking, language skills, and social skills. However, Ryan's (1991) position on the mental state of dyslexics in a classroom is an important consideration. He states that it is vital to support students’ emotional engagement, in order for them to succeed. Learning-disabled students need psychological help in addition to attention to their reading and writings skills. Dyslexic students are at risk of failing academically and psychologically without support in both areas.

115

Sam and the other two students I interviewed, Amy and Emily, enjoyed participating in VTS for a variety of reasons. One of those reasons is the lack of fear of being wrong. Sam expressed feeling a freedom in VTS because he did not fear failure. Anxiety can stem from projecting fear on future events, such as participating in a class discussion. Anxiety is typically seen in dyslexic students, and when coupled with a perfectionist expectation, that stress can increase significantly (Ryan, 1991). VTS could relieve some fear for dyslexic students by providing a safe place to voice ideas. It is easy for dyslexics to develop a fear of failing and a sense that life is closing in on them that can result in a panic when starting a new task (Ryan, 1991). Special education students often go to great lengths to conceal their disability. Bullying of dyslexic students can be a consequence of their unique accommodations, as I have felt throughout my education. Singer (2005) notes that dyslexic students often conceal their emotional and academic problems. If students are hiding their issues then there is a lack of esteem in their abilities. This internalization leads to anxiety about being discovered. LD students can build their confidence, as discussed in the previous section, which can give rise to a high level of self-concept and self-esteem and release the psychological stress of the everyday classroom struggles dyslexic students experience. Ms. A, Ms. C, Patti, Rebecca, Alice, and Erin all commented on quiet students who take longer to participate in the VTS discussion. Ryan (1991) discusses that anxiety can prevent students with dyslexia from speaking up in class as well as opening up about their disability. I have had difficulties with both of these issues in my education. The stress and anxiety from dyslexia can lead dyslexic students to pull back socially, reject modifications, and isolate themselves. In Chapter 6, the data addressed how teachers and GI Liaisons spoke about quiet students in the VTS discussion. Not all students who are

116 quiet in class discussions are dyslexics. However, dyslexic students commonly pull back and retreat in the classroom, which would put them into the quiet student category (Burns, 1982; Ryan, 1991; Shaywitz, 1996). Ms. A observed, however, that the longer the students use VTS, the more confident they are in speaking up, even the “shy” students. Ms. A saw students who normally fall into the quiet students category in other classroom activities, speak up during the VTS discussion. In addition to adding to the conversation, students learn to build off of one another’s ideas. Erin suggested that this additive process that Ms. A has seen in her students was a benefit for LD students. The additive process provides time for those students who need longer to formulate their comments. Ms. A, Ms. B, and Ms. C all expressed how they apply VTS teaching skills in other subject areas beyond art. Ms. A shared how she used the VTS questioning when prompting her LD students to find evidence in a reading assignment. Ms. A said it is not always very clear, but she knows her LD students, after using VTS questioning, have understood what the author was trying to convey in the reading assignment. The students already feel comfortable with the VTS questions, so using this line of questioning in multiple subjects in which LD students do not feel confident will relieve some fear and anxiety. I remember times in my education when I felt pressure to write out my thoughts, but was scared someone might not be able to understand my writing. The fear took over; it was nearly impossible to start. I did not have esteem for my abilities and thus was afraid to share my work. I can see how utilizing a VTS discussion prior to writing could relieve some of the pressure created by this fear. Ryan (1991) describes that for dyslexics to be successful they need to find different subject areas in which they feel accomplished. The VTS lesson is a time during the school day when students feel successful because they are comfortable and

117 prosperous in the task. The data presents how teachers and GI Liaisons have observed these levels of comfort and confidence in learning disabled students during VTS. These results hark back to the first conversations I had with Yenawine; he felt that the social impact of VTS was an indicator that VTS helped students with reading disabilities. When considering an ideal learning atmosphere for dyslexic students, it is important not only to consider what will help them in language skills, but also holistically as a learner. As Ryan (1991) pointed out, students with dyslexia have low self-esteem and self-concept, which affects them academically. It is important to build positive perceptions through different activities in which students feel capable. It is clear through the comments from the children, teachers, and GI Liaisons in this study that VTS builds self-confidence in students, which in turn can support their self-concept and self-esteem, and relieve stress and anxiety.

Critical Thinking and Self-Confidence

The thread of confidence showed up significantly in the critical thinking section in Chapter 6. Many instances in the data when students, teachers, and GI Liaisons were speaking about confidence displayed, they were explaining a time when the students used critical thinking skills. VTS is a comfortable way for LD students to build critical thinking skills and, in turn, critical thinking skills support the growth in confidence for LD students. Thus, the importance of critical thinking skills in VTS is essential to why VTS is a conducive teaching technique for dyslexic students. It was no surprise that the theme of critical thinking presented itself over and over in the data. Critical thinking is a crucial element of VTS and has shown through multiple studies to be an outcome of its use (Arful Citizenship, 2005; DeSantis & Housen, 2007; Housen, 2002; Institute for Learning Innovation, 2006). Students’ ability to gather 118 information, synthesize, and form an opinion is essential not only for their academic experience, but also in life. As discussed earlier in this chapter, it was impressive to see how teachers use the teaching skills from VTS across disciplines such as reading, writing, math, science, and social studies. Teachers explained that the advantage of using VTS throughout their school day supported critical thinking. However, why is critical thinking particularly important for a dyslexic? Dyslexic students want to prove to their teachers their competence in the subject matter presented to them. Sam said that explaining his thought process to his teachers was one of the things he liked best about VTS. It is important for students with dyslexia to build confidence in their critical thinking skills, verbally and through visuals. Building that trust through VTS can then transfer to other areas they find difficult in school. Using VTS to support the transfer of critical thinking skills to other subjects can help LD students. My data did not show that VTS would build critical thinking skills more in dyslexic students than other students. However, VTS generally grows students’ critical thinking skills and provides a different outlet through which dyslexic students could feel comfortable and confident using these skills. The GI Liaisons saw a difference in the amount of critical thinking shown throughout their tours with those who had VTS instruction, when compared with those who did not. However, GIs could speak only to their opinion on how VTS could support the dyslexic population; they could offer no actual evidence. Their views are corroborated by the observations that Ms. A made of her LD students about building confidence through the growth of their critical thinking skills. Additionally, when talking with Erin, her expertise with psycholinguistics holds considerable weight. Erin suggested that VTS supports LD students with critical thinking through the additive processes of the VTS discussion.

119

GI Liaisons’ observations of students and their opinions of how VTS could benefit dyslexic students begins to support the hypothesis that growing critical thinking in dyslexic students is achievable through VTS. Erin's expert opinion also supports these assumptions. Ms. A and Ms. C reflected on how VTS can engage a students’ thought processes verbally, and how that is necessary for LD students. Assessing students’ thinking through their verbal expression puts less pressure on what they write and more focus on the conceptual ability of the student. The accounts from the data start to highlight how using VTS teaching techniques through a variety of subject areas can assist students with critical thinking. The data from this study has shown that VTS builds a more confident LD student. If we are preparing students to feel ready to take on a career, as the Common Core has laid out for the educational field, then building better critical thinking skills for the dyslexic population through VTS is essential. Dyslexic students need a specialized education plan focused on their individual deficiencies and needs, an IEP. My research cannot determine how or if VTS supports decoding, written expression, or other defects common in dyslexic students. However, this study does provide evidence for potential benefits for students through building confidence in their academic abilities, encouraging their emotional growth, supporting other school subjects, developing critical thinking skills, and helping teachers with different ways of assessing their academic growth. VTS should be included in a dyslexic student’s IEP.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

This study pointed to new areas of research for the relationship between VTS and dyslexia. The next step for this research is to conduct additional studies with different 120 participants. In order to find additional participants, researchers could open up the population to other schools in and around the Boston area who are part of the VTS Partnership Program at the MFA. Currently, the MFA education department’s research attention is focused on the affects of their VTS Partnerships’ on students. The MFA’s data shows a change in the way students and teachers talk after participating in the VTS Partnership Program. The MFA staff is already conducting research into how the change they have recorded relates to the goals of the schools district’s and state’s standards. My research, in addition to that conducted by the MFA, can begin to shed light on the implications of the Program on a particular population of their participants, such as students with dyslexia. If programs that run VTS can provide research that displays how the curriculum serves the learning disabled student population, then schools might be more likely to choose the museum that offers VTS over one that does not. The MFA was an ideal location to use because of its history and commitments to VTS, but there are other intuitions around Boston and the United States that use VTS in their school programs. These are potential sites for conducting additional case studies. I would also recommend that a long-term, in-depth study of the VTS curriculum on dyslexic students be conducted. It is hard to determine the effects of a curriculum on a student over a short time period. So, to do a longitudinal study over a few years would provide more substantial evidence of the effects of VTS on student engagement, critical thinking, language skills, and the social skills of students with dyslexia. A future longitudinal study could use a control group to assess changes over time. The use of a control group would highlight the difference between what is average academic developmental in dyslexic students, compared to shifts that have occurred because of the implementation of the VTS curriculum. Dyslexia has such a wide range of effects on

121 individuals from dysphonetic, dyseidetic, and dysphonetic-dyseidetic subtypes that working in conjunction with a variety of experts from psycholinguistics, psychology, and special education would be beneficial to further research. This study has highlighted that there are indications, especially in the areas of social and emotional learning, that VTS offers potential benefits to the dyslexic population. Confidence-building connects to dyslexic students’ self-concept in the classroom. Through the observation of teachers and GI Liaisons, and the fifth graders in this study, strong indications exist that VTS can build these social and emotional skills for students. These areas are not only significant for every student, but also especially for students with learning disabilities such as dyslexia. Another topic for future research that came from my data was vocabulary building in dyslexic students through the VTS curriculum. In VTS, students’ vocabulary can grow by hearing words while a facilitator is pointing to the corresponding image. Erin said that VTS could specifically help students with learning disabilities because it gives these students words for objects they are seeing. Generally, students are building vocabulary through the VTS curriculum. However, it is not known if VTS specifically helps dyslexic students build vocabulary. This is a topic for further research. In addition to difficulty acquiring vocabulary in long-term memory, dyslexic students can be challenged in connecting words to objects (Katz, 1986). GI Liaisons and the fifth-grade teachers observed how students build off of one another ideas and vocabulary. Such discussions provide more time for students to formulate their ideas and vocabulary to present to the class. Research could be conducted that looked specifically at how VTS supports the growth of vocabulary in dyslexic students.

122

As a student growing up with dyslexia, I felt confident in expressing my opinions through art. However, if I could have had that same feeling in other areas of study, such as reading and writing, it could have lessened my overall anxiety in the classroom. As mentioned previously, creating space for students to feel comfortable participating in the classroom could improve their overall self-concept within the classroom. Further research into the effects of VTS on dyslexic students is essential and needs to be conducted.

SIGNIFICANCE TO THE FIELD

There are very few museums that are specifically addressing issues of dyslexia. However, the staff of many such institutions are interested in accessibility. Part of the reason museum education departments are interested in accessibility is in hopes of becoming more inclusive to a larger proportion of the population. 60% of the population visits museums (Falk & Dierking, 2013). Additionally, 5% to 17% of the general population is dyslexic (Shaywitz, 1998). Potentially, one out of every six visitors to an art museum is dyslexic. In addition, a high percentage of museum visitors are school-aged (Falk & Dierking, 2013). Thus, it is also reasonable to assert that one out of every six students from museum/school partnerships is dyslexic. It is important for museum education staff members to consider how they can accommodate and serve the dyslexic population, as it is a substantial percentage of their visitors. In order for the field of museum education to address a more complete definition of accessibility, they need to commit increased attention to visitors with learning disabilities, not only those visitors with physical disabilities. One way museum staff members can start to think about working with the LD population is through their school partnership programs. Partnership programs have been a long-standing critical part of museum education offerings. The field of museum 123 education has an obligation to address the dyslexic population within school groups. Programs like the VTS Partnership Program work with a whole school involvement, every student participates in VTS. It is hard to diagnose dyslexia, especially if a student does not have a parental figure who is fighting with them. Students diagnosed with dyslexia and those who are not will still reap the benefits of the pedagogy. The MFA’s VTS Partnership Program has proven itself to be a successful partnership. This country has supported a hefty amount of school testing to evaluate all students’ academic growth. Moreover, assessing students’ intelligence is done through testing reading and writing abilities. It appears that if students cannot clearly read and write, then they are at risk of being labeled “incapable” and of performing poorly on standardized tests. A major flaw in this testing construct for the dyslexic population is the discrepancy between cognitive abilities and reading and writing comprehension. Reading and writing do not display the students’ intelligence and academic prowess. It is unjust to assess dyslexic students this way. However, it is likely this is not going to change in our country. That is why teaching techniques like VTS are so crucial for the LD population. Art education and the greater educational system can benefit from programs like VTS, yet schools must work within the constraints of the state standards. For this reason, schools, on their own, may not have the capability to sustain the VTS curriculum. However, unlike the public school systems, museum education does not have to live within the constraints of the state standards. Thus, museum education departments can offer alternative ways to support schools with the VTS curriculum.

CONCLUSION

From the first conversation I had with Philip Yenawine, something resonated with me about the potential of VTS for the dyslexic population. It was only an assumption at 124 the time. Yenawine spoke about how students learn through VTS and what outcomes they experience. His comments felt similar to the reasons why I wanted to get into art education. I knew how art had supported me with my difficulties growing up with dyslexia, and I wanted to find ways to help the dyslexic population through art. However, I loved museums and the connection that museums have with schools. So, when I heard Yenawine speak, I knew I had found a way to connect art, education, museums, and dyslexia. From the base of my initial assumptions and through this research, I discovered more about dyslexia than I had ever considered possible. Outside of my experience with dyslexia, I was not sure my hunch about the connection between VTS and dyslexia would resonate in the literature and in my own research. It was invigorating when my personal experiences aligned with the literature that was emerging out in the field. However, more than a good feeling, it justified my intention to pursue the study of dyslexia, VTS, and museum education through this thesis. One of my findings from the background research I conducted on dyslexia came from both Chomsky (1957/2002) and Pinker (1994). Chomsky and Pinker state that spoken language occurs at a preconscious level; in contrast written language is not natural to humans. Humans must break down words into their phonological components in order to speak and comprehend language. However, the difficulty dyslexics’ experience is in translating language into its written symbols: words. As stated earlier in this chapter, providing the freedom to think through ideas verbally while building on peers’ thoughts, as in the VTS discussion, relieves stress for dyslexic students. It is important for teachers to assess dyslexic students cognitive abilities through non- traditional assessments such as VTS. A traditional evaluation of a LD student not only

125 creates stress and anxiety for the student, but also could result in an inaccurate assessment of their intelligence and academic skills. Dyslexic students can be labeled “dumb” or put into the low track levels in school because of their difficulties with reading and writing comprehension. Students with learning disabilities are at risk of dropping out of school (Scanlon & Mellard, 2002). Deshler (2005) stresses the importance of general and special educators supporting LD students to help them find academic success. Ms. A and Ms. C speak of the advantages of gauging an LD student's cognitive level through VTS. Ms. C talked about the benefits not only for students, but also for teachers to measure the student’s cognitive level through a conversation, not through their writing. Using VTS discussions as a type of evaluation could aid in countering the misconceptions of LD students’ perceived low academic achievement. Dyslexic students need support in student engagement, critical thinking, language skills, and social skills to be successful in school. More specifically, dyslexic students need to be supported in a non-traditional way in order to be successful in these areas. When teachers do not support the growth of self-esteem and self-concept in dyslexic students, their academic success is threatened. The educational system needs to think comprehensively about the learner and help them through multiple venues. The social skills and engagement of the student can be threatened, if a student feels unsuccessful with their critical thinking and language skills. The broader field of education needs a balance between the successes of students academically and emotionally, but it also needs to find new and exciting ways to engage students academically and emotionally in the classroom. The results of this research point to VTS as a meaningful and important way of engaging dyslexic students through museum education.

126

Appendices

127

APPENDIX A

Paul Cézanne The Bather C. 1885 Oil on canvas 50 x 38 1/8” Museum of Modern Art, New York

128

Pablo Picasso Les Demoiselles d’Avignon 1907 Oil on Canvas 8’ x 7’ 8” Museum of Modern Art, New York

129

APPENDIX B

130

APPENDIX C

Parental Permission for Children Participation in Research

Title: To See, to Read: Journeys of Dylexic Students Through a Museum-School Partnership Based on Visual Thinking Strategies

Introduction The purpose of this form is to provide you (as the parent of a prospective research study participant) information that may affect your decision as to whether or not to let your child participate in this research study. The person performing the research will describe the study to you and answer all your questions. Read the information below and ask any questions you might have before deciding whether or not to give your permission for your child to take part. If you decide to let your child be involved in this study, this form will be used to record your permission.

Purpose of the Study If you agree, your child will be asked to participate in a research study about their participation in the Visual Thinking Strategies partnership between the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and the Boston Public Schools. The purpose of this study is to highlight the potential for progress in pre-adolescent students with dyslexia, who have participated in the Visual Thinking Strategies partnership between Boston Public Schools and the Museum of Fine Arts Boston, in student engagement, critical thinking and language skills, and social skills.

What is my child going to be asked to do? If you allow your child to participate in this study, they will be asked to sit down for an interview with Hannah Baker where she will ask them information about their participation in the VTS program. This interview will happen once for approximately no shorter than 20 minutes and no longer than 60 minutes. There will be 20 other people in this study. Your child will be audio recorded.

What are the risks involved in this study? There are no foreseeable risks to participating in this study.

What are the possible benefits of this study? Your child will receive no direct benefit from participating in this study; however, your child’s participation will aid in the understanding of how VTS can assist dyslexic students.

Does my child have to participate? No, your child’s participation in this study is voluntary. Your child may decline to participate or to withdraw from participation at any time. You can agree to allow your child to be in the study now and change your mind later without any penalty.

What if my child does not want to participate? In addition to your permission, your child must agree to participate in the study. If you child does not want to participate they will not be included in the study and there will be no penalty. If your child initially agrees to be in the study they can change their mind later without any penalty.

Will there be any compensation? Neither you nor your child will receive any type of payment participating in this study.

131

How will your child’s privacy and confidentiality be protected if s/he participates in this research study? Your child’s privacy and the confidentiality of his/her data will be protected by no personal markers being ascribed to any written information about your child’s participation.

If it becomes necessary for the Institutional Review Board to review the study records, information that can be linked to your child will be protected to the extent permitted by law. Your child’s research records will not be released without your consent unless required by law or a court order. The data resulting from your child’s participation may be made available to other researchers in the future for research purposes not detailed within this consent form. In these cases, the data will contain no identifying information that could associate it with your child, or with your child’s participation in any study.

If you choose to participate in this study, your child will be audio recorded. Any audio recordings will be stored securely and only the research team will have access to the recordings. Recordings will be kept for one year and then erased.

Whom to contact with questions about the study? Prior, during or after your participation you can contact the researcher Hannah Baker at (203) 410-9865 or send an email to [email protected] for any questions or if you feel that you have been harmed. This study has been reviewed and approved by The University Institutional Review Board and the study number is 2014-06-0025.

Whom to contact with questions concerning your rights as a research participant? For questions about your rights or any dissatisfaction with any part of this study, you can contact, anonymously if you wish, the Institutional Review Board by phone at (512) 471- 8871 or email at [email protected].

Signature You are making a decision about allowing your child to participate in this study. Your signature below indicates that you have read the information provided above and have decided to allow them to participate in the study. If you later decide that you wish to withdraw your permission for your child to participate in the study you may discontinue his or her participation at any time. You will be given a copy of this document.

______Printed Name of Child

______Signature of Parent(s) or Legal Guardian Date

______Signature of Investigator Date

132

Assent for Participation in Research

Title: To See, to Read: Journeys of Dylexic Students Through a Museum-School Partnership Based on Visual Thinking Strategies

Introduction You have been asked to be in a research study about your participation in the Visual Thinking Strategies program with the Museum of Fine Arts Boston. This study was explained to your guardian and they said that you could be in it if you want to. We are doing this study to see how the program with the Museum of Fine Arts Boston has helped you in school.

What am I going to be asked to do? If you agree to be in this study, you will be asked to sit down and have a conversation with Hannah Baker about your participation in the Visual Thinking Strategies program at your school. She will ask you about your opinion of the program and if you think it has helped you in school. This conversation will happen once and there will be 20 other people that help in this study. You may be audio recorded.

What are the risks involved in this study? There are no foreseeable risks to participating in this study.

Do I have to participate? No, participation is voluntary. You should only be in the study if you want to. You can even decide you want to be in the study now, and change your mind later. No one will be upset.

If you would like to participate please return this form to Hannah Baker. You will receive a copy of this form so if you want to you can look at it later.

Will I get anything to participate? You will not receive any type of payment participating in this study.

Who will know about my participation in this research study? The records of this study will be kept private. Your responses may be used for a future study by these researchers or other researchers.

Whom to contact with questions about the study? Prior, during or after your participation contact the researcher Hannah Baker at (203) 410-9865 or send an email to [email protected] for any questions or if you feel that you have been harmed.

Signature Writing your name on this page means that the page was read by or to you and that you agree to be in the study. If you have any questions before, after or during the study, ask the person in charge. If you decide to quit the study, all you have to do is tell the person in charge.

______Signature of Participant Date

133

Consent for Participation in Research

Title:'To See, to Read: Dyslexic Students’ Journey Through a Visual Thinking Strategies Museum/School Partnership

Introduction The purpose of this form is to provide you information that may affect your decision as to whether or not to participate in this research study. The person performing the research will answer any of your questions. Read the information below and ask any questions you might have before deciding whether or not to take part. If you decide to be involved in this study, this form will be used to record your consent.

Purpose of the Study You have been asked to participate in a research study about your or your child’s participation in the Visual Thinking Strategies partnership between the Museum of Fine Arts Boston and the Boston Public Schools. The purpose of this study is to how pre-adolescent students with dyslexia, who have participated in the Visual Thinking Strategies partnership between Boston Public Schools and the Museum of Fine Arts Boston, progressed in student engagement, critical thinking and language skills, and social skills.

What will you be asked to do? If you agree to participate in this study, you will be asked to participate in an interview about your experiences in/with the program. The interview will happen once for an approximate 30 minutes in length and will include approximately 20 study participants. Your participation will be audio recorded.

What are the risks involved in this study? There are no foreseeable risks to participating in this study.

What are the possible benefits of this study? You will receive no direct benefit from participating in this study; however, your participation will aid in the understanding of how VTS can assist dyslexic students. With this new information we can broaden the scope of VTS and help bring this program to more students and schools.

Do you have to participate? No, your participation is voluntary. You may decide not to participate at all or, if you start the study, you may withdraw at any time.

If you would like to participate please return the form to Hannah Baker in person. You will receive a copy of this form.

Will there be any compensation? You will not receive any type of payment participating in this study.

How will your privacy and confidentiality be protected if you participate in this research study? Your privacy and the confidentiality of your data will be protected by no personal markers be ascribe to any written information about your participation.

134

If you choose to participate in this study, you will be audio recorded. Any audio recordings will be stored securely and only the research team will have access to the recordings. Recordings will be kept for two years and then erased.

If it becomes necessary for the Institutional Review Board to review the study records, information that can be linked to you will be protected to the extent permitted by law. Your research records will not be released without your consent unless required by law or a court order. The data resulting from your participation may be made available to other researchers in the future for research purposes not detailed within this consent form. In these cases, the data will contain no identifying information that could associate it with you, or with your participation in any study.

For this study based on the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston’s VTS program, the researcher would like to use the actual names of Museum personnel who are interviewed. If, however, you would prefer to remain anonymous, an alias will be assigned. Place a check mark expressing your preference in the appropriate space following the statement below.

I consent to the use of my name in this research both in data gathering and reporting . ___ Yes ___ No

Whom to contact with questions about the study? Prior, during or after your participation you can contact the researcher Hannah Baker at (203) 410-9865 or send an email to [email protected] for any questions or if you feel that you have been harmed. This study has been reviewed and approved by The University Institutional Review Board and the study number is 2014-06-0025.

Whom to contact with questions concerning your rights as a research participant? For questions about your rights or any dissatisfaction with any part of this study, you can contact, anonymously if you wish, the Institutional Review Board by phone at (512) 471-8871 or email at [email protected].

Participation If you agree to participate please return the form to Hannah Baker in person.

Signature You have been informed about this study’s purpose, procedures, possible benefits and risks, and you have received a copy of this form. You have been given the opportunity to ask questions before you sign, and you have been told that you can ask other questions at any time. You voluntarily agree to participate in this study. By signing this form, you are not waiving any of your legal rights.

______Printed Name

______Signature Date

135

As a representative of this study, I have explained the purpose, procedures, benefits, and the risks involved in this research study.

______Print Name of Person obtaining consent

______Signature of Person obtaining consent

136

APPENDIX D

Sample Semi-Structured Interview Questions Students Do you know what VTS is? What are some of your memories of VTS? What do you remember about you discussions with the artwork? What is your favorite part of VTS? What was the best conversation you had in a VTS discussion? How has it been different over the past three years with VTS in your classes/ compared to when you didn’t have it at the school? How do you compare the VTS discussions to some of your other school discussions or classes? What are some of your favorite activities in school? What are some subjects or activities that you find difficult in school/schoolwork? How is it different for you when talking about art compared to writing about art? What did you think of the visit to the art museum last year/this year? Is there any way you would like to see VTS used differently in you school year? Is there anything else you want to share about your experiences with the program?

Teachers What have you noticed regarding the effects of the VTS program on your students? What are the advantages to VTS in your opinion? What disadvantages might exist? How have you noticed student’s behavior prior to VTS, and after?

137

If you are aware of particular students with reading processes disorders, or dyslexia, what do you find their biggest strengths and weakness are? Could you see VTS fitting into any of these areas? In what areas do you feel VTS helps learning disabled students the most? How do you see the VTS Partnership Program fitting into students individual learning plan? How accurate would it be to attribute student’s advancement to VTS? What other areas of studies do you use VTS, or do you see the benefits of VTS?

Gallery Instructor Please tell me a little bit about how you become a GI Liaison with BPS? What is your experience with students in the classroom? What have you noticed about students who have gone through the VTS curriculum compared to ones who have not? What types of trends did you notice over the course of the year with the students in program? You might not be aware of student that have reading processes disorder in your classroom or tour, but with the experiences you have had with students, how could you see VTS curriculum benefit students with reading processing disorders? Have you had any conversations with teachers or heard them remark about how they see the program effecting students (maybe specifically with disabilities)?

138

References

Adams, M., Falk, J., & Dierking, L. (2003). Things changes: Museums, learning, and research. In M. Xanthoudaki, L. Tickle, & V. Sekules (Eds.), Researching visual arts education in museums and galleries (pp. 15-32). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Press. American Association of Museums. (1992). Excellence and equity: Education and the public dimension of museums. Washington, DC: The Association. Arnheim, R. (1969). Visual thinking. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Arnheim, R. (1974). Art and visual perception: A psychology of the creative eye, the new version. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Artful Citizenship. (2005). Artful citizenship project: Three-year project report. Tallahassee, FL: Curva and Associates. Axelson, R. D., & Flick, A. (2010). Defining student engagement. Change: The magazine of higher learning, 43(1), 38-43. Berry, N. (1998). A focus on art museums/school collaboration’s. Art Education, 51(2), 8-14. Black, M., & Hein, G. (2003). You’re taking us where? Reaction and response to a guided art museum field trip. In M. Xanthoudaki, L. Tickle, & V. Sekules (Eds.), Researching visual arts education in museums and galleries (pp. 117-133). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Press. Board of Directors. (2002). Definitions of dyslexia fact sheet. International Dyslexia Association, retrieved from http://eida.org/definition-of-dyslexia/ Boder, E., (1970). Developmental dyslexia: A new diagnostic approach based on the identification of three subtypes. Journal of School Health, 40(6), 289-290. Boston Public School. (2015). Report on teaching and learning: School report card school year 2014-2015 Josiah Quincy elementary school. Boston, MA. Burchenal, M., & Grohe, M. (2007). Thinking through art: Transforming museum curriculum. The Journal of Museum Education, 32(2), 111-122. Burns, R. (1982) Self-concept development and education. London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Catts, H., Hogan, T., & Adolf, S. (2005). Developmental changes in reading and reading disabilities. In H. Catts & A. Kamhi (Eds.), Connections between language and reading disabilities (pp. 25-40). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

139

Charmaz, K. (1983). The grounded theory method: An explication and interpretation. In R. Emerson (Ed.), Contemporary field research (pp. 109-126). Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company. Chomsky, N. (1957/2002). Syntactic structures. New York, NY: Mouton de Gruyter. Cole, A. L. & Knowles, J. G. (2001). Lives in context: The art of life history research. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. Connecticut Parent Advocacy Center (2009, March). The Planning and Placement Team (PPT) Meeting. Retrieved from http://cpacinc.org/wp-content/uploads/2009 /11/PPT-Meeting-Fact-Sheet.pdf Connelly, F.M., & Clandinin, D.J. (1990). Stories of experience and narrative inquiry. Educational Researcher, 19(5), 2-14. Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE publications. Department of Education. (2012). Assistance to states for the education of children with disabilities (34 CFR 300.8 Child with a disability). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Publishing Office. DeSantis, K., & Housen, A. C. (1996). A brief guide to developmental theory and aesthetic development. Retrieved from http://www.vtshome.org/research/articles- other-readings DeSantis, K., & Housen, A. C. (2007). Highlight and findings–San Antonio: Aesthetic development and creative and critical thinking skills study. Retrieved from http://www.vtshome.org/research/articles-other-readings Deshler, D. (2005). Adolescents with learning disabilities: Unique challenges and reasons for hope. Learning Disability Quarterly, 28(2), 122–125. Deshler, D., Ellis, E., & Lenz, B. K. (1996). Teaching adolescents with learning disabilities: Strategies and methods. Denver, CO: Love Publishing Company. Dexter, L. A. (1970). Elite and specialized interviewing. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Dyslexia Advantage (Producer). (2013, June 18). Dyslexia Advantage—Bill Brown, director Eli Whitney museum [video file]. Retrieved from https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=t2Qtsojyd9Y Eli Whitney Museum and Workshop (n.d.) Available at https://www.eliwhitney.org/7/ Espin, C. A., Deno, S. L., Albayrak-Kaymak, D. (1998). Individualized education programs in resources and inclusive education programs in resources and inclusive settings: How “individualized” are they? The Journal of Special Education, 32(3), 164-174. 140

Falk, J., & Dierking, L. (1992). The museum experience. Washington, DC: Whalesback Books. Falk, J., & Dierking, L. (2000). Learning from museums: Visitor experiences and the making of learning. Washington, DC: Whalesback Books. Falk, J., & Dierking, L. (2013). The museum experience revisited. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, Inc. Federation for Children with Special Needs and The Massachusetts Department of Education (2001). A parents guide to special education. Retrieved from http://www.fcsn.org/parents_guide/pgenglish.pdf Fortney, K., & Sheppard, B. (2010). An alliance of spirit: Museum and school partnerships. Washington, DC: American Association of Museums. Franco, M., & Unrath, K. (2014). Carpe Diem: Seizing the common core with visual thinking strategies in the visual arts classroom. Art Education, 67(1), 28-32. From then and now to thinking through art. (2000). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Department of Education & Public Programs. Boston, MA. Gallery instructor program: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston handbook 2013-2014. (2013). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Department of Education & Public Programs. Boston, MA. Gerring, J. (2007). Case study research: Principles and practices. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Gillham, B. (2000). Case study research methods. New York, NY: Continuum. Goodman, K., & Goodman, Y. (1982). A whole language comprehension centered view of reading development. In L. Reed & S. Ward (Eds.), Basic skills: Issues and choices (pp. 125-134). St Louis, MO: CEMREL. Gough, P. (1972). One second of reading. In J. Kavanaugh & I. (Eds.), Language by ear and by eye: The relationship between speech and reading. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Grbich, C. (2012). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Hailey, D., Miller, A., & Yenawine, P. (2015). Understanding visual literacy: The visual thinking strategies approach. In D. M. Baylen & A. D’Alba (Eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual and Media Literacy (pp. 49-74). Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. Housen, A. C., (1983). The eye of the beholder: Measuring aesthetic development. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Proquest Dissertations and Thesis database. (UMI No. 83201700).

141

Housen, A. C. (1994). Museum of modern art NY pilot visual thinking curriculum study. Retrieved from: http://www.vtshome.org/research/research-studies Housen, A. C. (1999). Eye of the beholder: Research, theory and practice. Eye of the beholder: Research, theory and practice presented at the conference of Aesthetic and Art Education: a Transdisiplinary Approach, Lisbon, Portugal. Housen, A. (2002). Aesthetic thought, critical thinking, and transfer. Arts and Learning Research Journal, 18(1), 99-132. Institute for Learning Innovation. (2006). Thinking through art Isabella Stewart Gardner museum school partnership program year 3 preliminary research results. Boston, MA: Adams, M., Foutz, S., Luke, J., & Stein, J. International Dyslexia Association. (2002). Definition of Dyslexia. Retrieved from: http://eida.org/definition-of-dyslexia/ Josiah Quincy Elementary School. (n.d.) JQS History. Retrieved from: http://www.jqselementary.org/about-us/jqs-history-1 Katz, R. B. (1986). Phonological deficiencies in children with reading disability: Evidence from an object-naming task. Cognition, 22(3), 225-257. Key Dates in the BPS VTS Partnership (2015). Museum of fine Arts, Boston Education Department. LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293-323. Lawrence, D. (1987). Enhancing self-esteem in the classroom. London: Paul Chapman. Learning Disabilities Association of America. (n.d.). Types of learning disabilities. Retrieved from: http://ldaamerica.org/types-of-learning-disabilities/ Liberman, I.Y., Rubin, H., Durques, S., & Carlisle, J. (1985). Linguistic abilities and spelling proficiency in kindergarten and adult poor readers. In J. Kavanagh & D.G. Gray (Eds.), Biobehavioral measures of dyslexia (pp. 163-176). Parkton, MD: York Press. McGinnis, R. (2007). Enabling education: Including people with disabilities in art museums programming. In P. Vileneuve (Eds.), From periphery to center: Art museums education in the 21st century (pp. 138-150). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Manzo, A., & Manzo, U. (1993). Literacy disorder: Holistic diagnosis and remediation. New York, NY: Harcourt Maxwell, L. E., & Killeen, J. P. (2002). Museum visits: Experiences of special education and typically developing children. Journal of Museum Education, 27 (1), 18-21.

142

Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Metropolitan Museum of Art. (n.d.). For visitors with disabilities. Retrieved from http://www.metmuseum.org/learn/for-visitors-with-disabilities Morgan, P. (1896). A case of congenital word blindness. The British Medical Journal, 2, 1378. Museum of Fine Arts. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.mfa.org/about National Center for Art Museum/School Collaborations. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://ntieva.unt.edu/pages/programs/pro_completed_NCAMS.html National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). In Common Core State Standards for English language arts & literacy in history, social studies, science, & technical subjects. Washington, DC: Retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/ Pearson Clinical. (n.d.). Product details: Overview. Available from http://www. pearsonclinical.com/psychology/products/100000310/wechsler-intelligence-scale- for-children-fourth-edition-wisc-iv.html#tab-details Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the mind creates language. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Pinnegar, S., & Daynes, J. G. (2007). Locating narrative inquiry historically: Thematic in the turn to narrative. In D.J., Clandinin (Ed.), Handbook of narrative inquiry: Mapping a methodology (pp. 3-24). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc., 3-34. Pretti-Frontczak, K., & Bricker, D. (2000). Enhancing the quality of individualized education plan (IEP) goals and objectives. Journal of Early Intervention. 23(2), 92-105. Report on the pilot assessment project thinking through art 1997-1998. (1999). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Department of Education & Public Programs. Boston, MA. Riddick, B., Sterling, C., Farmer, M., & Morgan, S. (1999). Self-esteem and anxiety in the education histories of adult dyslexic students. Dyslexia, 5(4): 227-248 Riverside Publishing. (n.d.). General Information. Available from http://riverside publishing.com/products/wjIIICognitive/index.html Ryan, M. (1991). Social and emotional problems related to dyslexia. Journal of Adventist Education, 53(5), 30-33. Scanlon, D., & Mellard, D. (2002). Academic and participation profiles of school age dropouts with and without disabilities. Exceptional Children, 68(2), 239–258.

143

Scriven, M. & Paul, R. (2008). Defining critical thinking, foundation for critical thinking. Available from http://www.criticalthinking.org/aboutCT/definingCT.cfm Shaywitz, S. E. (1996). Dyslexia. Scientific American, 275(5), 98-104. Shaywitz, S. E. (1998). Current concepts: Dyslexia. The New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 307-312. Shaywitz, S. E. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new and complete science-based program for reading problems at any level. New York, NY: Random House. Sheppard, B. (Ed.). (1993). Building museum and school partnerships. Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania Federation of Museum and Historical Organizations. Singer, E. (2005). The strategies adopted by Dutch children with dyslexia to maintain their self-esteem when teased at school, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(5): 411-423. Spafford, C.S., & Grosser, G.S., (1995). Dyslexia: Research and resource guide. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon. Steiner, C. K. (1981). The Met and mentally retarded museum goers. Museum Education Roundtable, 6(3), 7-8. Stokrocki, M. (1997). Qualitative forms of research methods. In S. D. La Pier & E. Zimmerman (Eds.), Research methods and methodologies for art education (pp. 33- 56). Reston, VA: The National Art Education Association. Task Force on Museum Education. (1991). Excellence and equity. Washington, DC: American Association of Museums. The Federation for Children with Special Needs and The Massachusetts Department of Education. (2001). A parents guide to special education. MA. Retrieved from: http://www.fcsn.org/parents_guide/pgenglish.pdf Thomson, M., & Hartley, G.M. (1980). Self-esteem in dyslexic children, Academic Therapy, 16(1), 19-36. Vellutino, F. R. (1979). Dyslexia: Theory and research. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Victoria and Albert Museum. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/ articles/f/facilities-for-people-with-learning-disabilities-dyslexia/ Visual Thinking Strategies. (n.d.). Available from http://vtshome.org/ VTS Day 3 PPT. (n.d.). [PowerPoint Slides]. Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thoughts and language. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

144

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner & E. Souberman., Eds.) Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Walker Art Gallery. (2013, October 23). Retrieved from http://blog.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/2013/10/dyslexia-awareness-through- creativity/ Wilson, B. (1997). The quite evolution: Changing the face of art education. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Education Institute of the arts. Wink, J., & Putney, L. (2002). A vision of Vygotsky. Boston, MA: A Pearson Education Company. Yenawine, P. (2013a). Teaching to the (new) tests: The benefits of discussion. [Web log comment]. Retrieved from http://www.wholechildeducation.org/blog/teaching-to- the-new-tests-the-benefits-of-discussion Yenawine, P. (2013b). Visual thinking strategies: Using art to deepen learning across school disciplines. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Yin, R. K. (1994). Case study research: Designs and methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

145