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Home , Aptitude, Cognitive computing, Cognitive deficit, Cognitive model, Cognitive module, Computational thinking

Outline of

• computer (see § thought below) – general purpose device that can be pro- grammed to carry out a of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Since a se- quence of operations (an ) can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.

• An activity of – intellectual capacity, which is characterized by , , -, and . Through their - ligence, possess the cognitive abilities to learn, form , understand, apply , and A chimpanzee thinking. , including the capacities to recognize pat- terns, comprehend ideas, plan, problem solve, make The following outline is provided as an overview of and decisions, retaining, and use to communi- topical guide to thought (thinking): cate. Intelligence enables humans to and think. Thought (also called thinking) – the mental process in which beings form psychological associations and models • A type of mental process – something that in- of the world. Thinking is manipulating , dividuals can do with their . Mental pro- as when we form concepts, engage in , cesses include perception, , thinking, reason and make decisions. Thought, the act of thinking, volition, and . Sometimes the term produces . A thought may be an idea, an image, cognitive function is used instead. a sound or even an emotional feeling that arises from the • [3] . Thought as a biological adaptation mechanism

2 Types of thoughts 1 Nature of thought • Thought (or thinking) can be described as all of the fol- lowing: • Abstract concept • Concrete concept • An activity taking place in a: • Conjecture

• brain – organ that serves as the center of the • Decision (see § Decision-making below) nervous in all vertebrate and most in- • vertebrate animals (only a few invertebrates Definition such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and • Explanation starfish do not have a brain). It is the physical structure associated with the . •

• mind – abstract entity with the cognitive • Idea faculties of consciousness, perception, thinking, judgement, and memory. Hav- • Logical ing a mind is a characteristic of humans, • but which also may apply to other life Logical assertion [1][2] forms. Activities taking place in a • mind are called mental processes or cognitive functions. • Percept / Perception

1 2 3 TYPES OF THOUGHT (THINKING)

• •

• • Integrative thinking

• • (surface thoughts)

• Thought •

• and memory 2.1 Content of thoughts • Parallel thinking • Argument • Prediction • • Recollection • • Stochastic thinking • Information • Strategic thinking • • Visual thinking • 3.2.1 Classifications of thought

3 Types of thought (thinking) • Bloom’s taxonomy • Dual process Listed below are types of thought, also known as thinking processes. • Fluid and crystallized intelligence

• Higher-order thinking 3.1 Animal thought • Theory of multiple

Further information: Animal and Animal • Three-stratum theory intelligence • Williams’ taxonomy

3.2 thought 3.2.2 Creative processes • Main article: Human thought • Cognitive module

• Analysis •

• Awareness • Creative problem solving

• Calculation • Creative writing

• Estimation •

• Categorization • thinking

• Causal thinking •

• •

• • Noogenesis

• • Six Thinking Hats

• Counterfactual thinking •

• •

• Divergent thinking • 3.2 Human thought 3

3.2.3 Decision-making •

Main article: Decision-making • Straight and Crooked Thinking (book)

• Target fixation • Choice • •

• Decision theory 3.2.5 (emotionally based • Executive system thinking) • and setting Main article: Emotional intelligence • Judgement • • Acting • Rational choice theory • Affect logic • Speech act • Allophilia • (personal and cultural) • • Value judgment (psychology) • 3.2.4 Erroneous thinking • Elaboration likelihood model See also: and • and feelings

• Black and white thinking • • Catastrophization • Emotional contagion • Cognitive • • Cognitive distortions • Epiphany (feeling) • • • Mood (psychology)

• • • Foolishness • • (see also ) • Rhetoric • Fallacies of definition • • Logical Self actualization

• • Self • • Self-esteem • Linguistic • Self-determination theory • • • Minimisation (psychology) • • Will ()

• Rationalization (psychology) • Volition (psychology) 4 3 TYPES OF THOUGHT (THINKING)

3.2.6 Problem solving • – employing existing ideas or adapt- ing existing solutions to similar problems Main article: Problem solving • – identifying the cause of a problem • • Problem solving steps Trial-and-error – testing possible solutions un- til the right one is found • Problem finding • Troubleshooting – • Problem • Problem-solving • Process of elimination • 5 Whys • thinking • Decision cycle • Critical systems thinking • Eight Disciplines Problem Solving • GROW model • Problem-solving strategy – steps one would use to find the problem(s) that are in the way to getting • How to Solve It to one’s own goal. Some would refer to this as the • Learning cycle ‘problem-solving cycle’ (Bransford & Stein, 1993). • OODA loop (observe, orient, decide, and act) In this cycle one will recognize the problem, de- fine the problem, develop a strategy to fix the prob- • PDCA (plan–do–check–act) lem, organize the knowledge of the problem cycle, • Problem structuring methods figure-out the resources at the user’s disposal, mon- • RPR Problem Diagnosis (rapid problem reso- itor one’s , and evaluate the solution for ac- lution) curacy. • TRIZ (in Russian: Teoriya Resheniya Izobreta- • – solving the problem in a model telskikh Zadatch, “theory of solving inventor’s of the system before applying it to the real sys- problems”) tem • – using a solution that solves an anal- 3.2.7 Reasoning ogous problem • Brainstorming – (especially among groups of Main article: Reasoning people) suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum solution is found • Abstract thinking • Divide and conquer – breaking down a large, • Adaptive reasoning problem into smaller, solvable prob- lems • Analogical reasoning • Hypothesis testing – assuming a possible ex- • Analytic reasoning planation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the assump- • Case-based reasoning tion • Critical thinking • Lateral thinking – approaching solutions indi- rectly and creatively • – from authority: if p then (de- • -ends analysis – choosing an action at feasibly) q each step to move closer to the goal • Diagrammatic reasoning – reasoning by means of • Method of focal objects – synthesizing seem- visual representations. Visualizing concepts and ingly non-matching characteristics of different ideas with of diagrams and imagery instead of by objects into something new linguistic or algebraic means • Morphological analysis – assessing the output • Emotional reasoning (erroneous) – a cognitive dis- and interactions of an entire system tortion in which emotion overpowers reason, to the • – try to prove that the problem cannot point the is unwilling or unable to accept the be solved. The point where the proof fails will of a situation because of it. be the starting point for solving it • Fallacious reasoning (erroneous) – logical errors • Reduction – transforming the problem into an- other problem for which solutions exist • 3.3 Machine thought 5

• Historical thinking 3.3 Machine thought

• Intuitive reasoning Main articles: Machine thought and Outline of artificial intelligence • Lateral thinking

• Logic / • Artificial creativity • • – from data and theory: p and q are correlated, and q is sufficient for p; • Commonsense reasoning hence, if p then (abducibly) q as cause • Model-based reasoning • – from postu- • Opportunistic reasoning late, , or contingent assertion: if p then q (i.e., q or not-p) • Qualitative reasoning – automated reason- ing about continuous aspects of the physical • – theory formation; from world, such as space, , and quantity, for data, coherence, simplicity, and confirmation: the purpose of problem solving and planning (inducibly) “if p then q"; hence, if p then using qualitative rather than quantitative infor- (deducibly-but-revisably) q mation • • Spatial–temporal reasoning • Textual case based reasoning • Moral reasoning – process in which an tries to determine the difference between what is • (recorded machine thought in- right and what is wrong in a personal situation by structions) using logic.[4] This is an important and often daily • process that people use in an attempt to do the right Human-based computation thing. Every day for instance, people are faced with • processing (outline) the dilemma of whether or not to in a given sit- uation. People make this decision by reasoning the of the action and weighing that against its 3.4 Organizational thought consequences. Organizational thought (thinking by ) • Probabilistic reasoning – from and in- difference: if p then (probably) q • • Proportional reasoning – using “the concept of pro- • Organizational portions when analyzing and solving a mathematical • situation.”[5] Organizational planning • • Rational thinking • Strategic thinking • Semiosis • Systems thinking • Statistical reasoning – from data and presumption: the frequency of qs among ps is high (or inference from a model fit to data); hence, (in the right context) 4 Aspects of the thinker if p then (probably) q Aspects of the thinker which may affect (help or hamper) • Synthetic reasoning his or her thinking:

• Verbal reasoning – and reasoning us- • Attitude ing concepts framed in words • Cognitive style • Visual reasoning – process of manipulating one’s • mental image of an object in order to reach a cer- Common tain conclusion – for example, mentally constructing • Experience a piece of machinery to experiment with different mechanisms • Instinct 6 9 (COGNITIVE ENHANCERS AND SMART DRUGS)

• Intelligence 7 Thought tools and thought re- • search • Mind’s eye • Cognitive model • • Design tool • • Diagram • • Argument map • Sapience • • 5 Properties of thought • DSRP • Accuracy • Intelligence amplification • Cogency • Language • Dogma • • Effectiveness • Six Thinking Hats • Efficacy • Synectics • Efficiency • Freethought 8 History of thinking • Frugality

• Meaning Main article: History of reasoning • • Rights • History of artificial intelligence • Skepticism • History of cognitive • • History of creativity • • History of ideas • • • Wrong • History of 6 Fields that study thought 9 Nootropics (cognitive enhancers • and smart drugs) • Philosophy • Logic Main article: See also: List of nootropics • • Neuroscience Substances that improve mental performance: • • Psychology • 5-HTP • • Adrafinil (Olmifon) • • • Aniracetam • • Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) • Operations research • Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi) 9.1 Organizational thinking concepts 7

• Caffeine • Vasopressin

• Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) • Vinpocetine • Centrophenoxine • Nicotinic acid ( B3) • Choline • Vitamin B5 • Cholinergics • • Chromium • • Coenzyme q-10 • • Coffee • Yohimbe • Creatine • DMAE 9.1 Organizational thinking concepts • Ergoloid mesylates (Hydergine) Main articles: Organizational studies and Organizational • Huperzine A psychology • Idebenone • Inositol • theory • L-dopa • Communication • Lecithin • Concept testing

• Lemon Balm (Melissa Officinalis) • Evaporating Cloud

• Lipoic acid • Fifth discipline

• (Ritalin) • Groupthink • Modafinil (Provigil) • Group synergy • • Ideas bank • Phenibut • • • Learning • Piracetam (Nootropil) • Metaplan • Pramiracetam • Operations research • Pyritinol (Enerbol) • Organization development • Rhodiola Rosea • Organizational communication • Selegiline (Deprenyl) • • Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus) • Organizational • St John’s Wort • • Sutherlandia frutescens • • Tea Rhetoric • • Theanine Smart mob • • • Tryptophan • Think tank • • Wisdom of crowds 8 14 PERSONS ASSOCIATED WITH THINKING

10 Teaching methods and skills 13 Media

Main articles: and Teaching 13.1 Publications

13.1.1 Books • Active learning • Handbook of Automated Reasoning •

• Directed listening and thinking activity 13.1.2 Periodicals

• Discipline • Journal of Automated Reasoning • Journal of Formalized Reasoning • Learning theory (education) • Positive Thinking Magazine • Mentoring

• 13.2 Television programs • Problem-based learning • Thinkabout (U.S. TV series) •

• 14 Persons associated with think- ing

11 Awards related to thinking 14.1 People notable for their extraordi- nary ability to think 11.1 Awards for acts of genius • Geniuses • Nobel Prize • List of MacArthur Fellows • Pulitzer Prize • List of Nobel laureates (see also Nobel Prize)

• MacArthur Fellowship • Polymaths

14.2 Scientists in fields that study thought 12 Organizations • List of cognitive scientists • Associations pertaining to thought

• Association for Automated Reasoning 14.3 Scholars of thinking • Association for and Critical • Aaron T. Beck Thinking • Edward de Bono • International Joint Conference on Automated Reasoning • David D. Burns – author of Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy and The Feeling Good Handbook. • High IQ societies Burns popularized Aaron T. Beck's cognitive behav- ioral therapy (CBT) when his book became a best • Mega Society seller during the 1980s.[6] • Mensa • Tony Buzan • Mind Sports Organisations •

• World Mind Sports •

• Think tanks • 15.2 Learning and memory 9

• Eliyahu M. Goldratt • Metaknowledge (knowledge about knowledge) • Douglas Hofstadter • Mind map • Ray Kurzweil • (psychology) • • Model (abstract) • Steven Pinker • Percept • • Perception • • Self-awareness • Self-concept 15 Related concepts • Self-consciousness • • Cognition Self-knowledge • • Knowledge Self-realization • • Multiple intelligences Sentience • • Strategy Situational awareness • • Structure Understanding • System 15.2 Learning and memory

15.1 Awareness and perception Main articles: Education, Learning, and Memory

Main articles: Awareness and Perception • Autodidacticism

• • Biofeedback • Cognition • • Cognitive dissonance • Dual-coding theory • Cognitive map • (total ) • Concept • Emotion and memory • Concept map • • • • • Feedback loop • Consciousness • Free association • Domain knowledge • Heuristics • Heuristics in judgment and decision making • • Information • Hypnosis • Intelligence • Hypothesis • • Imitation • Knowledge • • Memory suppression • • • 10 16 SEE ALSO

• Memorization • Adaptation

• • Association of Ideas

• • Attacking Faulty Reasoning

• Memory-prediction framework • Autistic thinking (see Glossary of psychiatry)

• Method of loci • Backcasting

• •

• Neurofeedback • Chunking (psychology)

• Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) • Cognition

• Observation • Cognitive • • • • Question Cognitive deficit • • Cognitive dissonance • • Recall • • Recognition Cognitive module • • Recollection (recall) Cognitive psychology • Cognitive science • Scientific method • Cognitive space • Self-perception theory • Cognitive style • Speed reading • Communicating • • Comparative cognition • • Concept-formation • Transfer of learning • Conceptual • Transfer of • Conceptual thinking • Visual learning • • 16 See also Consciousness • Constructive • Artificial intelligence • Conversation • Outline of artificial intelligence • Criticism • • Dereistic thinking (see Glossary of psychiatry) • Outline of human intelligence • Design (and re-design) • Neuroscience • • Outline of neuroscience • Discovery (observation) • Psychology • Distinction (philosophy) • (theory of mind) • • Outline of psychology • Distributed multi-agent Miscellaneous • 11

• Emotion • List of cognitive scientists • Empirical knowledge • List of creative thought processes • Empiricism • List of emotional intelligence topics • • List of emotions • Evidential reasoning (disambiguation) • List of organizational thought processes • Evidential reasoning approach • List of perception-related topics • Expectation (epistemic) • Mathematics Mechanization and Automated Rea- soning Platform • Experimentation • Mental function • Explanation • Mental of reasoning • Extension () • -analytic thinking • Facilitation (business) • Meta-ethical • • Methodic doubt • • • Figure Reasoning Mimesis • • Mind • • Fuzzy-trace theory Models of scientific inquiry • • Generalizing Morphological analysis (problem-solving) • • Gestalt psychology Natural language processing • • Group cognition Nonduality • • Heuristics in judgment and decision making Nous • • Holism Object pairing • • Human multitasking Pattern matching • Human self-reflection • Personal experience • Hypervigilance • psychology • Identification (information) • • Inductive reasoning • Philomath • • • Intelligence (trait) • Philosophical method • Intentionality • Planning • Inventing • Po (term) • Judging • • Kinesthetic learning • • Knowledge management • Prediction • Knowledge representation and reasoning • Procedural reasoning system • Language • • Linguistics • Pseudoskepticism 12 16 SEE ALSO

• • wikt:entrained thinking • • wikt:synthesis • Qualitative Reasoning Group • • Rationality and Power • • Reasoning Mind Thinking • Reasoning system • Buckminster Fuller: Thinking Out Loud (documen- • Recognition primed decision tary) • Reflective disclosure • Critical-Creative Thinking and Behavioral Research • Scientific method Laboratory • SEE-I • History of political thinking • Self- • Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines • Semantic network • Partial concurrent thinking aloud • Semantics • Po (lateral thinking) • Semiotics • Six Thinking Hats • Sensemaking • SolidThinking • • Straight and Crooked Thinking • Situational awareness • Systematic Inventive Thinking • Skepticism • The Art of Negative Thinking • Source criticism • The Lake of Thinking • Spatial Cognition • The Leonardo da Vinci Society for the Study of Thinking • Speculative reason • The Magic of Thinking Big • Spiral: The Bonds of Reasoning • The Year of Magical Thinking • Storytelling • Thinking about Consciousness • Stream of consciousness (psychology) • Thinking about the immortality of the crab • Subconscious • Thinking Allowed (PBS) • (logic) • Thinking Allowed • Suspicion (emotion) • Thinking Cap Quiz Bowl • • Thinking processes (Theory of Constraints) • Thinking processes (theory of constraints) • Thinking Skills Assessment • Thought disorder • Thinking, Fast and Slow • Thought sonorization (see Glossary of psychiatry) • Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking • Translation • Unified structured inventive thinking • • When You're Through Thinking, Say Yes • • World Thinking Day • Understanding • VPEC-T Lists 13

• List of neurobiology topics

• List of cognitive science topics • List of philosophical theories

• List of psychology topics • List of cognitive scientists

• Glossary of philosophical isms • List of cognitive

• List of emotions • List of memory biases

• List of mnemonics

• List of neurobiology topics • List of NLP topics

• List of psychometric topics • List of thought processes

17

[1] Dictionary.com, “mind": “1. (in a human or other con- scious being) the element, part, substance, or process that , thinks, feels, wills, perceives, judges, etc.: the processes of the human mind. 2. Psychology. the totality of conscious and unconscious mental processes and activ- ities. 3. intellect or understanding, as distinguished from the faculties of feeling and willing; intelligence.”

[2] Google definition, “mind": “The element of a person that enables them to be aware of the world and their experi- ences, to think, and to feel; the faculty of consciousness.”

[3] Danko Nikolić (2014). “Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC].”.

[4] “Definition of: Moral Reasoning”. Retrieved 21 July 2011.

[5] “Dictionary Search › proportional reasoning - Quizlet”.

[6] “History of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy”. National As- sociation of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists. Retrieved March 8, 2011.

18 External links

• The Psychology of Emotions, Feelings and Thoughts, Free Online Book 14 19 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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