Outline of thought • computer (see § Machine thought below) – general purpose device that can be pro- grammed to carry out a set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Since a se- quence of operations (an algorithm) can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem. • An activity of intelligence – intellectual capacity, which is characterized by perception, consciousness, self-awareness, and volition. Through their intel- ligence, humans possess the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, apply logic, and A chimpanzee thinking. reason, including the capacities to recognize pat- terns, comprehend ideas, plan, problem solve, make The following outline is provided as an overview of and decisions, retaining, and use language to communi- topical guide to thought (thinking): cate. Intelligence enables humans to experience and think. Thought (also called thinking) – the mental process in which beings form psychological associations and models • A type of mental process – something that in- of the world. Thinking is manipulating information, dividuals can do with their minds. Mental pro- as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, cesses include perception, memory, thinking, reason and make decisions. Thought, the act of thinking, volition, and emotion. Sometimes the term produces thoughts. A thought may be an idea, an image, cognitive function is used instead. a sound or even an emotional feeling that arises from the • [3] brain. Thought as a biological adaptation mechanism 2 Types of thoughts 1 Nature of thought • Concept Thought (or thinking) can be described as all of the fol- lowing: • Abstract concept • Concrete concept • An activity taking place in a: • Conjecture • brain – organ that serves as the center of the • Decision (see § Decision-making below) nervous system in all vertebrate and most in- • vertebrate animals (only a few invertebrates Definition such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts and • Explanation starfish do not have a brain). It is the physical structure associated with the mind. • Hypothesis • mind – abstract entity with the cognitive • Idea faculties of consciousness, perception, thinking, judgement, and memory. Hav- • Logical argument ing a mind is a characteristic of humans, • but which also may apply to other life Logical assertion [1][2] forms. Activities taking place in a • Mental image mind are called mental processes or cognitive functions. • Percept / Perception 1 2 3 TYPES OF THOUGHT (THINKING) • Premise • Evaluation • Proposition • Integrative thinking • Syllogism • Internal monologue (surface thoughts) • Thought experiment • Introspection • Learning and memory 2.1 Content of thoughts • Parallel thinking • Argument • Prediction • Belief • Recollection • Data • Stochastic thinking • Information • Strategic thinking • Knowledge • Visual thinking • Schema 3.2.1 Classifications of thought 3 Types of thought (thinking) • Bloom’s taxonomy • Dual process theory Listed below are types of thought, also known as thinking processes. • Fluid and crystallized intelligence • Higher-order thinking 3.1 Animal thought • Theory of multiple intelligences Further information: Animal cognition and Animal • Three-stratum theory intelligence • Williams’ taxonomy 3.2 Human thought 3.2.2 Creative processes • Main article: Human thought Brainstorming • Cognitive module • Analysis • Creativity • Awareness • Creative problem solving • Calculation • Creative writing • Estimation • Creativity techniques • Categorization • Design thinking • Causal thinking • Imagination • Cognitive restructuring • Lateral thinking • Computational thinking • Noogenesis • Convergent thinking • Six Thinking Hats • Counterfactual thinking • Speech act • Critical thinking • Stream of consciousness • Divergent thinking • Thinking outside the box 3.2 Human thought 3 3.2.3 Decision-making • Rhetoric Main article: Decision-making • Straight and Crooked Thinking (book) • Target fixation • Choice • Wishful thinking • Cybernetics • Decision theory 3.2.5 Emotional intelligence (emotionally based • Executive system thinking) • Goals and goal setting Main article: Emotional intelligence • Judgement • Planning • Acting • Rational choice theory • Affect logic • Speech act • Allophilia • Value (personal and cultural) • • Value judgment Attitude (psychology) • Curiosity 3.2.4 Erroneous thinking • Elaboration likelihood model See also: Error and Human error • Emotions and feelings • Black and white thinking • Emotion and memory • Catastrophization • Emotional contagion • Cognitive bias • Empathy • Cognitive distortions • Epiphany (feeling) • Dysrationalia • • Emotional reasoning Mood (psychology) • Exaggeration • Motivation • Foolishness • Propositional attitude • Fallacies (see also List of fallacies) • Rhetoric • Fallacies of definition • • Logical fallacy Self actualization • Groupthink • Self control • Irrationality • Self-esteem • Linguistic errors • Self-determination theory • Magical thinking • Social cognition • Minimisation (psychology) • • Motivated reasoning Will (philosophy) • Rationalization (psychology) • Volition (psychology) 4 3 TYPES OF THOUGHT (THINKING) 3.2.6 Problem solving • Research – employing existing ideas or adapt- ing existing solutions to similar problems Main article: Problem solving • Root cause analysis – identifying the cause of a problem • • Problem solving steps Trial-and-error – testing possible solutions un- til the right one is found • Problem finding • Troubleshooting – • Problem shaping • Problem-solving methodology • Process of elimination • 5 Whys • Systems thinking • Decision cycle • Critical systems thinking • Eight Disciplines Problem Solving • GROW model • Problem-solving strategy – steps one would use to find the problem(s) that are in the way to getting • How to Solve It to one’s own goal. Some would refer to this as the • Learning cycle ‘problem-solving cycle’ (Bransford & Stein, 1993). • OODA loop (observe, orient, decide, and act) In this cycle one will recognize the problem, de- fine the problem, develop a strategy to fix the prob- • PDCA (plan–do–check–act) lem, organize the knowledge of the problem cycle, • Problem structuring methods figure-out the resources at the user’s disposal, mon- • RPR Problem Diagnosis (rapid problem reso- itor one’s progress, and evaluate the solution for ac- lution) curacy. • TRIZ (in Russian: Teoriya Resheniya Izobreta- • Abstraction – solving the problem in a model telskikh Zadatch, “theory of solving inventor’s of the system before applying it to the real sys- problems”) tem • Analogy – using a solution that solves an anal- 3.2.7 Reasoning ogous problem • Brainstorming – (especially among groups of Main article: Reasoning people) suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum solution is found • Abstract thinking • Divide and conquer – breaking down a large, • Adaptive reasoning complex problem into smaller, solvable prob- lems • Analogical reasoning • Hypothesis testing – assuming a possible ex- • Analytic reasoning planation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the assump- • Case-based reasoning tion • Critical thinking • Lateral thinking – approaching solutions indi- rectly and creatively • Defeasible reasoning – from authority: if p then (de- • Means-ends analysis – choosing an action at feasibly) q each step to move closer to the goal • Diagrammatic reasoning – reasoning by means of • Method of focal objects – synthesizing seem- visual representations. Visualizing concepts and ingly non-matching characteristics of different ideas with of diagrams and imagery instead of by objects into something new linguistic or algebraic means • Morphological analysis – assessing the output • Emotional reasoning (erroneous) – a cognitive dis- and interactions of an entire system tortion in which emotion overpowers reason, to the • Proof – try to prove that the problem cannot point the subject is unwilling or unable to accept the be solved. The point where the proof fails will reality of a situation because of it. be the starting point for solving it • Fallacious reasoning (erroneous) – logical errors • Reduction – transforming the problem into an- other problem for which solutions exist • Heuristics 3.3 Machine thought 5 • Historical thinking 3.3 Machine thought • Intuitive reasoning Main articles: Machine thought and Outline of artificial intelligence • Lateral thinking • Logic / Logical reasoning • Artificial creativity • • Abductive reasoning – from data and theory: Automated reasoning p and q are correlated, and q is sufficient for p; • Commonsense reasoning hence, if p then (abducibly) q as cause • Model-based reasoning • Deductive reasoning – from meaning postu- • Opportunistic reasoning late, axiom, or contingent assertion: if p then q (i.e., q or not-p) • Qualitative reasoning – automated reason- ing about continuous aspects of the physical • Inductive reasoning – theory formation; from world, such as space, time, and quantity, for data, coherence, simplicity, and confirmation: the purpose of problem solving and planning (inducibly) “if p then q"; hence, if p then using qualitative rather than quantitative infor- (deducibly-but-revisably) q mation • Inference • Spatial–temporal reasoning • Textual case based reasoning • Moral reasoning – process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is • Computer program (recorded machine thought in- right and what is wrong in a personal situation by structions) using logic.[4] This