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Towards Mobility-As-A-Service: a Cross-Case Analysis of Public Authorities' Roles in the Development of ICT-Supported Integrated Mobility Schemes

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Towards Mobility-as-a-Service: a cross-case analysis of public authorities' roles in the development of ICT-supported integrated mobility schemes Thèse N° 9098 Présentée le 29 mars 2019 au Collège du management de la technologie Chaire La Poste en management des industries de réseau Programme doctoral en management de la technologie pour l’obtention du grade de Docteur ès Sciences par Maxime Ugo Julien AUDOUIN Acceptée sur proposition du jury Prof. Ph. Wieser, président du jury Prof. M. Finger, directeur de thèse Prof. J. Montero, rapporteur Prof. J. M. Viegas, rapporteur Prof. F. Corman, rapporteur 2019 Automobiles have become counter-productive. Negative externalities resulting from car use have over- come the social benefits automobiles brought when initially introduced. Having shaped most contemporary transportationAbstrac systems,t the automobility regime is known to be hard to revert from. However, as all path- dependent systems, automobility can be subject to tipping points. Among other elements, the Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have enabled the development of new solutions having the potential to sup- port a paradigm shift. At the forefront of ICT-enabled developments, so-called ICT-supported integrated mobility schemes have emerged, encompassing smart transportation cards, Integrated Mobility Platforms and Mobility-as- a-Service, that bundle different transport offers together and aim at providing users with a mobility solution of a level of service competitive with the one provided by private cars, ultimately holding the promise of supporting a shift from vehicle ownership to mobility usership and potentially help unlatching transportation systems from the current automobility lock-in. However, most of those solutions are being proposed by the private sector, which often has different interests than the public sector. While the organization of transport usually falls under the responsibility of public actors, new governance structures are needed in order to make the most out of ICT-supported integrated mobility schemes. Hence, this thesis aims at shedding light on the role that public bodies are playing into the birth of smart cards, integrated mobility platforms and MaaS, and more specifically on the way they are governing their devel- opment. A case study strategy was employed in this thesis, where, building on grey literature and semi-structured interviews, the cases of smart cards development in London, integrated mobility platform unfolding in Vienna and Mobility-as-a-Service expansion in Helsinki served as empirical material. Based on a cross-case analysis conducted using governance and socio-technical transition literatures, the main findings of this thesis are that (i) public transport authorities and state-owned railway undertakings are usually quite reluctant to ICT-supported integrated mobility schemes brought by external actors and prefer developing those by themselves and stay in control or avoid collaborating; (ii) central governments can act as true enablers by developing visions including strong quantitative targets, showing political support for those solutions, acting as matchmakers between public and private bodies, developing legislation, providing funding and steering, and using network governance to make incumbent regime actors change behaviours; (iii) city governments have a greater role to play by setting stronger quantitative-based visions and stop governing by laissez-faire; (iv) ICT-supported integrated mobility schemes should not be understood as magic bullets and must be combined with demand management policies to be truly effective. By providing thick-descriptions of the nuts and bolts of smart cards, IMP and MaaS development, this thesis con- tributes to the literature on transport integration, transport governance and socio-technical transitions, and con- tributes to practice by suggesting fourteen recommendations for public authorities interested in a sustainable and impactful development of ICT-supported integrated mobility schemes. Urban mobility ; transport governance ; public authorities ; socio-technical transitions ; Mobility-as-a-Service Keywords i ii L’automobile est devenue contre-productive. Les externalités négatives résultant de l’utilisation de la voiture ont en effet surpassé les bénéfices sociaux introduits initialement. Ayant influencé en profondeur les sys- tèRémes sumde transportsé actuels, la société contemporaine semble aujourd’hui prisonnière du régime d’automobilité. Cependant, il existe certains éléments ayant le potentiel de créer un changement de paradigme. Parmi eux, les technologies de l’information et de la communication (TIC) ont supporté le développement de nouvelles solutions proposant une alternative à l’automobilité. Au premier plan de ces développements, des solutions de mobilité intégrée facilitées par les TIC (comprenant les Smart Cards, plateformes de mobilités intégrées, et le concept de « Mobility-as-a-Service »), promettent à leurs utilisateurs, en groupant différentes solutions de transport à travers une seule et même interface, une offre de mobilité tendant à être compétitive avec l’automobile. Plus que cela, ces solutions promettent un transfert de la possession de véhicule vers l’utilisation de solutions de mobilité, lais- sant entrevoir potentiellement la fin de la souveraineté du régime d’automobilité. Cependant, la plus part de ces solutions sont proposées par le secteur privé qui n’a pas forcément les mêmes intérêts dans leurs développements que le secteur public. Ainsi, de nouvelles structures de gouvernance sont nécessaires afin de garantir un développement pérenne des solutions de mobilité intégrée facilitées par les TIC. Cette thèse vise à mettre en lumière le rôle que les autorités publiques jouent dans le développement des Smart Cards, plateformes de mobilité intégrée et MaaS, et plus particulièrement la manière dont elles gouvernent le développement de ces solutions. Trois études de cas (développement des Smart Cards à Londres, de plateformes de mobilités intégrées à Vienne, et de MaaS à Helsinki), constituent la base empirique de cette étude. À partir d’une analyse croisée des trois études de cas, réalisée en s’appuyant sur les littératures se focalisant sur la gouvernance urbaine et les transitions sociotechniques, les principales découvertes de cette thèse sont que (i) les autorités d’organisation des transports urbains et compagnies ferroviaires nationales sont souvent contre le déve- loppement de solutions de mobilité intégrée par le secteur privé et préfèrent faire les choses par elles mêmes (ou en ayant la main), ou évitent de collaborer avec des parties tiers ; (ii) les gouvernements centraux ont un vrai rôle de facilitateurs a jouer, de par le développement de visions établissant des objectifs quantitatifs clairs, cadres législatifs, clair support politique, et de par l’utilisation d’appareils de gouvernance horizontaux ; (iii) les villes ont un rôle plus important a jouer qu’elles ne le font aujourd’hui, par l’établissement d’objectifs quantitatifs clairs a moyens et longs termes ; (iv) les solutions de mobilité intégrée ne sont pas des recettes magiques, et que pour être effectives elles doivent être combinées avec le développement de politiques influant sur la demande en transport. En présentant une description riche du jeu d’acteur sous-jacent au développement de solutions intelligentes de mobilité intégrées, cette thèse contribue aux littératures sur la gouvernance des transports, l’intégration des transports et les transitions sociotechniques, et contribue à la pratique en proposant quatorze recommandations destinées aux décideurs politiques intéressés à retirer le potentiel maximum de ces solutions. Mobilité urbaine ; gouvernance des transports ; autorités publiques ; transitions sociotechniques ; Mobility-as-a- ServiceMots -clés iii iv AcknowledgmentsI often say that the « PhD journey » has been an incredible ride for me. But this would not have been the case without the support and help of many people to whom I am eternally grateful. First and foremost I would like to thank my thesis director, Prof. Matthias Finger. It is commonly agreed that finishing the PhD journey depends to a non-negligible degree on your relationship with your thesis supervi- sor. I consider myself as very fortunate as my relation with Matthias encompassed everything a PhD candi- date could hope for. Prof. Finger provided me with continuous guidance and advice during the last 3,5 years, while still giving me great flexibility and freedom to conduct my research. I thank him for having trusted me through the whole thesis process, as well as beyond, through joint publications or invitations to talk at Avenir Mobilité or Florence School of Regulation events for example. My thanks also go to Prof. Francesco Corman, Prof. Juan Montero, Prof. José Viegas as well as Prof. Philippe Wieser for having accepted to be part of my thesis jury. The whole journey would perhaps never have started if I had not made the acquaintance of Dr. Mohamad Razaghi in 2013, who at that time was pursuing a PhD degree under the supervision of Prof. Finger, and act- ed as the supervisor of my semester projects in the first year of my masters at EPFL. It is thanks to him that I became so passionate about (urban) governance issues and that I finally decided to board the PhD adven- ture with Matthias as supervisor. Mohamad instilled in me the rigor you need to conduct qualitative inquir- ies and I will always be indebted to him. Coming from an engineering
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