Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015
Editorial
The first paper in the series written by Ankita Singh on the theme ‘Better Healthwith Plants: A Forgotten Wisdom’ begins by pointing out that inadequate ventilation leads to poor air quality which could be the main reason for more pollutants getting indoors resulting in stressful life, depression, and less work efficiency. This study establishes that overall indoor air quality can be improved with the help of common houseplants. Plants can reduce toxic pollutants from outdoor as well as indoor sources by producing fresh air required for adequate ventilation. Species of plants have also been mentioned in this paper, which may represent a long term, low cost, and an attractive solution to reducing exposure to many contaminants and lifetime risks, and further improve work performance, life quality and welfare of citizen occupants of building. This study also shows that this is an important public health issue, especially as it promotes human health by increasing life expectancy in a more natural and sustainable way.
The second paper focuses on the city as a contested place, a place marked by social and cultural conflicts. Appropriately titled ‘Place of Social and Cultural Diversity in Planning Theory’, this paper is written by Ashok Kumar. The author argues that cultural diversity has remained one of the core concerns of planning theory since the inception of the subject in early 1900’s. Theories of internal city structure emanating from the Chicago School of Urban Sociology made culture as the significant explanatory element of the growth of a city. Period leading up to the implementation of vast urban renewal and freeway construction programs further led planner’s to theoretically confront the adverse consequences of these programs by framing new theories. However, planning theory took an important turn in early 1980’s leading to the birth, what is now known as collaborative planning theory. Drawing on the theoretical insights of a number of theorists, a new approach is presented in this paper to handle cultural differences peacefully and in dignified ways. An attempt is also made to show to what extent planning can contribute to resolving cultural conflicts in the cities.
The third paper touches upon an important issue of a code of conduct for the planners in India. The paper “Role of Professional Ethics in Town Planning: A Case of Developed and Developing Countries” is written jointly by Mervyn Joy Daniel and Navneet Munoth. Ethical professional behavior is regarded crucial in implementing planning proposals, which are in the public interest. Code of professional conduct of the Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI) and code of ethics and professional conduct framed by the AICP, along with code of professional conduct of Institute of Town Planner’s, India (ITPI) are discussed in order to show relevance of codes of conduct in conducting ethical planning practice. This paper argues that the Institute of Town Planners India should revisit its Code of Conduct for town planners in India as same was framed in 1951, by taking into consideration global examples.
The forth paper is titled ‘An integrated Approach to Urban Renewal, Redevelopment and Regeneration in Kumartuli: Issues, Challenges and Prospects’, and is written by Debashish Das. History of Kumartuli potters is traced back to Krishnanagar in South Bengal. Although government has been trying hard to develop this area as a socio-cultural heritage site, the problem is that this project has been less than being successful in terms of an objective oriented approach, which is based on identifying the beneficiaries, target groups, other stakeholders, decision makers, financers and implementers. An integrated approach towards urban renewal under objective oriented approach has been recommended to bring about desirable development in the area.
Cover Design by Prof. Diwakar S. Meshram, Ph.D. i Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015
An important issue of sanitation is handled in the fifth paper by Jaideep Kharb. The paper is titled ‘Access to Toilets - Need for Behavioral Change’. Sanitation in India remains one of the critical challenges for planners and other policy makers as there are more than 620 million people practicing open defecation in India. Inadequate sanitation causes India considerable economic losses, losses equivalent to 6.4 percent of India’s GDP in 2006. These losses are incurred in the form of adverse economic impacts, death and disease, and losses in education, productivity, time, and tourism. It is estimated that 1 in every 10 deaths in rural India is linked to poor sanitation and hygiene. India loses more than 600,000 children under the age of five due to diarrhea and pneumonia. This is almost 30 percent of the global total. A number of creative suggestions have been offered to achieve 100 percent access to sanitation in villages, towns and cities.
“Assessing Policies in Relation to Water Resources for Resiliency : Case Study Bhopal” is authored jointly by Anchal Choudhary and Jagdish Singh, which states that the notion of resiliency appears to have gained attention and interest of planners in recent years. The concept of resilience seems to be embedded indirectly in public policies but there is no direct involvement of resilient water resource policies in urban planning. In this paper the city of Bhopal has been taken as a case example and various policies in relation to water resources of the city have been studied and assessed through a framework of resiliency. After an analysis of major water policies the author found that the National Water Policy, which is a core water policy, shows a nearly 60 percent resiliency, which is the maximum among the policies assessed.
The seventh paper is co-authored by Sanjaykumar G. Sonar, Dillip Kumar Das, and Isha R. Pawar, is titled ‘Assessment of Tourism Potential in the Vidarbha Region’. The authors highlight that Vidarbha Region has great tourism potential for diversified tourism development. Exploration of some of the sites for tourism development can attract large numbers of foreign and domestic tourists and can help earn revenues through tourism for state government and local communities. However, in the absence of information, publicity, connectivity, non- availability of infrastructure, integrated strategic approaches; tourism sector in Vidarbha Region remains unexplored. In this paper strategic implementation approach based on the assessment of tourism potential of various tourist destinations in Vidarbha Region has been carried out and categorized as per the typology defined by the World Tourism Organization.
The paper titled as ‘Transformation of Neighborhood in the Context of Modern Urban Development in Bhubaneswar’, is written by Mayarani Praharaj. The author argues that transformations are inevitable and presents a comparative analysis of the neighborhood development in the city of Bhubaneshwar over a period of time has been carried out in this paper. It is shown that neighborhoods developed on government lands have more open space than areas developed on private lands. In planned residential neighborhoods under government schemes, allocation of land for recreational use is found in abundance whereas sufficient space for recreation is not available in private ownership lands. In addition to these factors, the present building regulations play an important role in determining the character of a neighborhood. There is a need to understand neighborhood dynamics by identifying stages in the process of neighborhood change.
Prof. Ashok Kumar, Ph. D. Editor
ii Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015
Content
Better Health with Plants : A Forgotten Wisdom 1 Ankita Singh
Place of Social and Cultural Diversity in Planning Theory 9 Ashok Kumar, Ph.D.
Professional Ethics in Town Planning : 33 A Case of Developed and Developing Countries Mervyn Joy Daniel and Navneet Munoth, Ph.D.
An integrated Approach towards Urban Renewal, 50 Redevelopment and Regeneration in Kumartuli - Issues, Challenges and Prospects Debashish Das, Ph.D.
Access to Toilets - Need for Behavioral Change 59 Jaideep Kharb
Assessing Policies in Relation to Water Resources 66 for Resiliency : Case Study Bhopal Anchal Choudhary and Jagdish Singh, Ph.D.
Assessment of Tourism Potentials in Vidarbha Region 79 Sanjay kumar G. Sonar, Ph.D.; Dillip Kumar Das, Ph.D.; and Isha R. Pawar
Transformation of Neighborhood in the Context of 93 Modern Urban Development in Bhubaneswar Mayarani Praharaj, Ph.D.
Cover Design by Prof. Diwakar S. Meshram, Ph.D. iii Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015
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iv Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015
Better Health with Plants : A Forgotten Wisdom
Ankita Singh
Abstract Inadequate ventilation leads to poor air quality which is the main reason for more pollutants indoors resulting in stressful life, depression, and less work efficiency. This study establishes that overall indoor air quality can be improved with the help of common houseplants. Plants can reduce toxic pollutants from outdoor as well as indoor sources by producing fresh air required for adequate ventilation. Species of plants have been also such mentioned in this paper, which may represent a long term, low cost, and an attractive solution to reducing exposure to many contaminants and lifetime risks, and further improve work performance, life quality and welfare of citizen occupants of building. This study also shows that this is an important public health issue, especially as it promotes human health by increasing life expectancy in a more natural and sustainable way.
1. INTRODUCTION Currently, buildings account for 40 percent of world’s energy, and it is projected that in the next decade 60 percent of world’s population will be living in buildings in cities with a population of over one million. It is expected that world’s energy is expected to grow by more than 30 percent. According to a study, human beings of all ages exchange between 10,000 – 70,000 liters of air every 24 hours just to sustain life (EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, 1989). Today, an average person in an urban city spends 90 percent of his time indoor, may it be his office, home, school, college, or recreational area. In such a scenario, where more and more people work and live indoors, the kind of air we are breathing in and out becomes very important factor for comfortable living.
Exposure to Indoor Air Pollution (IAP) are known to cause depression, asthma, allergies, other respiratory disorders, eye and skin irritations, often watering of eyes, sore throat, cold and flu, memory loss, dizziness, nausea, headaches, fatigue are also suspected of causing cancer, birth defects, reproduction problems, and in long time or extreme exposures death too. As per Diagnostic Assessment of Select Environmental Challenges in India and Global Burden of Diseases Report, 1.3 million people died because of IAP while 620,000 people died due to Outdoor Air Pollution in 2010(Chauhan, 2013).
IAP has a great impact on the level of social and economic development, which varies between urban and rural areas due to difference in economies and
Ankita Singh, Assistant Professor, Apeejay Institute of Technology, School of Architecture and Planning, Greater Noida
Ankita Singh 1 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 lifestyles. Common source of IAP in rural areas is dust and organic contaminants from solid fuel use for cooking, and in urban areas it comes from substances such as formaldehyde, insecticides, etc. However, second hand tobacco smoke is a pollutant common in both areas.
World Health Organization (WHO) prescribes 20 µg/m³ (Micrograms per cubic meter) of air for particulate matter (PM) as a norm for indoor pollution. Shockingly in India the average indoor pollution is 375 µg/m³. Unlike many western countries, India does not have any norms for IAP, which regulates indoor air quality (IAQ). WHO has estimated that more than 7 million people die each year because of pollution. That is one in eight deaths across the globe. More than half of these deaths are caused by indoor pollutants. In India, over 1 million people die prematurely every year due to IAP, making it the second biggest killer after blood pressure. When it comes to IAP, children are much more affected than adults as these days they spend most of their time indoors, which means that they constantly get exposed to air pollution from air inside homes and schools rather than outdoors.
Biologically speaking infants and young children consume more oxygen per unit body weight and have narrower airways than adults. Therefore, particulate matter (PM) even above 2 microns (maximum size of PM that can enter lungs of an adult, above that gets deposited in the upper respiratory tract and large airways) can reach their alveoli putting them at higher risk than adults. A study by the WHO in 2014 states that 50 percent of children mortality under 5 globally is due to pneumonia caused by IAP. According to The Energy Research Institute (TERI), IAP is the reason for 27.5 percent of premature deaths of children under 5 in India. Another study said that about 80 percent of women are affected by IAP and prime contribution for this is burning of solid fuels. The statistics for human mortality from IAP is alarming and is on the rise. This not only puts our health at risk in the longer run but also decreases one’s quality of life. Poor quality of life is resulting in depression and suicidal cases around the globe. Air tight buildings in urban lifestyle are contributing majourly for IAP.
2. AIR CONDITIONERS – A GROWING NEED FOR HUMAN COMFORT OR A HUB OF POLLUTANTS In tropical countries such as India, temperature inside a building in summers rises till 47º C. For optimum thermal comfort of occupants to work efficiently it should be between 21º C to 24º C, otherwise one faces a common urban issue such as ‘sick building syndrome’. Therefore, to achieve such temperature difference, we are getting dependent on air conditioning.
These days everything around us is air conditioned, may it be cars, buses, homes, offices, malls, schools, etc. Air conditioners have taken a very important place in our lives, but it is less known that buildings or vehicles with air conditioning have often worse air quality.? Do you feel drowsy and tired working in office or while driving car? Do you feel uneasy sleeping at night and get up with a heavy head in
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morning? Do you forget things keeping them somewhere just few minutes ago? Do you think you are stressed most of the times? 90 percent of people living indoors with air conditioners on most of the time will agree to this.
Our air conditioners which provide us with human comfort in summers have an unexpected negative effect on our health as air exchange in AC’s are far less than in
naturally ventilated buildings. As a result (Carbon Dioxide) CO2 and other pollutants
get trapped and re-circulated inside buildings. CO2 not only slows down human metabolic activity but can also have severe impacts on human brain if exposed to it in large quantities for longer period of time. According to the National Institute
of Occupational Safety and Health, concentration of CO2 that exceeds 1,000 ppm is a marker of inadequate ventilation which is by far the largest cause of IAP. Indoor air quality is influenced by concentrations of outdoor air pollutants, indoor sources of pollution (e.g. combustion of solid fuels, biomass fuels, coal, kerosene, etc.) building materials and habits of residents. Such deadly pollutants found very commonly in our household and their sources have been listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Showing Common Indoor Pollutants and their Sources
Indoor Pollutants Sources of Pollutants Molds Water seepage, high humidity levels specially in kitchen & bathroom, etc. Carbon Monoxide (CO) Automobile exhaust, gas appliances, chimneys, by product of incomplete combustion of fuels. Tobacco Smoke Passive as well as active smoking of cigarettes, cigars, hookah, etc. Formaldehyde Pressed wood products, mattresses, clothing, nail polish, glue and other adhesives, stoves, automobile exhaust. Volatile Organic Compounds Paints, Solvents, wood preservatives, cleaners and disinfectants, copy (VOCs) machines, printers, faxes, carpets, insect repellents, air fresheners, dry cleaned clothes, etc. Phthalates (Plasticizers) Vinyl Flooring, food packaging, shower curtains, wall coverings, adhesives, detergents, personal care products, toys, PVC pipes, etc. Pesticides Pest control poisons, garden and lawn chemicals.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Respiration, decomposition of organic matter, burning of fuels. Trichloroethylene (TCE) Solvents, lacquers, varnishes, dry cleaning solutions and refrigerants. Toulene Adhesives, disinfectants, rubber, printing ink, lacquers and leather tanners. Xylene Varnishes, paints and paint thinners. Heavy metals (Lead, Mercury, Paints, cars, tobacco smoke, soil and dust. Cadmium, Chromium, etc) Radon (Radioactive) Granite, well water, soil, outside air, smoke detectors, etc. Carcinogen, Benzene Cigarette Smoke, detergents, pesticides, and off-gasing of other synthetic materials, inks, oils, etc.
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3. SOME SOLUTIONS TO INDOOR AIR POLLUTION In order to eliminate or reduce IAP, we can use various methods such as:
• Provide Adequate Ventilation: Open some windows for fresh air circulation. • Air Purifiers: These are devices which remove solid biological particles such as bacteria, spores, mold, dust, pollen, etc., through filtration process. • UV Lamps: These are devices that remove airborne molecular contaminants such as VOCs, gases such as CO (Carbon Monoxide) and biological particles. • Air Ionizers: These are devices which remove dust particles by dispersing charged particles into the air attracting particles, and thereby settling them faster. • Injecting Ozone: This removes biological particles by inducing activated oxygen into the air, and thereby breaking down the biological particles. Limiting ozone levels between 0.02 to 0.04 ppm works great when it comes to breaking down particles, increasing ozone levels can have negative effects including breathing problems. • Phytoremediation: Raising indoor and outdoor plants can remove and buffer most of the pollutants that can cause severe health risks.
4. ELABORATING PHYTOREMEDIATION: THE HOPEFUL FUTURE Taking lessons from ancient tradition, the Rig Veda (6:48:17) appeals: do not cut trees because they remove pollution (Narayan and Kumar, 2003).The Rig Veda, 137/3 states “The benevolence of medicinal herbs, borne by the wind, may clear all pollution and ailments” (Chakraborty, 2001).
Did ancient people encode knowledge that could help us today? Yes indeed, scientifically speaking vegetation can change the microclimate of a region by directly or indirectly affecting air quality. This can be done by altering temperature of a region and removing air pollutants.
Plants remove air pollutants by capturing them on the leaf surfaces, which get transferred to soil. They also remove pollution by intercepting airborne particles. Some particles can be absorbed into trees while most are intercepted and retained on the leaves. The intercepted particles are often washed off by rain, or through leaf fall (Nowak, 2002).
In a study conducted by the U.S. Forest Service Scientists and Collaborators they concluded that trees are saving more than 850 human lives a year and preventing 670,000 incidents of acute respiratory symptoms and that is just by improving air quality less than one percent. Not to mention that trees can help save $7 billion a year in health costs by reducing respiratory illness (Nowak, 2014). Large
Ankita Singh 4 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015
Fig. 1: Plants not only intake CO2 and gives fresh O2 but healthy trees greater than 77 cm in also removes air pollutants by trapping them on the diameter remove approximately 1.4 kg leaf surfaces or transferring them to soil where they get stabilized or degraded. of pollutants annually while small and healthy trees less than 8 cm in diameter remove 0.02 kg of pollutants annually.
The Fig. 1 below illustrates how a plant removes toxic pollutants from environ- ment by the process of phytovolatiliza- tion (pollutant is released in volatile or gaseous form), phytoextraction (pollut- ant is accumulated in harvestable parts tissue like leaf surface), phytodegra- dation (pollutant is broken down into simpler molecular form), phytostimu- lation (organic pollutants from soil are broken down ensuring oxygen to the roots) and phytostabilization (pollut- ant is immobilized in soil). The indoor environment also reflects outdoor air quality and pollution. Therefore; if we
Fig. 2: The intercepted particle often is re-suspended curtail outdoor pollutants, less PM will to the atmosphere in gaseous state, washed off be left to filter indoors. In order to do by rain, or dropped to the ground with leaf and that there are various measures we can twig fall follow such as:
• Sustain existing trees and increase number of healthy trees, which will reduce and regulate pollution levels; • Sustain mature trees which will reduce long term pollutant emissions from planting and removal; • Plant evergreen trees with dense branches, which will remove pollutants round the year; and • Plants with smaller, rough and variegated leaves are more efficient in trapping air pollutant than longer and smooth leaves.
Ankita Singh 5 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015
• Planting multiple species of trees and plants can capture variety of pollutants as discussed earlier. • Plant trees in parking area, will reduce vehicular Volatile Organic Compounds emissions
If taken such measures air quality can improve with increased tree cover. In urban areas with 100 percent tree cover (i.e. contiguous forest stands), short term improvements in air quality (one hour) from pollution removal by trees can be as high as 15 percent for ozone, 14 percent for sulphur dioxide, 13 percent for particulate matter, 8 percent for nitrogen dioxide, and 0.05 percent for carbon monoxide (Nowak and Crane, 2000).
Outdoor vegetation help improve air quality for indoor, which can be reduced using indoor plants consequently improving Fig. 3: Design Guidelines for Buffers, Corridors, human health. Houseplants together with the and Greenways medium in which they are grown can reduce components of indoor air pollutants (Wikipedia, 2015). How they do it has already been covered in Fig. 1 and 2. To mitigate effects of IAP a study was undertaken by IIT, TERI, and learnings from NASA along with Associated Landscape Contractors of America found that there are number of common green plants which we can grow indoors for all the fresh air we need, which could help in combating ‘Sick Building Syndrome’ and make indoors less stressed and depressed.
Kamal Meattle, CEO of Paharpur Business Centre along with his research group in New Delhi conducted an experiment which made him an elite speaker for Ted Talks in 2009. In his Fig. 4: Reduction because of Plants study he found that by growing three ordinary houseplants like areca palm, pothos and money plant, which they tested for 15 years in a 20 year old building in New Delhi to find that this building had the healthiest indoor air in the city. This, occupants felt reduction in various problems as shown in Fig. 4. Meattle’s building not only has proved to alleviate health problems but also increased work efficiency of the occupants by 20 percent and also their blood oxygen levels resulting in fewer sick days. The
Ankita Singh 6 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015
Table 2: Common Houseplants and the Various Pollutants they Remove
Common Name of Botanical Name Notes Pollutants Removed by Plants Plant
Areca palm or Chrysalidocarpus Prefers humid area to tip damage. CO2, Xylene and Toulene Butterfly palm lutescens Tips need to be cleaned everyday if living in India. Require 4 shoulder high plants per person.
Mother-in-law’s Sansevieria trifasciata Require 6-8 waist high plant per CO2 even at night tongue person
Money plant Epipremnum aureum Grows in hydroponics Formaldehyde and other VOC’s Snake Plant Sansevieria trifasciata Tolerates low light levels and irregular Nitrogen oxides, CO, Benzene and watering Formaldehyde Golden Pothos Scindapsus aureus Requires partial sun and less watering Formaldehyde, CO in winters Bamboo palm Chamaedorea seifrizii Prefers bright indirect light and does Formaldehyde, CO, Benzene, Xylene not like to be over-watered. and Toulene Chinese evergreen Aglaonema modestum Emits high O2. Does well with full Benzene (A cancer causing shade and good draining chemical), CO and Formaldehyde Aloe Vera Aloe barbadensis Needs well drained soil with slight Formaldehyde drying between watering English Ivy Hedera helix You want it in your home if you have Benzene, CO, Carcinogen found asthma or respiratory allergies, works in cigarette smoke, detergents, great for that. pesticides. Formaldehyde, Trichloroethane (TCE), Xylene and Toulene Rubber Plant Ficus elastica Tolerates low light levels and is low Good overall air purifier, removes maintenance toxins from air Spider Plant Chlorophytum comosum NASA’s list of the best air-purifying Benzene, formaldehyde, carbon plants and easy to grow plants monoxide, and Xylene
Gerbera Daisy Gerbera jamesonii Likes bright sunlight, and gives off O2 Benzene, CO2, CO, Formaldehyde overnight Janet Craig Draecana deremensis Prefers indirect sunlight and watering Formaldehyde, CO, Benzene and without fertilisers. In short low Good overall air purifier, removes maintenance plant. most air pollutants Marginata or Dracaena marginata Requires little attention, tolerates dry Formaldehyde, CO, Benzene Dragon Tree soil and irregular watering and prefers Carcinogen, Xylene and TCE no direct sunlight Mums Chrysanthemum Requires partial sun and lots of water Benzene, TCE, formaldehyde, morifolium ammonia Peace Lily Spathiphyllum Prefers indirect sunlight and high Benzene, Formaldehyde, TCE, CO, humidity. Leaves should be misted Ammonia, Xylene and Toulene frequently with warm water Warneckii Dracaena deremeusis Prefers moderate sun and water TCE and benzene, Formaldehyde needs. and CO
rate at which plants remove air pollutants depends on the growing conditions and that the removal performance depends on the plant species.
There have been many studies conducted worldwide concluding positive effects of plants on enhancing indoor air quality by removing toxic pollutants and gases.
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Some such species of plants have been in Table 1 which help in removing common indoor pollutants as mentioned. IAP removal will vary among households based on the number and variety of plants (adequate number of plants per person and a mixed variety of plants for various kinds of pollutants can lead to increased IAP removal), length and texture of plant (short and rough leaves will trap more pollutants than smooth and long), pollution concentration (can be reduced by outdoor tree buffer leading to less PM to filter), and other meteorological conditions (adequate sunlight, water and soil can result in higher performances). All of these factors combine to affect IAP removal rate.
5. CONCLUSIONS Inadequate ventilation leads to poor air quality which is the prime reason for more pollutants indoors resulting in stressful life, depression and less work efficiency. This study tries to establish that overall indoor air quality can be improved with the help of common houseplants. Plants through various mechanisms are able to reduce toxic pollutants from either outdoor or indoor sources that cause cancer and other respiratory diseases by producing all the fresh air required for adequate ventilation. Species of plants mentioned in Table 2 may represent a long term, low cost and an attractive solution to reducing exposure to many contaminants and lifetime risks, and further improve work performance, life quality and welfare of occupants in the building. This study establishes that this is an important issue to pursue, especially as it relates to potential human health effects, and increased life expectancy in a more natural and sustainable way.
REFERENCES Chauhan, C. (2013) Indoor Air Pollution Kills: A million people every year in India, hindustantimes.com, Web: 9 April 2015. Chakraborty, M. (2001) The Herbal City - A Dream Scheme, Journal of Landscape, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 26-28. Narayan, R. and Kumar, J. (2003) Ecology and Religion, Institute for Socio-Legal Studies, Muzaffarpur and Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi. Nowak, David J. (2002) The effects of urban trees on air quality, USDA Forest Service, Syracuse, New York. Nowak, D.J. and Crane, D.E. (200) The Urban Forest Effects (UFORE) Model: quantifying urban forest structure and functions, U.S. Forest Service, Web. Wikipedia (2015) Indoor Air Quality, Web: 18 May 2015. EPA (1989) Report to congress on indoor air quality: volume II assessment and control of indoor air pollution, EPA/400/1-89/001C. 1989, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Ankita Singh 8 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015
Place of Social and Cultural Diversity in Planning Theory
Ashok Kumar, Ph.D.
Abstract Cultural diversity has remained one of the core concerns of planning theory since the inception of the subject in early 1900’s. Theories of internal city structure emanating from the Chicago School of Urban Sociology made culture as the significant explanatory element of the growth of a city. Period leading up to the implementation of vast urban renewal and freeway construction programs further led planner’s to theoretically confront the adverse consequences of these programs by framing new theories such as advocacy planning, equity planning, and radical planning. However, planning theory took an important turn in early 1980’s leading to the birth, what is now known as collaborative planning theory. In this paper, the author drawing on the theoretical insights of a number of theorists, presented a new approach to handle cultural differences peacefully and in dignified ways.
1. INTRODUCTION Culture is located at the core of planning theory and the city. For instance, Sanyal et al present four planning conversations or themes as planning orthodoxies, which they regard the chief four planning ideas that matter. These planning ideas include “the liveability of places, the management of territoriality at various spatial scales, the distribution of responsibility among key actors – state, market and the civil society – for governance, and the efficacy and proper exercise of professional authority” (Sanyal et al, 2012: 3). These ideas are then respectively grouped under four heads including liveability, territoriality, governance and reflective practice. Expanding on the ideas that matter, a synthesis of ideas of Jane Jacobs and Ebenezer Howard is presented by Robert Fishman who argues that diversity of people and mixture of different land uses, incomes and public spaces is the essence of making a city liveable (Fishman, 2012: 68). In this work diversity appears to be regarded as the motor force of a liveable city.
There are several different accounts of analyzing culture in planning. For example, Simone Abram (2011: 1) identifies three ways in which the term culture is used in planning: Planning of Culture, Cultures of Planning, and Cultures in Planning. Civil, social and artistic activities involving music, visual arts, media and sports form the first dimension, and are known as Planning of Culture. The second category termed as the Cultures of Planning means “different institutions have different ways of doing planning”. Social exclusion and issues of ethnicity form
Ashok Kumar, Ph.D., Professor of Physical Planning, Department of Physical Planning, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi
Ashok Kumar, Ph.D. 9 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 the third aspect known as Cultures in Planning. Another dimension to these three ways of examining culture could be added by including social diversity of planning staff in planning offices (Thomas, 2008: 228) and planning schools, universities and other academic institutions primarily dealing with issues pertaining to built environment. We may term the last aspect of cultural diversity as Cultural Practices of Planning. According to this framework, we argue that planning theory has largely been focused on Cultures in Planning, and only recently begun to pay attention to Cultures of Planning (Sanyal, 2005) and Cultural Practices of Planning (Thomas, 2008). This section reviews planning theories in order to highlight the content and significance of the Cultures in Planning, and Cultures of Planning.
Racial and ethnic diversities have been made part of planning theory discourse since the mid-1960s with the publication of a seminal article ‘Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning’ by a lawyer turned planner Paul Davidoff (1965). Core of this classic paper is that cultural values cannot be separated from decision making processes in planning. Decisions taken by planners are inseparable from their values. At about the same time John Friedmann (1967) began researching about planning culture in the Latin American context. He viewed culture as a medium laced with meanings through which planning decisions must pass and in the process necessarily acquire some of those values and attitudes. He invented a model for the analysis of planning behavior (Friedmann, 1967: 228) comprising of three components. First, he developed the notion of non-bounded rationality i.e. ideological and utopian aspects of decision making in opposition to ‘bounded rationality’, implying formal structure of planning laws, rules and regulations. Non-bounded rationalities are values such as equity and sustainability, which could be found in goals and objectives of a plan or planning agency. He also developed another dimension of culture and called it “extra-rational thoughts”. These extra rational thoughts include traditions, intuitions and wisdom (Friedmann, 1967: 234-238). Making another reference to culture John Friedmann emphasized the significance of “experiential knowledge” - non-codified knowledge premised on values and traditions (Friedmann, 1993). Five years later Leonie Sandercock was to forcefully stress in her now globally known book “Towards Cosmopolis - Planning for Multicultural Cities” the importance of multiplicity of knowledges (Sandercock, 1997).
In the late 1980’s and early 1990’s post-modern planning theorists began the much needed task of displacing the high modern theory centered on the rational planning model (for example Healey, 1997, Forester, 1999, Innes and Booher, 1999). This period also saw a major area of theorization developed in planning and urban studies, which could be loosely termed as gender studies (Sandercock, and Forsyth, 1992). Overall, since the last five and a half decades planning theorists have been trying to include culture in planning theory by working on its different strands such as race, color, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, etc.
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Before planning theory could take up the issues of cultural difference, the Chicago School of Urban Sociology had already made a beginning by analyzing internal structures of cities in America (Pacione, 2001). Concentric Zone Theory, for example, presented growth and transformation of a city in the form of concentric circles where each circle represented unique income and social groups. This theory presented transformations in a city through demand side changes. As poor immigrants continued to pile up in the core and the zone of transition, demand by industrial immigrant laborers for housing increased pushing the middle and high income white population to outer rings of a city. Sector Theory examined the supply side aspects of a city structure and argued that as new housing become available for the middle and high income residents, old and dilapidated stock of housing is taken up by immigrants and poor laborers. These two theories of city transformation in the internal structure of a city associate crime, low sex ratio, juvenile delinquency rates and all other negative aspects of city life with immigrants and ethnic minorities without dwelling on reasons for association of negativity with immigrant population. David Harvey in his classic book Social Justice and the City criticized these theories for their physical determinism (Harvey, 1973). Similarly Manuel Castells “dismissed the work of the Chicago School tout court as nothing but an ideology that obfuscates the more fundamental nature of capitalism as a framework of social organization” (Scott and Storper, 2014: 2). Over a period of time cities became hyper complex and these urban theories lost their relevance.
After a gap of over two and a half decades in the midst of huge upheavals experienced due to urban renewal and highways development programs in the U.S., planning theory began to critically examine issues of race and color, and since the last half century planning theory has transformed itself from rational planning model (where the expert planner took the centre stage and issues of culture, gender, race and ethnicity found no place) to collaborative planning model and the right to the city where planner along with others would produce and share the city among diverse racial, ethnic, color, gender, and people of different sexual orientations.
In spite of this long and successful journey of planning theory, even today several planning theorists regard human coexistence as one of the major challenges for planning theory. “One of the key challenges for planning theory, then, is to acknowledge and address the coexistence of peoples with very different sorts of claims to, relationships with and understandings of place – and each other – and its implications for just, equitable and sustainable decision-making in planning systems” (Howitt and Lunkapis, 2010: 109). With this brief overview of initial attempts of planning theorists, in the next section of the paper, we review planning theories and identify salient features of dealing with cultural diversity.
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Table 1: Social and Cultural Diversity in Planning Theory
S. Planning Views on Social Diversity Methods of dealing with Social Diversity No. Theory 1. Advocacy Values of planners inter-penetrate planning Just planning policies should be framed in the full Planning policies and thus values become inseparable public view similar to decisions taken in a court of from planning policies. law. Planning process involves sharing and validation Values and biases of planners should be made of proof by contending parties and justification for public so that positions held by planners remain making certain assertions leading to policy framing. in the public view. Plural plans should be prepared by concerned and Multiplicity of values implies that there exist conflicting stakeholders rather than a singular plan public interests rather than the public interest being prepared by a planning agency based on the as in the case of the rational planning model public interest. constructed by expert planners. Plans and planning policies should compete and Multiplicity of interests could be represented through this competition, quality of planning only by making sure that affected stakeholders policies and proposal could be improved. are present on the table. 2. Equity Planning Planning as practiced places ethnic minorities at Long drawn struggles by public agency planners are an extreme disadvantage and planning actively necessary even at the cost of their jobs. harms them. As far as benefits to local population are concerned, Planning should offer choices to those who planning should act like business i.e. planners have few if any choices i.e. fairness of planning should only support proposals if these benefit local policies should remain central to equity planning citizens. model. Winning trust of political masters is central as Priority in budgetary investments and inwards politicians such as mayors would act as shield investments should be given to those projects between planners and opposing politicians. which address basic needs of the excluded and Propagating just planning policies in media essential marginalized rather than those who could fend and even discrediting policies of the opponents may for themselves. be required. Planning is carried out from within a planning Planning policies should be based on precise agency by public planners entrusted with the research inputs so that solid grounds for supporting task of designing fair planning policies benefiting or opposing certain policies could be presented. local citizens. 3. Radical Planning is treated an emancipatory practice Processes of acquiring skills to carry out radical Planning situated on a continuum moving from societal planning moves from community planning to covert guidance to social transformation or radical planning and when opportunity arises to radical planning. planning. Along with men, income poor and women have During this process of radical planning, stakeholders the capabilities to learn skills to transform their covertly acquire skills of leadership and project lives even in authoritarian regimes. implementation. Created spaces are innovatively used by stakeholders when authoritarian regimes are at their most vulnerable and struggle to stay in power. 4. Collaborative Social diversity is a fact of life and consensus Deliberations are to be conducted under Planning under communicative rationality could bring communicative rationality whereby discussants are about harmony among diverse viewpoints going to be truthful, sincere, and discussions are Planning is treated as a practice of inter- going to be legitimate and comprehensible subjective interaction where the force of Subjects discuss and deliberate relevant issues argument wins under the conditions of ontological security where Differences are not underplayed but highlighted people are not fearful of reprisals for raising radical with the aim of arriving at consensus through issues and merely for disagreements deliberations Multiplicity of subjects and epistemologies is Power is eliminated with the assumption that included and entertained the public sphere is constituted even before Plans are viewed as documents of discourses rather deliberations begin to take shape than scientific instruments of rational planning policies ready for implementation
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S. Planning Views on Social Diversity Methods of dealing with Social Diversity No. Theory 5. Agonistic Conflict among diverse values is endemic and Planning is inherently ideological in its discourses Pluralism non-recognition of its legitimacy is undemocratic and practices, and sociality is made and remade leading to uncivil antagonisms. through acts of power Overcoming the difference between them and us Planning visions and ideals are reflective of desires is not plausible. What is possible is that we could of conflicting but dominant and privileged minorities transform its nature to make this arrangement shaping the public interest compatible with pluralist democracy. Dominant groups impose desired solutions through Power constitutes sociality and is not external master signifier such as sustainability, privatization, to two identities. This means planning need etc. to comprehend the ever changing power Planning obscures agonistic conflicts of difference relationships between identities making between actors and imposes common policies planning a highly political activity in line with by using master signifies such as containment, democratic values. sustainability, smart cities, etc. Unlike collaborative planning where attempts Power makes social relations and vice versa. Since to bring about consensus means elimination power is wide spread, no single actor knows the of power, under this theory planning should universe and have control over it. This makes a attempt to reconstitute power in order to planner one among many decision makers. pursue values such as equality, equity, etc. Combat between enemies is antagonism and Conflicting viewpoints should not result in between adversaries it is agonism. Under agonistic subjects treating one another as enemies but pluralism therefore planning does not seek to adversaries envisage the other as an enemy but adversary. As enemies elimination of one by the other is The chief objective of planning thus is to convert the only possibility while among adversaries antagonism into agonism, and convert stakeholders possibilities of resolving conflicts exists as we from enemies engaged in city riots killing each treat adversaries as legitimate opponents. other to adversaries engaged in resolving potential Power appears to play a positive and productive conflicts through channelization of passions in line role. with democratic values. With adversaries we could coexist because we have common commitment to ethical and political principles of liberty and equality but disagreement exist on the meaning and implementation of these principles.
2. PLANNING THEORIES AND SOCIAL DIVERSITY Cultural diversity in the city has been one of the prominent dimensions of planning theory ever since mid-1960’s when advocate planner Paul Davidoff presented a serious challenge to the homogenizing planning project undertaken under the rubric of the rational planning model (Davidoff, 1965). Davidoff argued that values held by public planners could not be separated from their planning policies and decisions taken by them. He famously noted that there are no planning policy prescriptions that could be made from a position of value neutrality. Myth of value neutrality was busted by the fact that ethnic and racial minorities such as blacks, Hispanics, poor white, etc., were excluded from planning and decision making processes and they generally became victims of urban renewal programs through large scale evictions. This was happening because rationalist planners constructed policies around the mythical notion of the public interest while in the lived city social diversity remained the norm and reality.
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An offshoot of advocacy planning, the Equity Planning Model further demonstrated that income poor minorities were often excluded and disadvantaged by planning. Its main proponent Norman Krumholz argued that it was not market but planning which discriminated against minorities. Planning as it was being practiced in the city of Cleveland was the reason of social exclusion and social deprivation. Norman Krumholz pithily pointed out that “in Cleveland, the poor were more often than not black, the black were more often than not poor” (Krumholz, 1982: 164; also see Yiftachel, 1998). Unlike Advocacy planning, equity planning turned inwards and placed huge responsibility on the public planner as it was supposed to be carried out from within a planning agency. If egalitarian planners in the leadership roles were not available, equity planning model would fail (Table 1 for brief description of post modern planning theories).
3. MARXIAN TRADITIONS IN PLANNING THEORY Political economy model of planning has been criticized by theorists for its inability to recommend solutions to planning problems faced by city dwellers and issues being faced by planners on a day to day basis in planning practice (Sandercock, 1997). Going beyond critical appraisals, several prominent Marxian versions of planning theory has emerged in the last two decades where critical theorists like David Harvey and others have made theoretical recommendations for changing the city and planning practices. These critical theories are based on creative contributions made by scholars like Henri Lefebvre in the form of the right to the city, and the right to difference. We now turn to these theories.
3.1 The Right to the City Right to the city has been in the forefront of critical debate in planning theory (Lefebvre, 1996; Harvey, 2008; Marcuse, 2009). It has been widely debated in urban studies. Here we intend to examine a selected list of authors such as Henri Lefebvre, David Harvey, Peter Marcuse and Mark Purcell to find out implications and potential of the right to the city concept for the realization of the just planning practice for a contested and multi-cultural city. First we turn to the meaning and nature of the right to the city formulation primarily as advocated by Henri Lefebvre.
Right to the city is a collective right and not an individual right, and it contains bundle of claims that the citizens could make on the city. According to Henri Lefebvre “the right to the city is like a cry and a demand. The right to the city cannot be conceived of as a simple visiting right or as a return to traditional cities. It can only be formulated as a transformed and renewed right to urban life. It does not matter whether the urban fabric encloses the countryside and
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what survives of peasant life, as long as the ‘urban’, place of encounter, priority of use value, inscription in space of a time promoted to the rank of a supreme resource among all resources, finds its morphological base and its practico- material realization” (Lefebvre, 1996: 158). Drawing on the work of urban sociologist Robert Park, David Harvey makes a similar point: “The right to the city is not merely a right of access to what already exists, but a right to change it after our heart’s desire. We need to be sure we can live with our own creations (a problem for every planner, architect and utopian thinker). But the right to remake ourselves by creating a qualitatively different kind of urban sociality is one of the most precious of all human rights” (Harvey, 2003: 939). Lefebvre feels that right to the city is right to urban life, “a cry out of necessity and demand for something more” (Marcuse, 2009). Harvey elevates right to the city to one of the most precious of all human rights. Right to city therefore is regarded as a right that contributes to enhancing human flourishing.
As far as the issues of diversity, difference and identity are concerned, the urban is perceived by Lefebvre as the “place of encounter” where different cultures, ethicists, races, gender, etc.; inter-mingle. Inter-mixing of diverse identities has a productive side, where differences are not merely tolerated but unity of human co-existence is seen in diversity. Second important aspect of the right to the city is that it strives to bring about certain semblance of equality and equity among various social groupings in the city by giving priority to use values over exchange value, a similar point also recently made by David, who proposes development of the commons for securing the right to the city. The commons are “both collective and non-commodified-off-limits to the logic of market exchange and market valuations (Harvey, 2012: 73). But development of the commons is a two edged sword” A community group that struggles to maintain ethnic diversity in its neighborhood and protect against gentrification may suddenly find its property prices (and taxes) rising as real estate agents market the “character” of their neighborhood to the wealthy as multicultural, street-lively, and diverse. By the time the market has done its destructive work, not only have the original residents been dispossessed of that common which they had created (often being forced out by rising rents and property taxes), but the common itself becomes so debased as to be unrecognizable (Harvey, 2012: 77-78).
Even going further, many authors take a much broader and critical view of the right to the city and embed it in the sociality of the city (Harvey, 2008; Purcell, 2002). David Harvey, for instance argues “The right to the city is far more than the individual liberty to access urban resources; it is a right to change ourselves by changing the city. It is, moreover, a common rather than an individual right since this transformation inevitably depends upon the exercise of a collective power to reshape the processes of urbanization” (Harvey, 2008: 23). David Harvey
Ashok Kumar, Ph.D. 15 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 then goes on to discuss how the right to the city in the history of capitalist urbanization has been historically conceded and trampled by capitalist mode of production beginning with the Second Empire of Paris, 1848 to the present day New York.
Mark Purcell provides an elaborate review of the original idea of the right to the city by Henri Lefebvre and it is useful to quote him fully in order to clarify the real purpose of the project of the right to the city; His idea is instead a call for a radical restructuring of social, political, and economic relations, both in the city and beyond. Key to this radical nature is that the right to the city reformers the arena of decision making in cities; it reorients decision-making away from the state and toward the production of urban space. Instead of democratic deliberation being limited to just state decisions, Lefebvre imagines it to apply to all decisions that contribute to the production of urban space. The right to the city stresses the need to restructure the power relations that underlie the production of urban space, fundamentally shifting control away from capital and the state and toward urban inhabitants (Purcell, 2002: 101).
What Henri Lefebvre had in mind was complete “reworking both of the social relations of capitalism and the current structure of social democratic citizenship” (Purcell, 2002: 101) and by resisting “the power of capital both directly and by offering radical alternatives to liberal-democratic structures” (Purcell, 2002: 106). This view is extensively promoted by Peter Marcuse and David Harvey who completely reject the current capitalist system and the role of the state, (planning regarded as an important activity of the state) and find it incompatible with the right to the city discourse which is fundamentally transformational and revolutionary (Harvey, 2003, 2008 and Marcuse, 2009). Before I turn to the work of David Harvey, it is important that salient features of the right to the city are highlighted (Purcell, 2002): “The right to the city involves two principal rights for urban inhabitants; the right to participation, and the right to appropriation. The right to participation maintains that citadins [inhabitants] should play a central role in any decision that contributes to the production of urban space. The decision could be under the auspices of the state (such as a policy decision), of capital (an investment/disinvestment decision), a multilateral institution (a WTO trade ruling), or any other entity that affects the production of space in a particular city” (Purcell, 2002: 102). “That agenda is embedded in the second aspect of the right to the city, the right to appropriation. Appropriation includes the right of inhabitants to physically access, occupy, and use urban space, and so this notion has been the primary focus of those who advocate the right of people to be physically present in the space of the city” (Purcell, 2002: 103). Inhabitants of a city would have right to participate in all decisions concerned with the production of space, as defined by Henri Lefebvre inThe Production of
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Space, even when they are not nationals of a particular country or inhabitants of a particular city.
As inhabitants would participate in all decisions that produce space, citadins can now participate in decisions beyond the city and state. “Consider, for example, a hypothetical decision by the Mexican government to alter land-tenure policy in the state of Oaxaca. Current enfranchisement structures would allow Oaxacan citizens, and to an extent all Mexican citizens, to have some (limited) say in the decision. However, land reform in Oaxaca can strongly affect immigration from Oaxaca to Los Angeles (among other places) and has in the past. Such a decision would likely contribute to the production of urban space in Los Angeles by changing its population geography. Therefore, under the right to the city, inhabitants in Los Angeles would have a right to participate centrally in the Mexican government’s decision. Such a right explodes the relatively neat, nested scalar hierarchy that currently characterizes democratic enfranchisement and its Westphalian assumptions. In this example, it extends the reach of Los Angeles citizens beyond the borders of Los Angeles, California, and the United States and into both Mexico city and rural Mexico. It grants Angeleno citadins a seat at the table in Oaxaca and in Mexico city (Purcell, 2002: 104). This may be problematic depending on who participates and how much influence persons and collectivities can bring to bear on decisions at hand.
Under the right to participation [Lefebvre] “insists that inhabitants participate centrally and directly in decision-making. In place of the current regime in which capital and state elites control the decisions that produce urban space, Lefebvre imagines inhabitants as the majority and hegemonic voice” (Purcell, 2002: 103).
“The right to appropriation confronts capital’s ability to valorize urban space, establishing a clear priority for the use value of urban residents over the exchange value interests of capitalist firms. In addition, appropriation reworks control over urban space, resisting the current hegemony of property rights and stressing the primacy of the use-rights of inhabitants. Challenging property rights, of course, means challenging the foundation of capitalist class relations” (Purcell, 2002: 103).
However, Mark Purcell points out that outcome of the right to the city are unpredictable because nature of outcome will be determined by who gets empowered in a changed situation where national scale is subordinated to the urban globally, which itself will have to be defined through struggles. As Henri Lefebvre argues that “the right to the city does not abolish confrontations and struggles. On the contrary”! (Lefebvre, 1976: 195).
David Harvey (2008, 2003) examines the right to the city by closely dissecting and historicizing urbanization under the capitalist mode of production. In the
Ashok Kumar, Ph.D. 17 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 account that follows, I also draw from David Harvey’s lectures available on the internet. He carefully chooses three urban moments: Paris of 1848, United States after the Second World War, and the present urban world. The starting point is that cities have been built out of surplus production under religious oligarchy, imperial powers and the present day capitalism. He argues that capitalists are interested in surplus value or profit and without urbanization surplus value could not be realized. A part of the surplus value is reinvested to stay competitive or just to survive. Capitalism is solely about growth and more growth. Capitalism strives to maintain access to labor, resources, environment and technological advantages and relentlessly circumvents barriers. If it fails to circumvent barriers, capital gets stuck, there is a crisis and it is devalued as over 200 billion US dollars were lost through subprime mortgage lending crisis in 2008 (Harvey, 2011). In a recent article David Harvey makes this point: From their inception, cities have arisen through geographical and social concentrations of a surplus product. Urbanization has always been, therefore, a class phenomenon, since surpluses are extracted from somewhere and from somebody, while the control over their disbursement typically lies in a few hands. This general situation persists under capitalism, of course; but since urbanization depends on the mobilization of a surplus product, an intimate connection emerges between the development of capitalism and urbanization. Capitalists have to produce a surplus product in order to produce surplus value; this in turn must be reinvested in order to generate more surplus value. The result of continued reinvestment is the expansion of surplus production at a compound rate—hence the logistic curves (money, output and population) attached to the history of capital accumulation, paralleled by the growth path of urbanization under capitalism (Harvey, 2008: 24).
Therefore, the right to the city means an evolving and reinforcing urban condition of political democratization whereby collectively inhabitants take all decisions contributing to the production of space in opposition to the present structural arrangements in which the state and capital together has hegemonic powers over the production and reproduction of space to serve their own interests. The exchange value replaces use value contributing to human well-being of all inhabitants by reshaping the processes of urbanization. As two parts i.e. right to participation and right to appropriation make the right to the city, right to occupy and use urban space becomes a collective right leading to the elimination of current stale and irrelevant debates about legality and illegality of occupation of land by squatters, and drastically reduces normative and practical significance of property relations – one of the bedrocks of the capitalist system. The right to the city, therefore, forms the concrete basis for real transformation from post-political democratic set-up to political democracy where citizens play the central role in producing space for their own needs rather than for accumulation of capital.
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3.2 The Right to Difference Right to difference complements the right to the city. Henri Lefebvre has conceived the right to difference in a manner which has connotations similar to being able to disagree and contest. The right to difference stresses that people are able to refuse to be classified into categories determined by the “homogenizing powers”. To accept solidarities built around particularities imposed by dominant others would mean to accept marginalization and remain entrapped in established categories. This right also implies that people have a right to resist and struggle to create differential spaces. This right like the right to the city is obtained through political struggles in concrete and material practices.
The right to difference and the right to the city are interconnected. The right to the city “is the right of every social group to be involved in all levels of decision making which shape the control and organization of social space. It is also the right not to be excluded from the spaces of the city center and segregated in residential neighborhoods. The right to the city is logically extended by the right to difference: the right to be free from externally imposed, pre-established classifications of identity” (McCann, 1999: 181).
Translators of Henri Lefebvre’s ‘Writings on Cities’ Kofman and Lebas further elaborate the relationship between the right to the city and the right to difference: The right to the city, complemented by the right to difference and right to information, should modify, concretize and make more practical the rights of the citizen as an urban dweller (citadin) and user of multiple services. It would affirm, on one hand, the right of the users to make known their ideas on the space and time of their activities in the urban area; it would also cover the right to the use of the center, a privileged place, instead of being dispersed and stuck into ghettos (for workers, immigrants, the “marginal” and even for the privileged) (Kofman and Lebas, 1996: 34).
Both in developed and developing countries the right to difference is not fully recognized. On the contrary large scale rioting in cities of the west and evictions of large swathes of urban populations in countries like India is a common occurrence. Take the case of involuntary evictions of squatters from mega cities of Delhi and Mumbai on a regular basis by the state. Even those who are not evicted and continue to live in regularized squatters do not have their right to difference protected as labeling them squatters (meaning persons occupying public or private land without legally recognized ownership rights) itself violates their right to difference. Seeing from a different perspective, an argument could be made that circumstances got created, where either the state failed to protect their social, economic, and above all their political rights, or the state actively participated in those processes that precipitated such circumstances as migration from rural
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Table 2: Prominent Characteristics of the Marxian Planning Theories S. Planning Views on Diversity Methods of dealing with Cultural No. Theory Diversity 1. The Right to the Cities are for all sorts of people and Use values are privileged over City not for creation of surplus values or exchange values meaning peoples’ profits alone. needs take precedence over accumulation of surplus values All citadins have the right to participate through exchange of commodities in in the production and use of all the the market place. resources of a city i.e. materialization of citizenship. One way to secure the right to the city is to develop the commons, which All citadins have the right to participate are subject to market determinations in all decision making processes that i.e. non-commodified and collectively in any way are concerned with the owned. production of built environment. 2. The right to the Social identity should be affirmed by Citizens are able to contest about the Difference groups belonging to such identities, production and use urban spaces. and not by others, promoting human dignity Planners would write plans in the manner that social categories do not Social identities imposed by non- prove detrimental to any city dweller belonging subjects are homogenizing as slum dwellers are written about leading to de-valorization and and treated today globally. indignation.
People are able to refuse to be classified into categories determined by the ‘homogenizing powers’. to urban areas and displacement due to land acquired under eminent domain for developmental projects without equitable and just compensation (Table 2).
We believe that a new theory of planning could be constructed by putting together post-modern theories and selective literature cultural studies. This theory should draw from works as different as Ash Amin’s micro-publics (2002), Sandercock’s living with difference (2003), Nancy Fraser’s idea of collapsing recognition, redistribution and representation or participatory parity (Fraser, 2000) and David Harvey’s notion of Collective and De-Commodified Commons (Harvey, 2012). The core idea is to transform the multicultural city and planning practice in this city by promoting inter-cultural understanding. Purposive encounters capable of transforming fixed negative understandings about cultural minorities are a good starting point.
4. DIVERSITY AND THE FUTURE OF PLANNING THEORY Planning theories have made major inroads in dealing with the complex issues of culture, race, ethnicity, and gender. As we can see from Table 1, however,
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planning theories have failed to theorize effective frameworks, processes, and tools for making the city just from the perspectives of diversity of identities based on gender and sexual orientations on one hand, and racial and ethnic minorities on the other. Our contention is that planning theories should directly speak to the lived city experience and the actually existing planning practices, which mean planning theories, should present realizable frameworks, processes, and tools in the murky world of city politics. We believe that “the goal of planning is the ability to cope with complex social problems” (Mantysalo, 2002: 421). Positivist theories and theories such as collaborative planning are too naive for dealing with thorny issues of identity, diversity and difference. This does not imply that planning theory should become a “how to do” guide book. We propose Inclusive Planning Theory of Difference.
4.1 Integration of Redistribution and Recognition Identity is central to our being. Identity is who we are and how we locate ourselves within a social context. It also means how society views an individual or a group. This means identity is relational that is all identities are defined with reference to self and the other (Penrose and Mole, 2008: 276 after Massey, 2004: 5). Attaching pivotal importance to identity, noted political theorists Axel Honneth, Charles Taylor and Nancy Fraser view recognition as “a vital human need” and part of the project of social justice. Nancy Fraser, for example, argues: Recognition from others is thus essential to the development of a sense of self. To be denied recognition -- or to be “mis-recognized”—is to suffer both a distortion of one’s relation to one’s self and an injury to one’s identity (Fraser, 2000: 109).
Prior to Nancy Fraser, Charles Taylor has argued that “Non-recognition or mis- recognition … can be a form of oppression, imprisoning someone in a false, distorted, reduced mode of being. Beyond simple lack of respect, it can inflict a grievous wound, saddling people with crippling self-hatred. Due recognition is not just a courtesy but a vital human need” (Taylor, 1992: 25). Axel Honneth argues that mis-recognition is “injurious because it impairs these persons in their positive understanding of self - an understanding acquired by inter-subjective means” (Honneth, 1992: 189; also see Honneth, 2004). Mis-recognition is, therefore, a form of cultural injustice. When cultural injustice gets institutionalized, cultural remedies are required, which may involve “recognizing and positively valorizing cultural diversity. More radically still, it could involve the wholesale transformation of societal patterns of representation, interpretation and communication in ways that would change everybody’s sense of self” (Fraser, 1995: 73, italics in the original).
Yiftachel, Golhaber and Nuriel (2008) argue that recognition should be viewed as a multi-faceted socio-political process, with possibilities ranging from benign “affirmative recognition’, through ‘marginalizing indifference”, to “oppressive
Ashok Kumar, Ph.D. 21 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 hostile recognition”. Most urban poor living in slums and squatters of globe could be grouped under marginalizing indifference or oppressive hostile categories of recognition leading to partial or full exclusion from decision making regimes facilitating shelter and other public provisions. This raises another important social justice issue of redistribution and recognition (Fraser and Honneth, 2003). While government has placed greater emphasis on redistribution of resources, less stress is placed on tacking the issue of recognition in urban planning policies. Mis-recognition of individuals could cause unimaginable damage to vulnerable communities and slow down or even derail the process of development including that of social integration.
Nancy Fraser points out, “Recognition from others is thus essential to the development of a sense of self. To be denied recognition-or to be ‘mis-recognized’ is to suffer both a distortion of one’s relation to one’s self and an injury to one’s identity” (Fraser, 2000). It is argued that injustices suffered predominantly due to cultural mis-recognition could be remedied by acting upon “cultural-valuational structure’ rather than ‘political-economic redistribution” alone. Therefore, by solely relying on physical interventions intended at redistribution of resources such as land and housing, we may end up contributing to identity based problems.
Therefore, by taking inclusive turn, planning is equally concerned with the issues of identity based on gender, caste, ethnicity, region and religion. Identity in inclusive planning is viewed as multidimensional resulting in benefits as well as discriminations depending on the social context (see Yiftachel, Golhaber and Nuriel, 2008). To live with difference implies that along with valorization of social and cultural identities, attempts should be made for fair distribution of economic resources (Fraser, 2000). Her idea of social justice is that all humans should be able to participate in social life on equal footing. She calls this “participatory parity”. In order to ensure “participatory parity” she insists that all three elements are necessary. “No redistribution or recognition without representation” (Fraser, 2008: 282).
4.2 Micro-Publics and Subaltern Counter Publics Writing immediately after the 2001 city riots in England, Ash Amin made a radical contribution to inter-cultural understanding by striking a balance between “cultural autonomy and social solidarity” (Amin, 2002: 974). He argued that naturally occurring social interactions and encounters among people of diverse cultures in the public spaces are not sufficient for promoting understanding among cultures. In order to encourage understanding among people belonging to different cultures Ash Amin painstakingly constructed the idea of “micro- publics”. For Amin micro-publics are local spaces of interdependence and encounter capable of displacing, destabilizing and transforming historically and materially situated biases or de-valorized notions of cultural differences into
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positive social relations among diverse cultural communities even when their differences are kept alive.
Cultural change in these circumstances is likely if people are encouraged to step out of their routine environment, into other everyday spaces that function as sites of unnoticeable cultural questioning or transgression. Here too, interaction is of a prosaic nature, but these sites work as spaces of cultural displacement. Their effectiveness lies in placing people from different backgrounds in new settings where engagement with strangers in a common activity disrupts easy labelling of the stranger as enemy and initiates new attachments. They are moments of cultural destabilization, offering individuals the chance to break out of fixed relations and fixed notions, and through this, to learn to become different through new patterns of social interaction (Amin, 2002: 969-970).
Interdependence implies coming out of comfort zones of routine interactions and getting involved in shared pursuits where shared tasks could be accomplished only when everyone, minority and majority players, play their parts. A prime example of such a transformative space is a college, which attracts people of different social backgrounds in very uncertain situations where carefully crafted multicultural projects could be prepared and implemented in order to promote inter-cultural understanding. Intent to promote cultural understanding is the key to success of micro-publics. Other similar examples are sports associations, music clubs, etc. Even in residential areas communal gardens, community centres, neighborhood - watch schemes, child-care facilities, youth projects, regeneration of derelict spaces, etc.; could act as spaces of interdependence (Amin, 2002).
Along with the above mentioned “micro-publics”, Ash Amin makes a radical proposal of what he calls “legislative theatres” where people from different cultures could enact role exchanges or simply get themselves involved in plays aimed at highlighting problems of diversity with the aim of promoting inter- cultural understanding. “The performances, which are engaging as they are run by professional artists, can be emotionally charged as they unravel controversial local issues and deeply held prejudices within the community. The theatrical event is a means of questioning entrenched views and altering opinions through enactment” (Amin, 2002: 971).
In order for the “micro-publics” to effectively work for inter-cultural understanding, Ash Amin places a number of stringent conditions. These are: Using Chantel Mouffe’s (2000) concept of “agnostic pluralism” and specifically the idea of adversaries (friendly enemy), Ash Amin argues that micro-politics of the local public sphere should aim at clash of ideas and diverse understandings without the burden of creating homogeneous communities. The point is that reasons for resentments and misunderstanding are made public.
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Citizenship must not be held but practiced in the local or micro places. In order to do so a number of steps are required to taken by governments in the absence of which the formulation “micro-publics” will not work. “Without effective policing of racism, without strong legal, institutional, and informal sanctions against racial and cultural hatred, without a public culture that stops bracketing minorities as ‘guests’ or worse in Britain, and without better minority ethnic representation and influence in mainstream organizations, the ethnic inequality that flows from a national culture assuming White supremacy will not be tackled” (Amin, 2002: 973). Alongside these cultural policies attempts should also be made by government to fairly redistribute economic resources through different policy mechanisms.
The idea of micro-publics is aimed at securing ‘the right to presence’ (Amin, 2002: 972) and ‘the right to visibility’ (Amin, 2002: 977). Mica Nava (2006) further developed the idea of micro-publics and called it ‘domestic cosmopolitanism’ by including other spaces like cinema halls, mediated TV shows, multiplexes, etc. Before Mica Nava, Sandercock (2003) has echoed Ash Amin’s idea of micro-publics and specifically its destabilizing power to unsettle fixed cultural categories.
Gill Valentine (2014: 88) is cautious about the usefulness of the idea of micro- publics. She argues that “in the context of negative encounters minority individuals are perceived to represent members of a wider social group, but in positive encounters minority individuals tend to be read only as individuals”. She argues that inter-cultural understanding cannot be promoted through the use ‘micro-publics’ because ‘they do not destabilise white majority community- based narratives of economic and/or cultural victim - hood’ (Valentine, 2014: 89). Since injustices are embedded in ‘history, material conditions and power’, greater emphasis should be placed on comprehending accumulated histories, material resource distribution and competition for their use by diverse cultural groups, and conflict among rights. Specifically we should focus on how histories could contribute to our understanding of ‘feelings about urban encounters’ both by majorities and minorities.
There are possibilities of putting together ideas developed by Ash Amin (2002) and Gill Valentine (2014) to come to some tentative conclusions. We propose that the idea of micro-publics is workable if important cultural, material and historical issues are simultaneously addressed. First and most important of all is the fact that governments must create policy framework sympathetic to minorities and even micro-publics as broadly defined by Mica Nava (2006) could be used to raise awareness levels among people of different cultures. Second, alongside recognition issues, the issues of redistribution of material wealth are also required to be addressed in order to transcend ‘the politics of envy’ (Amin, 2002: 974). Third, apart from diversity issues and material concerns, the issue of conflicting rights of majorities and minorities need to be settled. Fourth, we
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need to see how far histories could be used as contributor to making encounters more meaningful.
Nancy Fraser develops the idea of ‘subaltern counter-publics’ referring to parallel discursive arenas where members of subordinated social groups invent and circulate counter-discourses to formulate oppositional interpretations of their identities, interests, and needs’ (Fraser, 1990: 67). Counter-publics are used to contest fixed cultural meanings and are aimed at ‘widening of discursive contestations …’. Contestation takes between dominant publics and subaltern counter-publics.
4.3 Legislation, Markets, Dialogue, and the Other Leonie Sandercock (2000: 17-23) identifies four responses in order to make planning practice conform to antidiscrimination legislation and multicultural policies. First, we should begin by making changes to planning statutes and planning byelaws through normal legislative and administrative processes and if that is not possible through challenges in the courts and tribunals. Sandercock is concerned about the fact that without concerted efforts through social movements supporting cultural minorities, such legislative changes may be slow to come by. Second, markets could be used to make planning practice culturally inclusive. She offers examples of minority builders constructing houses and religious buildings for them as they know skills respecting religious and social sentiments of the minorities while producing these built environments. By relaxing planning guidelines, planners could facilitate cultural diversity and valorize identity of minorities and tackle the thorny issue of immigration as a problem. This kind of change would, for example, stop peripheralization of location of religious spaces of minorities. Third, planners should learn to dialogue and negotiate with minorities premised on multiplicity epistemologies. Sandercock places a lot of emphasis on re-skilling planners working in multi-cultural cities. Planners should learn to dialogue, mediate and negotiate with the minorities based on multiple of knowledges (see Sandercock, 1997 where she has discussed various form of knowledges). Fourth, it is argued that fear overwhelms everyone in the cities of difference and that planners should learn to come terms with the fear of the other. All of us different and strangers to each other and we need to learn to live with difference. Sandercock then develops what she call ‘therapeutic approach’ to planning practice involving three elements: construction of safe spaces for discussion among different groups, conduct of joint group discussions to frame broad principles and guidelines for taking decisions about the future, and last providing guidance to a planning agency about the issue at hand (Sandercock, 2000: 25).
4.4 Development of Collective and De-Commodified Commons Specific kind of urbanization has led to shrinking of communal and collective spaces. Even before the issue of accessibility of communal spaces to cultural
Ashok Kumar, Ph.D. 25 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 minorities, the question of their existence assumes prominence. Evidence shows that shrinking collective spaces have also caused increase in private spaces for women in the house and leading to activities such as care for children, looking after the house, etc.; all alone when men go about doing work and building their careers. Sub-urbanization perpetuated this trend in America.
Patsy Healey’s often quoted definition of planning: ‘managing our co-existence in shared space’ (Healey, 1997: 3) becomes relevant if the goal of planning is to create just cities in a globalized, multicultural, racially and ethnically diverse, and gendered city.
Development of de-commodified commons without market determinations (Harvey, 2012) is one of the important components of the Inclusive Planning Theory of Difference. The commons are expected to generate social encounters among different kind of individuals and groups in city spaces. Apart from development of the de-commodified commons, this theory aims to unsettle the concepts of public and private and the way they relate to lives of women (Fenster, 2007 and 2005). Recent research has shown that the commons even those owned by the public are scarcely used by minorities. For example, due to location of parks (measured in terms of travel time from a house to a park); minorities rarely visit public parks. Earlier studies of course have shown that minorities are absent from public parks because of socioeconomic marginality, differing cultural norms, and the lingering legacy of discrimination (Weber and Sultana, 2013).
4.5 Identification of Women Centered Planning Concerns Inclusive planning theory must begin by identifying issues concerning women in the city. There are several occasions when urban planning could contribute to highlighting and resolving women centered issues. In 1978 International Journal of Urban and Regional Research published a special issue focusing on transport, housing and day care. In 1980 another journal titled Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society published on women and the city (Wekerle, 1980: S189). They focused on areas such as the role of the women in the planning profession, causes and impacts of sub-urbanization on women, the contribution of women to the city, the ways in which cities both empower and suppress women, the relationship between the concept of the family wage and women’s economic status and a vision of a city free from discrimination (after Fainstein and Servon, 2005: 7).
An important paper ‘A Gender Agenda: New Directions for Planning Theory’ was published by Leonie Sandercock and Ann Forsyth (1992: 49) in which they discussed five areas: spatial, economic, and social relationships; language and communication; epistemology and methodology; ethics; and the nature of the public domain.
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4.5.1 Safety in the City Women remain unsafe in the Indian city. They are physically assaulted and raped; they are even murdered when they go about doing their normal chores such as going to work, picking up children from school, going with a friend for the movie, etc. Safety becomes an imperative question whenever women move about in the city. Urban planning has been unable to discuss and ameliorate violence against women (Sweet, 2010). Safety does not imply ghettoization of women herding them into a safer place away from the gaze of men. Transport planners and managers have often come out with these solutions. About a decade ago I visited Chennai on an official trip. In this otherwise peaceful city, women and men travelled separately in public buses. All public buses were divided into two parts; men went into their own space and women into their own. Anyone violating this norm was severely reprimanded by the driver or the conductor. Delhi Metro presents another example of ghettoization of women. While Delhi aspires to become a global city and policy makers use Delhi Metro as one of the global symbols of modern commuting in a safe, affordable and environment friendly mode of mass rapid transit system, women are made to feel safer only if they travel in a reserved coach. A majority of women we recently interviewed also feel safer in a reserved coach. Mumbai local and perhaps modes of mass rapid transit in other cities are equally exclusionary.
4.5.2 Gendered Decision Making Processes Women are often excluded from top decision making positions. For example, so far no woman is appointed as the Chief Planner of the Town and Country Planning Organization, New Delhi. Similarly, Delhi Development Authority did not appoint a woman Planning Commissioner since the last five and a half decade of its existence. Top educational institutions are no better than professional organizations. School of Planning and Architecture Delhi has not been able to appoint a single female Director since its existence. Professional bodies are equally exclusionary as far as women are concerned. All Presidents, Vice Presidents, Secretary Generals, and member of the top decision making body of the Institute of Town Planners India have been men. Women, if at all included, remain at the margins.
Absence of women from important decision making arenas in planning has sidestepped spatial issues directly linked to women. Women’s needs have been ignored. As Susan Fainstein asserts: “The powerlessness of women contributed to the insensitivity of planning in regard to their needs for day care, transit, and community support. The inadequacy of suburban development in meeting female needs and the isolation of housewives in suburban homes were the target of considerable feminist opprobrium (Fainstein, 2003: 7).
4.5.3 Accessibility From city to a neighborhood level, women do not find themselves included in all kinds of communal spaces. Recently I visited Srinagar on the invitation of the
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Srinagar Development Authority for the review of the Master Plan of the city. The city has a large number of open spaces and most of these are well maintained. Generally speaking few people visited these open spaces even during the month of May. But I did not find single women in these limited numbers of open spaces that I visited during my short trip. Culture may have played a role in keeping women out of these community spaces.
Another example from Srinagar concerns our visit to a grand mosque. I saw no women within the premises of the mosque, more specifically in the area where believers prayed. Even we were asked our names and requested to stand apart from the people who followed Islam. Being confronted with a question – what is your name – offended me and my colleagues gravely. I asked people standing outside the mosque, why there are no women inside the mosque. They pointed toward a group of women standing by the outer wall of the mosque gesturing that women could pray only from outside. Astounding as it may seem, religion has been used to keep women out of important communal spaces in the cities.
4.5.4 Mobility Percent of working women is much less than men. One way to create women friendly city is that they become equal partner in the city’s economy and contribute as greatly as men do to the economic health of the city. Mobility is central to women’s participation in the economic affairs of the city. Work and residence are separated through land use zoning. Thus there are hindrances to the mobility of women in the city. “As more women have become wage earners the physical constraints of this type of city have become apparent. Child care is rarely close to employment centers. When unavailable, women are severely constrained by the difficult decision between not having children and paying for child care in lost wages or lost time. Similarly, mass transit is scheduled for rational commutes to work rather than the erratic movements of women responsible for both domestic duties and paid work” (Sandercock and Forsyth, 1992: 50).
4.5.5 Different Women Women as a category represent acute differences, which needs to be valorized rather than suppressed. We cannot underestimate these vast differences between women as normalization or universalization of the category of women is harmful to gender sensitive. For example, a daily wage earner construction worker living in a slum uses her neighborhood and the city very differently from an executive officer of a large multinational firm. While both are women but both view and use city’s resources very differently. This implies that welfare of these women is served better if planning policies are firmly focused on their differences rather than their sex alone. Access to potable water, minimum shelter, basic education for her children, and the fear of evictions due to lack of tenure security, and of
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course finding out daily work are paramount issues for the construction worker. These are non-issues for the income rich women, but she also uses the city resources. Child care spaces, reliable public transit system, access to quality physical and social infrastructure, and availability and reliability of servants are crucial issues for the chief executive. Same planning policies and policies which underplay the existence of women are unlikely to serve the interests and needs of women generally and her various categories.
4.5.6 Feminization of Poverty Women spend a lot of their time in care giving activities at home. This is entirely unpaid work and is not monetized. Even this kind of work is devalued by men. Since women are obliged to spend a lot of their time in care giving activities, they remain constrained to do paid work. Master plans build cities with a rational man in mind who makes rational trips from home to work and back devoting his entire duty time at the work place. Work place is exclusively meant for work. Women have other obligations apart from work at workplace. She could work only if planning includes her requirements into planning policies. As Susan Fainstein notes: “Nevertheless, public transit that would enable women to free themselves from chauffeuring children, day-care that would permit them to work, clustering of housing so that they could share chores with their neighbors were all contrary to the dominant ideal” (Fainstein, 2003: 8).
4.5.7 Men Make the Urban Census of India classifies urban areas into statutory towns and census towns. Statutory towns are those settlements which have a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc. Census towns are all other places which satisfy the following criteria:
• A minimum population of 5,000; • At least 75 percent of the male main working population engaged in non- agricultural pursuits; and • A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq km
These criteria clearly revalorize men’s work and therefore ignore women’s work completely. Census of India sees no value in including female in the second criterion assuming significant number of women do not really work innon- agricultural activities in our cities. Second, only main male workers are included and marginal workers are excluded from the relevant criteria. Most women work as marginal workers because of the burden of care giving activities for which largely women have an obligation. Third, apart from population projections, projection of workers determines policy proposals pertaining to future economic activities in any urban settlement. Surely excluding women from the economic sphere in the city would undermine such projections as well as policies.
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Urban planning practice has been unable to include women in planning by not specifically addressing gender issues generally and women issues particularly. Exclusion of women from important positions in planning organizations, professional bodies, and higher educational institutions has made planning insensitive to women’s issues. So much so that male planners in India generally feel that there are no planning issues that are solely relevant to women. While gender sensitive research in development studies in India and other developing countries have even shown the way to the western researchers, urban planning has been silent on women’s issues. Totalizing tendencies of scientific rationalism, the foundation stone of all planning in India, has stubbornly ignored gender concerns.
5. CONCLUSIONS Cultural diversity in our cities presents problems, sometimes leading to violence as in the case of identity specific genocide in the western world during the Second World War. Cities may be cultural contested but this author has presented the preliminary contours of a theory of cultural inter-mingling through four main ways, the micro-publics being the most potent one. Peaceful co-existence of a diversity of people is possible and planners have a significant role to play in actualizing this cultural inter-mingling by way of existing and innovative instruments. It goes without saying that deployment of these instruments would be culture specific and locale specific. The degree of success would depend not only on how far planners believe in advantages of cultural diversity but how far they are prepared to involve themselves in the resolution of cultural conflicts through planning processes and instruments.
REFERENCES Abram, S. (2011) Culture and Planning, Ashgate, Surrey, England. Amin, A. (2002) Ethnicity and the multicultural city: living with diversity, Environment and Planning A, Vol. 34, pp. 959 – 980. Davidoff, P. (1965) Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning, Journal of the American Institute of Planners, Vol. XXXI, pp. 331- 338. Fainstein, S. (2003) Gender and Planning: Theoretical Issues, Papers in Planning 03.01, Columbia University, New York. Fainstein, S. and Servon, L.J. (2005) Gender and Planning: A Reader, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey. Fenster, T. (2007) ‘Gender and the City: the Different Formations of Belonging’, in Lise Nelson and Joni Seager (eds.) A Companion to Feminist Geography, Wiley, London. Fishman, R. (2012) ‘New Urbanism’, in Bishwapriya Sanyal, Lawrence J. Vale, Christina D. Rosan (eds.) Planning Ideas That Matter, Live1ability, Territoriality, Governance and Reflective Practice, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Forester, J. (1999) The Deliberative Practitioner: Encouraging Participatory Planning Processes, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Fraser, N. (1990) Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy, Social Text, No. 25/26, pp. 56-80.
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Fraser, N. (1995) From Redistribution to Recognition? Dilemmas of Justice in ‘Post- Socialist’ Age, New Left Review, Vol. I/212, pp. 68-93. Fraser, N. (2000) Rethinking Recognition, New Left Review, Vol. 3, pp. 107-120. Fraser, N. and Honneth, A. (2003) Redistribution or Recognition: A Political-Philosophical Exchange, Verso books, London. Fraser, N. (2008) Reframing Justice in a globalized World in k. Olson (ed.) Adding Insult to Injury: Nancy Fraser debates her Critics, Verso, London. Friedmann, J. (1967) A Conceptual Model for the Analysis of Planning Behavior, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 225-252. Harvey, D. (1973) Social Justice and the City, Edward Arnold, London. Harvey, D. (1996) Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference, Blackwell, Oxford. Harvey, D. (2003) The Right to the City, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, Vol.27, No.4, pp.939-941. Harvey, D. (2008) The Right to the City, New Left Review, Vol.53, pp.23-40. Harvey, D. (2011) Roepke Lecture in Economic Geography – Crises, Geographic Disruptions and the Uneven Development of Political Responses, Economic Geography, Vol.87, No.1, pp.1–22. Harvey, D. (2012) Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution, Verso, New York. Healey, P. (1997) Collaborative Planning: Shaping Places in Fragmented Societies, MacMillan, London. Honneth, A. (1992) Integrity and Disrespect: Principles of a Conception of Morality based on the Theory of Recognition, Political Theory, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 187-201. Honneth, A. (2004) Recognition and Justice, Outline of a Plural Theory of Justice, Political Theory, Vol. 47, No. 4, pp. 351-364. Howitt, R. and Lunkapis, G.J. (2010) ‘Coexistence: Planning and Challenge of Indigenous Rights’, in Jean Hillier and Patsy Healey (eds.) The Ashgate Research Companion to Planning Theory, Conceptual Challenges for Spatial Planning, Ashgate, Surrey, England. Innes, J.E. and Booher, D.E. (1999) Consensus building as role playing and bricolage: toward a theory of collaborative planning, Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp. 9–26. Krumholz, N. (1982) A Retrospective View on Equity Planning, Cleveland 1969-1979, Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol.48, No.2, pp.163-174. Lefebvre, H. (1976) The Survival of Capitalism, Translated by F Bryant. Allison and Busby, London. Lefebvre, H. (1996) Writings on Cities, Translated by Eleonore Kofman and Elizabeth Lebas, Blackwell, Oxford. McCann, E.J. (1999) Race, Protest, and Public Space: Contextualizing Lefebvre in the U.S. City, Antipode, Vol.3, No.2, pp.163-184. Mäntysalo, R. (2002) Dilemmas in Critical Planning Theory, Town Planning Review, Vol. 73, No. 4, pp.417-436. Massey, D. (2004) Geographies of Responsibility, Geografiska Annaler, Vol. 86 (B), pp. 5-18. Marcuse, P. (2009) From Critical Urban Theory to the Right to the City, City, Vol.13, Nos.2-3, pp.185-197.
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Nava, M. (2006) ‘Domestic Cosmopolitanism and Structures of Feeling: the Specificity of London’, in Nira Yuval-Davis, Kalpana Kannabiran and Ulrike M. Vieten (eds.) The Situated Politics of Belonging, Sage, London. Penrose, J. and Mole, R.C.M. (2008) ‘Nation-State and National Identity’, in Kevin R. Cox, Murray Low and Jennifer Robinson (Eds.) The Sage Handbook of Political Geography, Sage, London. Pacione, M. (2001) Models of Urban Land Use Structure in Cities of the Developed World, Geography, Vol. 86, No. 2, pp. 97-119. Purcell, M. (2002) Excavating Lefebvre: The right to the city and its urban politics of the inhabitant, GeoJournal, Vol.58, pp.99–108, Sandercock, L. (1997) Towards Cosmopolis: Planning for Multicultural Cities, Wiley, London. Sandercock, L. (2000) When Strangers become Neighbors: Managing Cities of Difference, Planning Theory and Practice, Vol.1, No.1, pp.13-30. Sandercock, L. (2003) Cosmopolis II: Mongrel Cities of the 21st Century, Athlone Press, London. Sandercock, L. and Forsyth, A. (1992) A Gender Agenda: New Directions for Planning Theory, Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol. 58, No. 1, pp.49-59. Sanyal, B. (ed.) (2005) Comparative Planning Cultures, Routledge, New York. Sanyal, B., Vale, L.J. and Rosan, C.D. (2012) ‘Four Planning Conversations’, in Bishwapriya Sanyal, Lawrence J. Vale, Christina D. Rosan (eds.) Planning Ideas That Matter, Liveability, Territoriality, Governance and Reflective Practice, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Scott, A.J. and Storper, M. (2015) The Nature of Cities: The Scope and Limits of Urban Theory, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, Vol. 39, Issue 1, pp.1-15. Sweet, E.L. (2010) Planning responds to Gender Violence: Evidence from Spain, Mexico and the United States, Urban Studies, Vol. 47, No. 10, pp. 2129-2147. Taylor, C. (1992) Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Thomas, J.M. (2008) The Minority-Race Planner in the Quest for a Just City, Planning Theory, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 227–247. Valentine, G. (2014) ‘Living with Difference: Reflections on Geographies of Encounter’, in Ronan Paddison and Eugene McCann (eds.) Cities and Social Change: Encounters with Contemporary Urbanism, Sage, London. Weber, J. and Sultana, S. (2013) Why Do So Few Minority People Visit National Parks? Visitation and the Accessibility of “America’s Best Idea”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 103, Issue 3, pp. 437-464. Yiftachel, O. (1998) Planning and Social Control: Exploring the Dark Side, Journal of Planning Literature, Vol.12, No.4, pp.395-406. Yiftachel, O., Golhaber, R. and Nuriel, R. (2008) Urban Justice and Recognition, Affirmation and Hostility in Beer Sheva, A paper presented at the Spatial Justice Conference in Nanterre, Paris. Wekerle, G.R. (1980) Women in the Urban Environment, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, Vol.5, No.3, Supplement, pp.S188 - S214.
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Professional Ethics in Town Planning : A Case of Developed and Developing Countries
Mervyn Joy Daniel and Navneet Munoth, Ph.D.
Abstract Ethical professional behavior is regarded crucial in implementing planning proposals, which are in the public interest. Code of professional conduct of the Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI); code of ethics and professional conduct framed by the AICP; and code of professional conduct of ITPI are discussed in this paper, in order to show relevance of code of conduct in conducting ethical planning practice, along with the code of professional conduct. As ITPI framed its code of professional conduct in 1951, the paper urge to ITPI to revisit the same taking into consideration the global examples of code of conduct.
1. INTRODUCTION This paper discusses the ethical values imparted during planning education and its implications on the profession of town planning. Any sort of ethical misconduct by planners, a set of professional ethics is a prerequisite for the participants in the town planning process. As an individual or an organization, values are what determine the difference between right and wrong and action of doing the right or wrong thing is known as ethics. Therefore, the ethical values in the planning process are defined as behaving ethically in a consistent manner with what is right or moral? A planning process exists to serve the public interest even though the public interest is a debatable topic. This process requires a proper view of the policies and actions that serve the community in its best interests.
Ethical values in town planning are derived from the general values of the society and also from a planner’s responsibility to serve the public interest. As the basic values of a city society are often in competition with each other, so these principles often compete (Navran, 2010). This can be better explained through two different sets of ethical values such as the need to provide the public with full information and the need to respect confidentiality of the various stakeholders involved in the planning process.
An ethical judgement is based on facts and knowledge of a particular situation and more importantly on the ethical principles derived from a town planning process which should always faithfully serve the public interest. These ethical
Mervyn Joy Daniel, Department of Architecture and Planning, MANIT Bhopal. Email: [email protected] Dr. Navneet Munoth, Ph. D.; Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture and Planning, MANIT Bhopal. Email: [email protected]
Mervyn Joy Daniel and Navneet Munoth, Ph.D. 33 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 values play an important role as they are the component which help in the preparation of a set of ethical principles for the planning profession and is then further implemented as the Code of Conduct by a planning organization (IFPHK, 2014). This Code of Conduct guides the planning process participants to strive and achieve high standards of professionalism so that the public respect for the planning process is maintained and the people who practice this profession should not bring this profession or the related organizations into disrepute. These ethical values also inspire those who are practicing planners as they pursue improvements in their competence as well as development of the aspiring planners. These professional planners also recognize that enhancing this profession of planning leads to a greater public respect for planning and also to consider the public interest.
2. PROFESSIONAL ETHICS IN PLANNING This paper discusses professional ethics practiced in the planning process and ethical principles involved in the formulation and implementation of a proper Code of Conduct. It also entails the necessity for a Code of Conduct in the planning profession at the national and global levels.
2.1 Ethical Principles Ethical principles are the statements which in general express ethical values and integrated standards that planning professionals should adhere to in their professional activities. These principles are also aspirational and tend to provide guidance to planning process participants on an appropriate and acceptable professional behavior (APA, January 2014). By following a set of ethical principles these planners tend to provide services in the interests of the clients with exemplary ethical and professional standards. As a part of their commitment, this set of ethical principles invokes planners to agree to uphold and promote interests of the planning profession for the benefit of the society. These principles also reflect the planner’s recognition of their responsibilities to the public and clients, and the intent and concept of these ethical principles is adapted and enforced on the planning professionals further in the form of a Code of Conduct comprising the Rules of Conduct.
2.2 Code of Conduct A Code of Conduct is a set of rules which outlines the ethical responsibilities and proper practices to be followed by any member of a planning institution. This set of rules takes into account the ethical values, ethical and professional standards, guidance promoting for the planning profession, and most importantly taking into account the interests of the society, which acts as an essence to this Code of Conduct (IFAC, June 2007). The basic foundation of this set of rules are formed by the ethical principles involved in the planning process and the ethical and moral values integrating standards that are followed by the planning professionals.
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Violation of the Rules of Conduct can be charged as misconduct and the planners charged with violation should have the responsibility to co-operate with the investigating committee and their enforcement procedures.
An efficient, precise and pensive code of conduct serves as an important communication conduit that reflects the agreement that an organization has made to sustain its most important ethical values dealing with matters such as its obligation to its members, its standards of professionalism, and its rapport with the community. This also asserts the statement that a code of conduct in any organization is meant to harmonize relevant standards, policies and rules and not to serve as an alternative for them.
2.2.1 Necessity of a Code of Conduct in Planning A code of conduct in the planning profession acts as a central guide and as a reference point for planning professionals in support of decision making on a daily basis. It is meant to clarify the mission of the members of a planning community, their principles and values and also linking them with the standards of professional conduct. The code can also be used to locate relevant documents, services and other resources related to the ethics within a planning community. The code of conduct is an open disclosure of the way in which a planning organization operates and provides visible guidelines for behavioral standards for a planning professional. It is also considered as a trigger to encourage discussions of professional ethics and to improve planning approaches of the planners for dealing with ethical dilemmas, chauvinism, and other darker areas that are encountered in everyday work.
As long as people work together in an organization, the ethical dilemmas will always be present in the workplace and thus the need for a code of conduct arises since this code serves to provide guidance and sign-posting to the planning professionals in an organization. The challenge provided by the ethical dark areas and demands of misguidance by a potentially less than honest planners can be only elucidated with the help of a set of ethical principles such as a code of conduct.
A code of conduct also offers a precious opportunity for such planning organizations all around the globe to create a positive public identity for the organization which also leads to a more opinionated, supportive and dogmatic environment, with an increase in the level of public confidence and trust among important patrons, stakeholders and clients.
3. PRACTICE OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS VIA A CODE OF CONDUCT A Code of Conduct and its practice directly enhances the planner’s responsibility towards their colleagues and the planning profession and automatically
Mervyn Joy Daniel and Navneet Munoth, Ph.D. 35 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 transforms the outlook of a professional compliance to professional ethics. These professional ethics influence the working of the town planning system of a country and become more flawless and efficient. Lack of proper provision and the requirement of following a Code of Conduct in the planning profession in India is the motive for studying the various rules of conduct being practiced in various developed countries under their respective organizations. The criteria for the selection of case studies are:
• Developed countries; • Provision of Code of Conduct as an official document; and • Ethical values imbibed in a Code of Conduct.
These case studies help us observe the various aspects in their Code of Conduct for planning professionals in the United Kingdom and the United States of America and understand the role and implications of professional ethics for town planning.
3.1 Code of Professional Conduct of the Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI) According to the Code of Professional Conduct by the RTPI, the objective of the Royal Town Planning Institute is to advance the science and art of town planning for the benefit of the public (RTPI, 2012). The purpose of this Code is to ensure that all the professionals in the field of town planning should:
• Act with competence, honesty and integrity; • Exercise their independent professional judgement fearlessly and impartially; • Discharge their duty to their employers, clients, colleagues and others with due care and diligence; • Not to discriminate on the grounds of race, sex, sexual orientation, creed, religion, disability or age and shall seek to eliminate such discrimination by others, to promote equality of opportunity; and • Not bring the profession or the Royal Town Planning Institute into disrepute.
In this Code, ‘member’ means every corporate, non-corporate, honorary member and student of the Institute as defined by the Byelaws of the Institute. The members should take all reasonable measures to maintain their professional competence throughout their working life and will comply with the Institute’s professional development regulations as amended from time to time and those members who are employers or managers should take responsibility for the other members to do the same.
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The members should not make or refer to any report or statement which opposes their own professional opinions and should not agree to any contract which requires them to do so. The members should ensure that their private, financial, personal and political interests should not conflict with their own professional duty and should forestall conflict of interests of the clients, their own interests and their firm or organization’s interests. They should disclose any arise of conflict to their employers or clients whichever being more appropriate.
The members should not disclose or use their client’s information to their own advantage which has been acquired in confidence in the course of their work. The members should ensure that the terms of agreement such as the fees and the costs of appointment have been agreed to by their clients in writing before starting work on any project and should honor that agreement unless there is written agreement to a variation. The clients should be notified beforehand in writing by the member before undertaking any work or extra fees and expenses additional to those previously agreed and should act accordingly after the instructions have been received.
The members should ensure that the services being offered are appropriate to the requirement of the private individuals when accepting instructions from them. The members are insured against claims for breach of professional duty as town planners in accordance with the regulations within the Code. The Board of Trustees publish supplementary regulations which relate to matters such as continuing professional development, planning aid, professional designations, etc.; and the members should comply with any such regulations. The members practicing outside the United Kingdom and Ireland should upkeep their professional conduct to uphold the status of the Royal Town Planning Institute and the profession of town planning.
The members responsible for work or practice or partnership with any company, local planning authority, government department, agency or organization should take steps to ensure that their part of work be conducted according to the Code. The RTPI Code of Conduct comprises of 3 Annexes namely Supplementary Regulations, Relevant Byelaws and Disciplinary Action as A, B and C respectively (RTPI, 2012). Supplementary Regulations comprises of continuing Professional Development as every member except the student members and retired members should at least once a year prepare a professional development plan for the next two years.
Every member involved in the provision of planning services should have a copy of the Code of Practice for Planning Aid Volunteers, published as Annexure - A in ‘The Management and Operation of RTPI Planning Aid Services’. Members must not make any derogatory comparisons with the services of other members and not misrepresent the services available from their own practices and all advertising must be decent, legal, honest and truthful and avoid exaggeration and language misuse.
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All the members and the practices entitled to be described as ‘Chartered Town Planners’ may use the Institute’s logo on letter headings, advertising and promotional material according to the provision that the CTP or Institute’s logo should not be used to show that the member, members or practice are acting on behalf of the Institute and the words ‘Royal Town Planning Institute’ be used only with the provisions of this regulation.
Relevant Byelaws of the Chartered Institute includes that every corporate or other member shall observe the provisions of the Charter and these byelaws and conduct themselves in a manner so as not to jeopardize their professional status or the reputation of the Chartered Institute and comply at all times with any prescribed and published code of professional conduct by the Board of Trustees. Disciplinary Action comprises that it is the duty of every member to report to the Institute any breach of this Code of which they are aware and to assist the Institute with the investigations.
Through the Conduct and Disciplinary Panel, the Board of Trustees has the power to take disciplinary action on any member who is convicted by a court of a criminal offence or in the Panel’s opinion is guilty of gross professional misconduct or any kind of incompetence which renders them to continue to be a member of the Institute. Only when the Panel believes that the member is personally responsible for the questionable conduct, the disciplinary action will be taken.
3.2 Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct by AICP The Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct is subscribed by the professional planners who are members of the American Institute of Certified Planners. The Ethics Officer who is referred to in this Code is the Executive Director of APA/ AICP (AICP, 2009).
The principles to which these planners subscribe in Section - A and Section - B of the Code have been devised from the special responsibility of our profession to serve the public interest with concern for the welfare of all people and as professionals, to act responsibly with high integrity. The Code is divided into four sections as Section - A, Section - B, Section - C and Section - D respectively. Section - A comprises of a statement of aspirational principles that constitute the ideals to which these certified planners are committed. They strive to act according to their stated principles (AICP, 2009).
In general, the members have a responsibility to serve the public interest by following a carefully accomplished concept which has been devised through a continuous and open debate process with the public participants. The major principles which they adhere to, take account of their consciousness to the right of others, their concerns regarding the long-range consequences of the present decisions and the interrelatedness of the decisions. They also embrace the principle
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of providing adequate, clear and accurate information of the planning process in a timely fashion to the concerned individuals and organizations. They intend that the public participation should be inclusive enough to involve those who lack formal influence on organization, so that the people should have a significant impact on the development plans and programs since they themselves are the beneficiaries. The members will promote further development and encourage the conservation and preservation of the heritage of built and natural environment.
The members in particular also have the responsibility to their clients and employers, which they fulfill with competent performance of the work done in pursuit of the client’s or employer’s interest. They accept the decisions of their clients and employers involving their nature of professional services unless the action is illegal or is in conflict with the public interest. The members are supposed to avert any conflict of interest in the course of accepting projects from the clients or employers. Contribution to the development of knowledge and techniques improves the level of the planning profession and therefore, fulfills their responsibility to the profession and their colleagues. The members enhance the legitimacy of the profession by including public participation in planning issues, examining the feasibility of various planning theories and methods over time, by devoting time and resource for the professional development of students, interns, beginning professionals and their colleagues and by enhancing the professional education and training. Section - B contains the Rules of Conduct to which they are compliant and the failure of adherence to these rules results in receiving sanctions and in extreme cases the loss of their certification (AICP, 2009).
The members are not allowed to undertake other employment in planning or similar profession without making a complete written disclosure to the employer who endows them salary, and after having received the employer’s consent to undertake the additional assignment. The members as public officials or employees should not accept any assignment which would provide them with any manner of financial or personal benefit in return for the services provided nor should they accept any other advantage in the form of a compensation, rebate or commission. The members should not exploit any information or resource provided by the employer for their personal advantage and neither should they disclose any such confidential information except when required by the law or to prevent violation of the law or to avoid any grievance to the public.
The members are forbid to have any private communications with the planning process participants or the decision makers in any manner by law, agency rules, custom or procedures. The members should not wrongly affirm their professional qualifications or the professional qualifications of their colleagues and should not sell services by entailing or stating their power to manipulate decisions using improper means. The members should not importune forthcoming clients or employment under the pretense of false claims, harassment or force. The
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Regarding ethical misconduct, no member should withhold collaboration or information from the AICP Ethics Officer or the Ethics Committee if they are alleged of ethical misconduct. The members should not retaliate against any person concerned with the filing and investigation of ethical misconduct. The members should uphold their pledge and not use threat of filing an ethical misconduct against another member for their own benefit nor should they file a rash charge against a fellow planner.
Section - C contains the procedural provisions of the Code. It describes the way that one may obtain either a formal or informal advisory ruling and details how a charge of misconduct can be filed, and how charges are investigated, prosecuted and adjudicated. Section - D contains procedural provisions that govern situations in which a planner is convicted of a serious crime (AICP, 2009).
This comprises of the duty to duly notify the Ethics Officer when found guilty of a serious crime, the consequential suspension of certification by AICP and after the release from custody; a petition for reinstatement is sent to the Ethics Officer who forwards the petition to the Ethics Committee for their exclusive judgement of giving consent to the petition and the publication of the guilty verdict for a serious crime and the name of the offender in a publication of the APA or AICP. As Certified Planners, all members of the American Planning Association share in the goal of building better and inclusive communities. They want the public to be aware of the principles by which they practice the planning profession in the quest of that goal. They also expect that the public will respect their commitments to their employers, clients, fellow professionals and all other people whose interests are affected.
The Code of Conduct provides the town planners with aspirational principles, rules of conduct or engagement with the clients and employers, disciplinary actions and procedural provisions and byelaws all in accordance with the general public interest. The Code of Conduct is ethical and judicial in nature and therefore, grants more opportunities to the town planning system, to operate with better efficiency. It has provisions regarding all social aspects and also acts as a reference guide for the town planners who aspire for professionalism. The continuing development of the town planning practices and techniques is also taken into account by the Code of Conduct which is integral for the enhancement of the planning profession. All types of ethical misconduct or misdemeanor should result in the filing of charges and the dismissal of charges, punitive policies, suspension or termination of membership, dealing with petition for
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reinstatement and other procedural provisions under the given byelaws are a prerequisite; however, they vary according to the judicial powers bestowed to the respective disciplinary panels.
3.3 Code of Professional Conduct of ITPI The Institute of Town Planners, India established in 1951, is a national organization of professional planners whose particular sphere of activity is the planning of the unified development of urban and rural communities and their environs, and of states, regions and the nation, as expressed through determination of the comprehensive arrangement of land uses and land occupancy and the regulation thereof. This involves work in the collateral fields of physical, social, economic and fiscal planning. The professional nature of their work requires the acceptance by the planners, the principles of conduct in their relations with the public, fellow members of their profession, their clients, their assistants and students of the profession.
The members and students of the Institute of Town Planners, India are governed by the constitution and bye-laws of the Institute and subscribe to the following code of professional conduct to which all members including students shall adhere, failing which the Council may judge a member or a student guilty of unprofessional conduct, and either reprimand, suspend or expel him or her. Cases of unprofessional conduct not specifically covered by these clauses shall be dealt with by the Council having regard to the particular circumstances of the case.
The Public: • Since the basic objective of planning is the promotion of the general welfare, a member of the Institute of Town Planners, India will respect this paramount consideration in his work, even in cases where it may be in conflict with the apparent interest of the smaller groups or of individuals. • The members of the Institute of Town Planners, India will recognize that all land is a natural resource of the nation as well as the property of some individual or group; therefore, they will seek in the advising on comprehensive arrangements of land uses and occupancy and the regulations thereof to protect and promote both public and private interests, as may be appropriate to the situation, always acknowleging the primacy of the public interest. The Profession: • A member of the Institute will undertake continuing study of planning problems and their solution and pledge himself to the exchange of his opinions and knowledge with others in the interest both of the profession and of the public. • A member of the Institute will act towards other members of the profession in a spirit of fairness and consideration. He will not falsely or maliciously injure the professional reputation of another planner.
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• A member of the Institute will not compete for prospective employment on the basis of the fee charged, nor by taking advantage of a salaried position. Having stated the proposed charge, he will not reduce the amount in order to offer a lower price than another of his profession. • A member of the Institute shall follow the scale of charges for professional services recommended by the Institute of Town Planners, India, time to time and in cases where the scale cannot be applied, he shall refer such a special case to the Institute and obtain their permission to charge on a basis other than the one prescribed by the Institute. • A member of the Institute shall not attempt to supplant another town planner, once he has knowledge that definite steps have been taken towards the other’s employment; nor will he knowingly accept an appointment while the just claim of another town planner previously employed remains unsatisfied. He will not investigate or criticise the works of another town planner for the same client without first giving the other an opportunity to explain his work. He will not advertise in self-laudatory language or in any other manner derogatory to the dignity of the profession. • No member or student of the Institute shall take part in a town planning competition not approved by the Council of the Institute.
The Client: • Within the limitations imposed by his responsibility to both public and private interests, a member of the Institute will act as a faithful agent of his employer or client, whether an individual, either private party or a public agency. He will not undertake work for which he is not qualified by education or experience, nor at a price that precludes adequate performance. He will accept no remuneration other than his established compensation or agreed charges for services rendered. He shall have no financial interest in the result of his work which has not been disclosed to and received the approval of his client nor shall he use for himself nor disclose to his relatives, friends, nor to any person, whatsover private information in the course of his professional duties which could be turned to pecuniary advantage. • Any estimate of work to be performed by other than himself is to be considered an expression of opinion which implies no guarantee of any kind. Assistants: • A member of the Institute will be mindful of the personal, financial and professional welfare of his employees. He will encourage them in study, advancement and achievement in the profession.
Students: • A member of the Institute will recognize a special obligation to students of planning and so far as is possible give them of his time and his knowledge to
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the end that the high mission of the profession may be safeguarded for the future.
If any member acts against the Code of Professional Conduct prescribed by ITPI, under Articles of Associations and Byelaws of Institute of Town Planners, India, under Section 48, the council can take action against such member. The section reads.“The Council may refuse to receive the subscriptions and may cancel the membership of any persons who shall have wilfully acted in contravention of the lawful regulation of the Institute or who shall in the opinion of the Council, have been guilty of such conduct as shall have rendered him unfit to continue to belong to the Institute. Provided that notice shall be given to the offending person, and opportunity of explanation shall be given to him, before his name is removed from the list, and for that purpose the Council shall have power in the first place to declare such person’s rights as a member suspended for a period not exceeding 12 months. If before the period of suspension shall have expired the person whose rights have been suspended shall have failed to make an explanation which in the opinion of the Council is satisfactory, the Council may cancel his membership”.
4. COMPARISON OF CASE STUDIES The data integration and analysis of the case studies has been done in context with the provisions in the developed countries; by its comparison with the Indian scenario of professional ethics prescribed by the Institute of Town Planner, India. The analysis of the aforementioned Code of Conduct from the case studies has been done by taking into account the parameters akin to factors which influence and are involved in the town planning process. The analytical parameters of the case study have been broadly classified under 7 sections, namely: • Concerned Authority; • Code of Conduct; • Aspirational principles; • Rules of Conduct; • Disciplinary Actions and provisions; • Supplementary Regulations; and • Byelaws.
Table 1: Analysis of Case Studies Analytical Country Parameters U.K. U.S.A. India A) Concerned Authority Governing body RTPI AICP ITPI Extent of governance U.K. and Republic of Ireland U.S.A. India
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Analytical Country Parameters U.K. U.S.A. India Area of practice of Global Level Global Level Within India members Relevant Designations Board of Trustees Executive Director Council, ITPI of the Authority Types of members Fellow member, Chartered Corporate member, Corporate certified Member, Legal member, Legal Non-corporate member, member: Fellow Associate, Technical member, Associate member, member, and Retired member, Licentiate Honorary member, Student Associate member, Affiliate member, member; and Student Honorary member; and Student member B) Code of Conduct Name Code of Professional Conduct Code of Ethics and Code of Professional Conduct Professional Conduct Type of Code Ethical and Judicial Ethical and Judicial Ethical Presence of a Code of Yes Yes Yes Conduct Format of Code Official document by RTPI Official document by AICP Official document of ITPI No. of divisions 4 4 5 Names of the divisions Rules of Conduct, Annexure - Section - A, Section - B, The Public, the A, Annexure - B, Annexure - C Section - C, Section - D profession, the client, Assistants and student Compliance to code Obligatory Obligatory Mandatory C) Aspirational principles Responsibility to the Yes Yes Yes public Responsibility to the Yes Yes Yes clients Responsibility to Yes Yes Yes their colleagues Responsibility to the Yes Yes Yes profession D) Rules of conduct Compliance to Rules Strict compliance Strict compliance Mandatory Anti-discrimination Yes Yes Yes Disregard for No No No profession
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Analytical Country Parameters U.K. U.S.A. India Conflict of interests Avoid conflicts but it should Avoid conflicts and even Avoid conflicts be disclosed to the clients and their appearance from and disclose to employers clients and employers clients Disclosure of No disclosure or personal use No personal use or disclosure No disclosure or Information except when required for a personal use judicial process Additional pay or Members can accept additional Members can accept As per scale commission pay and fees from a third party additional pay from a third of charges with full disclosure to their party only after a signed prescribed by employers written consent from the ITPI employer furnishing their salary Notifying clients Clients should be notified in Clients should be notified in To act as faithful writing before undertaking any writing before undertaking agent of his work and changes in the fees additional employment employer or expenses and changes in the fees or compensation False personal Members should not provide Members should not mis- Member not to qualifications false facts of their education, state their education, ex- provide false experience and training perience, training or any information other relevant fact. Harassment Harassment is not tolerated Harassment is not Harassment is tolerated not tolerated Bribery and fraud Ban on such activities Ban on such activities Ban on such activities E) Disciplinary actions Disciplinary panel Yes Yes Council, ITPI Disciplinary body Conduct and Disciplinary Panel Ethics Committee Council, ITPI Head of Disciplinary Board of Trustees Ethics Officer President ITPI body Punitive policies Yes Yes Yes Cooperation for Full cooperation is obligatory Full cooperation is Full Cooperation investigation mandatory is mandatory Procedural Provisions Yes, have been provided Yes, have been provided Yes, have been provided Appeal of dismissal of Provision available Provision available Provision charge available Dismissal of charge Yes, on the basis of severity of Yes, If the charge appears Right of the action in question without merit before or after membership investigation suspended for 12 month and then removed
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Analytical Country Parameters U.K. U.S.A. India Answering of No provision Yes, the complaint is duly Yes complaint answered Hearing by Yes Yes Yes by council disciplinary body ITPI Report of the No provision Yes, annual report of the Action by misconduct charge- charge-sheet by Ethics Of- Council, ITPI sheet ficer is mandatory on receiving complaint F) Supplementary regulations Advertising All advertising must be legal, Members cannot sell or Not to advertise honest and avoid exaggeration offer to sell any services in self laudatory or derogatory comparisons of by misleading claims or language the services provided by other misrepresenting the views members and findings of other professionals Provision of personal Yes, members have to provide Yes, members have to pro- Member has information the particulars of their practice vide the particulars of their to provide full and employment practice and employment information at on an annual basis the time of entry to profession Monitoring of Continuous monitoring Continuous monitoring By Evaluation certificates/ Committee of ITPI membership Abiding to professional Prepare a 2-year professional Members should contribute Will under take development development plan once a year, time and resources for the continuing study accomplish 50 hours of CPD ac- professional development of planning tivity related to town planning of students, interns, begin- problems in any 2-year period ning professionals and their colleagues G) Byelaws Registration fees $164.72 ($74.1 admin charge+ $135 ($70 application fee+ Rs. 600 per $90.56 annual subscription) $65 exam testing fee) annum for Associates and Rs. 1000 for Fellow members Cost of membership Fellow member- $452.82 Salary less than $42,000- Rs. 600 per Chartered member- $452.82 $100, annum for Legal member- $452.82 $42,000-49,999- $115, Associates and Legal Associate- $403.4 $50,000-59,999- $125, Rs. 1000 for Technical member- $225.58 $60,000-69,999- $135, Fellow members Retired member- $82.33 $70,000-79,999- $145, Licentiate- $90.56-$225.58 $80,000-89,999- $155, Affiliate member- $135 $ 9 0 , 0 0 0 - 9 9 , 9 9 9 - $ 1 6 5 , Student- $148.18 $1,00,000-1,19,999- $175, Graduate-$279.8 $1,20,000 and above- $185
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Analytical Country Parameters U.K. U.S.A. India Undisclosed Salary- $190 U.S. Student member- $25 U.S. Retired member-$25 U.S. Life member- $15 Loss of certification/ Non-payment of subscription After automatic suspen- No specific membership or if convicted of a serious sion, if the member is con- provision crime after the proceedings, victed for serious crime the disciplinary panel can ter- and petition for reinstate- minate membership on the ment is not applied or de- merit of the charges. nied, the membership is terminated Suspension of An action of misconduct or If found guilty on the charges If found guilty certification non-payment of subscription filed, there is automatic sus- membership will will result in suspension pension till the verdict of the be suspended case Petition for The Board of Trustees may After release from incar- May apply to reinstatement reinstate any member whose ceration, a petition for re- Council for membership has been termi- instatement can be filed to reinstatement nated in compliance with pay- Ethics Officer, which is then ing of subscription in parts and judged by the Ethics Com- a re-registration fee. mittee. A second chance for petition after 12 months is also provided. Suspension of An action of misconduct or If found guilty on the charges Powers vest with certification non-payment of subscription filed, there is automatic sus- council, ITPI will result in suspension pension till the verdict of the case Petition for The Board of Trustees may After release from incar- Such member reinstatement reinstate any member whose ceration, a petition for may apply to membership has been termi- reinstatement can be filed Council, ITPI nated in compliance with pay- to Ethics Officer, which is ing of subscription in parts and then judged by the Eth- a re-registration fee. ics Committee. A second chance for petition after 12 months is also provided. Suspension of An action of misconduct or If found guilty on the Power vests with certification non-payment of subscription charges filed, there is au- Council, ITPI, will result in suspension tomatic suspension till the member may verdict of the case be suspended for a period not exceeding 12 months
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Analytical Country Parameters U.K. U.S.A. India Petition for The Board of Trustees may After release from incar- Council may reinstatement reinstate any member whose ceration, a petition for re- reinstate the membership has been termi- instatement can be filed to member nated in compliance with pay- Ethics Officer, which is then ing of subscription in parts and judged by the Ethics Com- a re-registration fee. mittee. A second chance for petition after 12 months is also provided.
The Positive Aspects which can be included in a Code of Conduct of the Institute of Town Planners, India are: • Extending the area of practice to a global level; • Students certified as members for empowering the profession; • Strict compliance to the Rules of Conduct to eliminate all kinds of misconduct (discrimination, harassment, bribery, fraud, false claims, false qualifications and improper advertising); • The annual report of the charge sheet should be published by the head of the authority; • Laying a set of standards as foundation for maintaining the membership by continuing development.
The Negative aspects observed are:
• Agreement for the settlement of minor charges; • Reinstating a professional who was convicted of crime earlier and has been released from incarceration; • The petition for reinstatement needs to be duly considered; • Accepting additional pay or commission from a third party on the basis of consent of the clients and employers.
4. CONCLUSIONS In India “Professional Ethics” are taught in the process of planning education under the subject “Professional Practice”. The ITPI has also prescribed the “Engagement of Professional Services and Scale of Professional Fees and Charges”; which will enhance the efficiency of town planning processes and aspirations of planners to become better professionals. However, this aim can be achieved successfully by further referencing the various Code of Conduct implemented for town planners across the globe and by taking into account the positive and favorable aspects and incorporating these practices and techniques; into the current town planning processes by the Institute of Town Planners, India. A Code of Conduct prescribed
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by the ITPI is of extensive significance, since it plays a vital role by specifically facilitating proper functioning of the town planning system and assisting the framework of the town planning professionals as their strict adherence to a Code of Professional Conduct strengthens them from the grass-roots level and allows them to work for the public interest effectively. Professional ethics involved in town planning play an important role as they revolve around the shaping of the future development of a town and are of immense significance as these ethics influence the town planning process, participants and their compliance to a set of ethical principles or Code of Conduct, which enables town planning processes to operate at maximum efficiency by overcoming obstacles created by ethical misconduct and misdemeanor. These ethical principles help the upcoming planners to aspire for professionalism and achieve it by following a properly constructed Code of Conduct and implement it successfully with the aid of punitive policies and a disciplinary actions to properly imbibe these ethical values in the minds of the town planning professionals and encourage them to carry out their plans proficiently. However, as the ‘ITPI Code of Professional Conduct’ was framed during 1951, it is high time to revisit the various provision of the Code so as to make it more effective.
REFERENCES APA (2014) Ethical Principles in Planning, Retrieved Saturday. August 2014 from https:// www.planning.org: https://www.planning.org/ethics/ethicalprinciples.htm AICP (2009) AICP Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct, AICP, New York. IFAC (2007) Defining and Developing an Effective Code of Conduct for Organizations, International Federation of Accountants, New York. IFPHK (2014) Code of Ethics and Professional Responsibility, Institute of Financial Planners of Hong Kong, Hong Kong. ITPI (2011) Conditions of Engagement of Professional services and Scale of Professional Fees and Charges, Institute of Town Planners, India, New Delhi: Navran, F.J. (2010) Defining Values, Morals, and Ethics, Retrieved Saturday. August 2014 from http://www.navran.com/articles-values morals-ethics.html RTPI (2012) RTPI Code of Professional Conduct, RTPI, London. TCPO (2014) Divisions: TCPO, Retrieved Saturday. August 2014 from Town and Country Planning Organisation: http://www.tcpomud.gov.in ITPI (Updated - December 2008) Memorandum of Articles of Association and Bye - Laws, Institute of Town Planners, India.
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An integrated Approach towards Urban Renewal, Redevelopment and Regeneration in Kumartuli - Issues, Challenges and Prospects Debashish Das, Ph. D.
Abstract History of Kumartuli potters is traced back to Krishnanagar in South Bengal. Although government has been trying hard to develop this area as a socio-cultural heritage site, the problem is that this project has been less than being successful in terms of an objective oriented approach, which is based on identifying the beneficiaries, target groups, other stakeholders, decision makers, financiers and implementers. An integrated approach towards urban renewal under objective oriented approach has been recommended to bring about desirable development in the area.
1. INTRODUCTION History of Kumartuli potter can be traced back to Krishnanagar in South Bengal. It came to existence in the mid-18th century (1758-1760) when the potters moved in to their new destination, and colonized a vast area naming it as Kumartuli, where the term ‘Kumar’ means a potter and ‘tuli’ implies a locality. From the beginning of the 16th century, the port of Saptagram started to lose its importance. As a result the wealthy cloth and yarn merchants, the Seths and Basaks left Saptagram and started their businesses at Govindapur. From that time a few families of clay craftsmen migrating from Krishnanagar started to live here. In 1690 Kolkata was born and as it flourished the craftsmen started earning a good living by selling potteries and idols during religious festivals to the economically flourishing Bengali families.
In 1759 the British East India Company issued a notice to the residents to leave Govindapur and settle elsewhere. The founder of the famous Mitra family of Kumartuli, Sir Govindaram Mitra, left Govindapur and settled at Kumartuli in Sutanooti. He brought here some families of clay craftsmen who were driven out of Govindapur. As the population increased, demand for clay potteries and images for religious festivals increased and clay craftsmen started making a good living. Gradually friends and relatives of those clay craftsmen came here to earn their living. As years went by, Kumartuli developed into a unique centre for clay craftsmanship. According to the image makers, the area enclosed by the Rabindra Sarani, Banamali Sarkar Street and Durga Charan Street is the proper image maker settlement.
Urban renewal in Kumartuli was proposed in the year 2009, under the JnNURM Scheme, but the existing status of the proposal is still under discussion. The salient
Debashish Das, Ph. D.; Asst. Professor, Department of Architecture Jadavpur University, Kolkata Email:[email protected]
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features for urban renewal in Kumartuli as proposed were workshop and housing for the artisans and others, adequate civic amenities, artists’ museum, gallery, health centre, tourist facilities, children’s playground, beautification, etc. The main issue was implementation which could have been done with urban renewal approach as proposed by Patrick Geddes. A different outlook for regulatory and institutional mechanisms was required. This motivated the author to study and research the diagnostic approach, conservative surgery and integrated approach for urban renewal, redevelopment and regeneration in Kumartuli.
Integrated planning approach analyses that integrates the existing infrastructure, heritage value and the regulatory and institutional mechanism for urban renewal process in Kumartuli was followed. The main aim is to understand the basic social and physical infrastructure, and cultural heritage which is at stake and regulatory and institutional mechanisms, which can guide urban renewal process for actual intervention at site.
2. DIAGNOSTIC SURVEY FOR FRAMING PROBLEM TREE AND OBJECTIVE TREE Diagnostic survey of the existing area was done to understand social and physical infrastructure problems, to identify major issues and problems, and frame major objectives which would help in the urban renewal process.
2.1 Existing Scenario of Kumartuli 2.2 Primary Survey and Questionnaire Land use of Kumartuli (Fig. 1) is a reflection of informal type of settlement found in other parts of Kolkatta, glimpses of existing scenario are given in Fig. 2. The area is predominantly residential with some shops and public utility and facilities. Few schools are also functioning in the area with no future scope
Fig. 1: Base Map of Kumartuli
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Fig. 2: Glimpses of the Existing Scenario in Kumartuli
Source: Author
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Fig. 3: Primary Survey and Questionnaire
of expansion. Temples are also one of the important parts of the area. There are a good number of well built houses on the western parts of the area. Our primary survey also reveals that many of the then built houses are now changing into mixed uses. Ground floors of houses are used by hosiery manufacturing for their factories and godowns. A considerable part of the study area is covered with kutcha huts which form some of the worst slums of Kolkatta. Number of warehouses has been built and also ground floors of many buildings abutting railway tracks were converted into godowns. The Fig. 3 gives the design of
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questionnaire based primary surveys conducted by the author and his team. All the houses were measured in terms of their age, structural conditions, household activities and demographic data were also collected. The willingness of the workers and residents for any kind of intervention was also noted.
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3. STAKEHOLDERS’ INVOLVEMENT Stakeholders’ analysis was done to understand the beneficiaries or target groups, implementers, decision makers and financers required while planning and implementing the project. The beneficiaries and target groups include image makers or the craftsman, families living in the area and tourists. The implementers are Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority, Kumartuli Mritshilpa Sanskriti Samity, Kumartuli Mritshilpa Samity, and Kumartuli Bustee Foundation.
The decision makers are Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority, Kumartuli Mritshilpa Sanskriti Samity, Kumartuli Mritshilpa Samity, and Kumartuli Bustee (slum) Foundation. The financing proposals state that the Total project cost is likely to be around Rs 26.80 crores as per 2009 the JnNURM proposal. Of this central government will contribute 35 percent as per the JnNURM scheme, state government 45 percent, artisans 20 percent and the KMDA would arrange a loan for the artisans to pay the rest.
Problem Tree
Effects The Living and the working conditions are unhygienic The neighborhood is unhygienic The business is not growing The future generation is not interested in these works Focal Problem The socio-cultural heritage area has become a slum area Causes No urban renewal in Kumartuli No up-gradation programme
Objective Tree
Goal /Overall Objective /Development Objective The up gradation of the slum area into a socio-cultural heritage zone
Project purpose / immediate objective Providing sufficient healthy living and working areas for the workers Providing all basic civic amenities Developing the area keeping in place the socio-cultural aspect Results / Outputs The workers can live and work in hygienic conditions The neighborhood will have all the basic services available Output in terms of economic benefits will increase Urban Renewal Approach or Plan of Activities Phase – I : Identification of the units which should be removed and modified first based on its condition and agreeability by primary survey. Phase - II : Provision of all basic amenities (water supply, roads, solid waste management, elec- tricity, etc.) Phase - III : Construction of the living and working areas based on survey. Phase - IV : Construction of the remaining living and working areas.
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4. URBAN RENEWAL APPROACH AND PLAN OF Fig. 3: Existing Built Form / Fabric ACTIVITIES 4.1 Conservative Surgery for Urban Renewal The main objective is to provide hygienic living and working areas for the workers. So new development is required but it should be so designed that it preserves cultural aspects of the society. The area should be designed as a craft village. As the existing area has a kutcha construction with high density, so we have to go high rise in order to accommodate all the workers in the same area. So a master plan for up-gradation of the slum area into a craft village is required. All interventions and development works should be in accordance to the master plan. Phase – I will undertake identification of the units which should be removed and modified, based on their condition and agreeability by primary surveys.
4.2 Construction of Infrastructural Facilities and Basic Amenities Phase – II means after identification of built forms (Fig. 3) which need tobe demolished, open spaces need to be developed as green sitting areas, basic civic amenities, and other services to be improved.
4.3 Development of Model Units for Living and Working Areas in Kumartuli In Phase - III construction of the living and working areas based on surveys will be done. Modified layout shows proposed open spaces created after demolishing
Fig 4: Proposed Built Form / Fabric Fig. 5: Proposed Open Spaces and New blocks
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totally damaged structures. Household members, their livelihoods and other activities were relocated at the same site by newly designed blocks. Fabric of the area was not disturbed and internal roads were not altered. However, activities located on the roads were removed.
4.4 Means to Eliminate Causes of Focal Problems The main hindrance in the process of urban renewal is the regulatory and institutional mechanisms, which can be solved by participatory approaches where all the local people are included in the decision making processes. Some of the steps to be taken are: • Thika Tenancy Act which prohibits workers from improving their houses should be abolished, so the interventions from government bodies are allowed; and • Government should give ownership to the workers so that they have the ownership rights and feel the responsibility to keep their living areas, working areas, and surroundings clean and hygienic
5. OBJECTIVES OF THE URBAN RENEWAL PROCESS 5.1 Identification of the Indicators In order to measure the progress of urban renewal process, the following indicators could help in guiding development of a project. In terms of quality and quantity:
Fig. 6: Proposed Integrated Built Form Design with Living, Working and Recreation
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• The quality of the project can be judged by increase in income of the people; • The inflow of more numbers of tourists; • The inflow of more number of young people into this image making industry; • The paths and pavements should be clean with no wastes, water logging, encroachment, etc.; and • The place should be made hygienic.
5.2 Risk Analysis and Risk Management Analysis of risks affecting the project’s objectives and plans to avoid these risks have been identified. The project may face some problems from the local simities which belong to various political groups. In order to avoid these risks the following steps would be important:
• Organizing workshops with the local people, stakeholders and government officials; • Rehabilitation of the workers in phases; • Construction of houses in accordance with the master plan approved by government bodies, local people, the NGOs involved and other stakeholders, and • Formation of local men and women groups for future maintenance.
6. CONCLUSIONS Although government is trying hard to develop this area as a socio-cultural heritage site, the problem for which this project has not yet been successful till date is that it is not based on an objective oriented approach, which is based on identifying the beneficiaries, target groups, other stakeholders, decision makers, financers and implementers. An integrated approach towards urban renewal under objective oriented approach should be the key for the development of this area in a holistic way.
REFERENCES ACME Consultants Private Limited, Kolkata (1982) Redevelopment Plan: Kumartuli Area, Volume One, ACME Consultants Private Limited, Kolkata. Das, D. (2007) Urban Renewal in Kumartuli, approaches for preservation and rejuvenation of an old historic settlement in Kolkatta, applying the principles of Town Planning of Sir Patrick Geddes, Sanskriti Geddes Foundation, New Delhi, India. Das, D. (2008) Sustainable Community Development Plan with special emphasis on Cultural and Economical Sustainability, A case study Kumartuli, Kolkata, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Kolkatta. Das, D. (2009a) Urban Sustainability Guidelines and approaches for Preservation, Rejuvenation and Renewal of an Old Historic Settlement of Kumartuli, Kolkata, ITPI Journal , Vol. 6, No. 1. Das, D. (2009b) The crisis of Kumartuli: A crafts village in Bengal: Context- Built, Living and Natural, Journal of the Development and Research Organisation for Nature, Arts and Heritage, Vol. 6, Issue 2.
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Access to Toilets - Need for Behavioral Change
Jaideep Kharb
Abstract Sanitation in India remains one of the critical challenges for planners and other policy makers as there are more than 620 million people practicing open defecation in India. Inadequate sanitation causes India considerable economic losses, losses equivalent to 6.4 percent of India’s GDP in 2006. These losses are incurred in the form of adverse economic impacts, death and disease, and losses in education, productivity, time, and tourism. It is estimated that 1 in every 10 deaths in rural India is linked to poor sanitation and hygiene. India loses more than 600,000 children under the age of five due to diarrhea and pneumonia. This is almost 30 percent of the global total. A number of creative suggestions have been offered in this paper to achieve 100 percent access to sanitation in villages, towns and cities.
1. INTRODUCTION India ranks among the worst countries in the world in terms of access to sanitation. The World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) estimate that there are more than 620 million people practicing open defecation in India. It is the largest number of people in one country and the biggest national shame and sorrow. Census of India 2011 data reveals that the percentage of households having access to televisions and telephones in rural India exceeds the percentage of households with access to toilet facilities. According to WHO and UNICEF’s Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMPWSS), India will achieve the millennium development goals (MDGs) on sanitation only by 2054 if it continued progress is made at the present pace.
2. SANITATION SCENARIO IN INDIA According to 65th round survey of National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) 77 percent (70.9 percent as per 2011 census) households have septic tanks and flush latrines, 8 percent use pit latrines, 1.6 percent service latrines, 1 percent other latrines, and 11 percent (12.6 percent as per 2011 census) are residing without any latrines in urban India. Out of these about 58 percent households have individual latrines, 24 percent households are using shared latrines, and 6.5 percent use community and public latrines.
Jaideep Kharb, Assistant Director, Planning and Capacity Building, Association of Municipalities and Development Authorities
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2.1 Rural Sanitation According to 2011 Census, 67.3 percent households do not have access to toilets in rural India. A recent survey carried out in rural areas of 13 districts of five states (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Bihar) by Research Institute of Compensate Economics (RICE) on Sanitation Quality Use Access and Trends (SQUAT); observed that a full 40 percent of households in the sample that had a latrine had at least one person who was still defecating in the open. This number was the highest in Rajasthan (57 percent) and the lowest in Haryana (35 percent). In all over a quarter of men with a toilet and 17 percent of women with a toilet defecated in the open. Those who had a toilet but defecate in the open are 74 percent gave ‘pleasure, comfort, and convenience’ as the reason for this, and another 14 percent said it was because of ‘habit, tradition, and because they have always done so’. The survey findings also show that the lack of money to build a toilet is not the only cause which prevents from building toilet; a large part of the population does not understand the correlation between good health and use of toilets.
2.2 Urban Sanitation and Slums Out of every six people living in urban areas, one is residing in slums. Census 2011 reveals that 68 million (17 percent) of country’s population is residing in slums. The condition of sanitation in slums is atrocious. Census data reveals that 34 percent slum households do not have toilets but 72.7 percent households have phones, of which 63.5 percent have mobile phones and 10.4 percent slum households have computers.
2.3 The Indian Railways Roughly 23 million passengers daily travel in the Indian Railways. It is among the longest railway networks in the world. At the same time it is world’s largest open toilet. It is not even calculated in census in the category of open defecation. If someone has to wait for train at some station it will be amongst a phatic experience of his life. The situation became worse at morning hours along with suburbs and cities. No one can dare to see out of his window. We have been living with it from generations and this is the hard fact.
2.4 Schools and Sanitation Almost 28 million school children across India do not have access to toilet facilities. Adequate, well maintained water supply and sanitation facilities in schools encourage children to attend schools regularly and help them to achieve their educational goals. Adolescent girls are especially vulnerable for dropping out as many are reluctant to continue their schooling because toilet facilities are not separate and safe or simply not available. The number of schools having separate toilet facilities for girls has increased from 4.20 lakh (37.4 percent) in 2005-06 to 10.05 lakh (72.16 percent) in 2011-12. However, there are number of
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issues about the quality of construction of these facilities, functionality along with usability. Inadequate water supply and sanitation in schools are health hazardous and adversely effects school attendance, retention and educational performance.
2.5 Public Toilets Using a public toilet in India is not a good experience. It can be so bad that invariably it makes you better to go in the open. Local bodies eventually build toilets and forget their responsibility to clean and maintain it regularly. The lack of monitoring of their cleanliness is always a major issue in India. Sometimes the budget is not allocated for their cleanliness and maintenance. Toilets are built as per common design for all users viz. children, women and men and also for physically challenged persons. Most of the toilets were found operational only during the day time and kept locked at night. Sometime toilets were found in areas with very little foot traffic, and away from slums, market areas, or bus stops, and were sometimes hidden behind large walls or trees or without proper signage.
Users are also very irresponsible. They even do not bother to press the flush after use. People always use them just for privacy or in a very emergency condition when there is no other option left. Basically it comes from a thinking that says public space does not belong to us. This can be changed to a notion i.e. the public spaces belongs to everyone by way of contact with the authorities concerned and through sensitization programs as well as a parallel severe and immediate penalization frame works for polluting the environment.
3. SIKKIM: AN EXAMPLE FOR ADOPTION Sikkim became the first state in India to achieve 100 percent sanitation coverage under the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyaan launched on 9 February, 2014. Sikkim achieved 100 percent sanitation in rural and urban households, schools, sanitary complexes and Aanganwadi centers. The initiatives taken by Sikkim state government should be widely published so that this may motivate other states to achieve the same goal. According to a total evaluation study conducted by the Planning Commission in 2013, Sikkim emerged with the best performing gram panchayats and maintenance of sanitation facilities.
The impact of inadequate sanitation on health leads to a number of financial and economic costs direct or indirect. Direct costs involve medical costs associated with treating sanitation related diseases. Indirect costs are huge in terms of reduced or loss of productivity and the government costs of providing health services. In spite of this sanitation also leads to time and effort losses due to distant or inadequate sanitation facilities, lower product quality resulting from poor water quality, reduced income from tourism (due to high risk of contamination and disease) and cleanliness costs. Increase in female literacy (due to increased school attendance where proper sanitation facilities exist) also contributes to economic growth.
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India spends $ 48 per capita on sanitation which is worse situation than many other Asian countries. The annual per person loss from poor sanitation is $ 9.3 in Vietnam, $ 16.8 in the Philippines, $ 28.6 in Indonesia, and $ 32.4 in Cambodia. This shows the urgency to improve sanitation.
According to a study titled ‘The Economic Impacts of Inadequate Sanitation in India’, inadequate sanitation causes India considerable economic losses, equivalent to 6.4 percent of India’s GDP in 2006. The study analyzed the evidence on the adverse economic impacts of inadequate sanitation, which includes costs associated with death and disease, accessing and treating water, and losses in education, productivity, time, and tourism.
In India sanitation is very much neglected subject, no one wants to discuss it. That is why government schemes do not give the expected outcomes. But along with financial constraints people are not ready to adapt. States having a good literacy rate are also not aware of its necessity or benefits. In rural India people used to construct toilet in very neglected corner of the house. They consider it very odd if it is near to place of deity or kitchen. Even the households which have toilets from last 4 to 5 or more years that is only used by female members of the house, handicapped or used by old people. Young men use it only in case of emergency. It is not due to consciousness for hygiene but for privacy of women. Some households are constructing toilets in their houses before daughter-in-law comes to house after marriage. Men feel pleasure while going in the open. This is also a part of their morning walk. In India people are not ready to pay very nominal user charges. Very often one can see that people are going to open rather than using pay and use toilets.
Charles Darwin was an English geologist who has published his famous book ‘Origin of Species’ in 1859. In his book he has given the theory of ‘Survival to the Fittest’: the creature that can moderate itself according to climate will only survive on this earth’. Man has succeeded to accommodate in very odd climatic conditions due to innovations in technology. But still his presence in climatically odd situations is vulnerable. From Fig 1, one can understand the climatic impact on toilets. Out of 11 hilly states only one has less than 40 percent coverage of toilets. Chilling cold climate does not allow people to defecate in the open.
Poor sanitation causes death of a number of persons every year. India has a massive problem of open defecation. Sanitation is directly related with health. It is estimated that 1 in every 10 deaths in rural India is linked to poor sanitation and hygiene. India loses more than 600,000 children under the age of five year due to diarrhea and pneumonia—almost 30 percent of the global total. Bacteriological contamination, the absence of toilet use and woefully poor personal and communal hygiene (including no habitual hand-washing with soap at critical times) exacerbate both of these killers. 88 percent of diarrhea deaths
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Fig. 1: Climatic Impact on Tiolets
are linked to incomplete water and sanitation service provisions. According to UNICEF about 48 percent children in India are suffering from some degree of malnutrition. Diarrhea and worm infections are two major health conditions that affect school age children impacting their learning abilities.
Along with government help, some national and international organizations like WHO, UNICEF, Sulabh International, and Water Aid, etc., are also doing very remarkable job in this field. These organizations carry out from time to time various research and studies. These also help to overcome cultural aversion to toilets. Several non-profit organizations such as Arghyam in Karnataka, Water Aid and Sulabh International are working to educate communities about the necessity of sanitation. In 1968, Sulabh International began to promote its twin-pit latrine design, which requires just 1.5 to 2 liters of water to flush, compared to the 12 to 15 liters that modern toilets use per flush. One can easily findSulabh Complexes even in Class - IV towns or any other tourist places. But they are primarily focusing only on urban areas.
4. SOME CREATIVE SUGGESTIONS 4.1 Transformation of the Toilet All buildings should be functional and aesthetically beautiful. No one has given any thought to the toilets as a piece of art. Determined to prove that with beauty comes respect, toilets should be a striking land mark. These should be purposefully designed by using funky shapes and bright colors so that the
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Fig. 2: Percentage of House Holds having Latrine Facility
customers take fancy to toilets. It have been widely seen if you build something beautiful, people will take care of it.
4.2 Implement a Business Model At an affordable price the general public can go to a toilet and access clean, safe and hygienic sanitation facilities—services that simply do not exist. The space surrounding toilets can be rented to local businesses who provide a range of services like hair cutting, shoe polishing and money transfer or to advertise to a captive audience. Bigger businesses houses also pay for wall space to promote their brands. Income from user charges, rent revenues and advertising deals could cover all overheads costs of toilet use.
4.3 Awareness about Sanitation and Hygiene Using innovative mass media campaigns, cultural taboos which keep the toilet business a hush-hush topic can be brought to mainstream discourses. Till date some public figures have also been brought to discuss these taboos including behavioral changes which underpin everything within a strategy.
5. CONCLUSIONS India is among the most rapidly growing economies of the world but still its 51 percent people are defecating in open that is world’s 60 percent. Just building toilets alone without focusing on behavioral changes is not going to work. Sanitation policies and program are more focused on building toilets rather than on motivating people to use them. Sanitation problem has been diagnosed as a lack of access to toilets rather than focusing on behavioral changes. If someone thinks that people’s behavior will automatically change with improving literacy,
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the idea is not going to work as 2011 Census figures demonstrate. Further there appears to weak relationship between literacy rate and percentage of households having toilet facilities. As shown in Fig. 2; one can easily identify that there are some states having 65-70 percent literacy but are also having 60 - 70 percent deficit in toilets facilities. Many sanitation policies and programs are drafted just focusing on BPL families. But 100 percent sanitation goal will be achieved when every citizen opts it as a campaign or abhiyan. Efforts should be made for a joint initiative of all educational institutions, government institutions, private organization, public sector undertakings (PSUs), non - governmental organizations (NGOs), community based organizations (CBOs), and self-help groups (SHGs), etc. In whatever field they are working safe sanitation should be on their agenda. A large scale information, education and communication (IEC) programmes should be organized to make all people aware about safe sanitation. Safe sanitation slogans and pictures should be used to promote total sanitation. Messages should be spread through print and electronic media. Swatchata Marches should be organized by local governments in every village and city with the help and participation of students, administrators, planners, and politicians, etc.
REFERENCES Kharb, J. (2014) Sanitation for All, AMDA Bulletin, Vol. 4, Issue 1. Water Aid India (2006) Sanitation for All - Still a Long Way to Go, Water Aid India, New Delhi.
WEBSITES http://www.forbes.com/sites/ashoka/2013/01/28/why-the-sanitatio-business-is-good- business/ http://www.indiasanitationportal.org/18173 http://riceinstitute.org/wordpress/sanitation/ http://scroll.in/article/656661/How-Sikkim-built-toilets-for-all- percentE2 percent80 percent93-and-why-the-rest-of-India-is-struggling-to-catch-up http://infochangeindia.org/environment/news/sikkim-becomes-first-state-to-achieve- 100-sanitation.html http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/article2543188.ece http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/indian-rail-is-world-s-largest-open-toilet-jairam- ramesh-248318 http://www.transparentchennai.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Public-Toilets- Transparent-Chennai-Issue-Brief.pdf http://www.sulabhtoiletmuseum.org/old/pg02.htm#TOP http://www.unicef.org/india/media_8660.htm http://www.poo2loo.com/fact-and-stats.php http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin http://www.sociologyofsanitation.com/honble-guests/sessionspeakers/sanitation- health-and-development-deficit-in-india-a-sociological-perspective/ http://www.wsp.org/featuresevents/features/inadequate-sanitation-costs-india- equivalent-64-cent-gdp
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Assessing Policies in Relation to Water Resources for Resiliency : Case Study Bhopal
Anchal Choudhary and Jagdish Singh, Ph.D.
Abstract The notion of resiliency appears to have gained attention and interest of planners in recent years. The concept of resilience seems to be embedded indirectly in public policies but there is no direct involvement of resilient water resource policies in urban planning. In this paper the city of Bhopal has been taken as a case example and various policies in relation to water resources of the city have been studied and assessed through a framework of resiliency. After an analysis of major water policies the author found that the National Water Policy, which is a core water policy, shows a nearly 60 percent resiliency, which is the maximum among the policies assessed.
1. INTRODUCTION Base of life on earth is water. Since ages, the civilizations have flourished near the water resources such as river banks, lakes and sea shores. With the unbounded use of water to meet the needs of the over growing population, the water resources no more remained resilient. In India, there is a rapid population growth which is accompanied by migration of people from rural to urban areas. By 2025, one half of India’s population is expected to get shifted to urban centers. In India,the urban centers have been continuously evolving,which is revealed from the fact that in 2001, there were 5,161 towns and cities in the country and now in 2011 there are 7,935 urban centers which include 3,894 census towns (Meshram, 2015).
When a settlement grows and sustains itself, it goes through various interactions of its physical and social components. These fast growing urban centers need not only accommodate the pressure of urbanization, but also address the issue of environmental management in terms of urban planning. All our infrastructure and services such as water supply need to be in line with the growing requirements. Today, it has become a need to have smart cities which are resilient in terms of water resources.
In overall development of urban centers and for smooth functioning of the city, water resources play a vital role. In the recent years, water distribution using available resources have become complex. Planners address the challenges
Anchal Choudhary, Ph.D Student, Department of Architecture and Planning, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal. Email: [email protected] Jagdish Singh Ph.D, Associate Professor, Department of Architecture and Planning, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal. Email: [email protected]
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and various problems through policies at different levels. We need to examine awareness and understanding of policies in relation to resiliency.
In urban planning, notion of resiliency have gained attention and interest of planners in recent years. The concept of resilience seems to be embedded indirectly in the policies but there is no direct involvement of resilient water resources in urban planning. In this paper the city of Bhopal has been taken as a case example and various policies in relation to water resources of the city have been studied and assessed through a framework of resiliency.
2. UNDERSTANDING RESILIENCY Several authors have defined urban resilience. “Urban resilience generally refers to the ability of a city or urban system to withstand a wide array of shocks and stresses” (Leichenko, as cited in Agudelo-Veraa, Leducb, Melsa and Rijnaartsa, 2012). “Resilience is a measure of robustness and buffering capacity of the system to changing conditions” (Berkesand Folke, as cited in Agudelo - Veraa, Leducb, Melsa and Rijnaartsa, 2012). A simple definition of resilience is the ability of a city to absorb disturbances while maintaining its functions and structures (Holling and White, as cited in Lu and Stead, 2013). Scholars considered resilience as the ability of a social system to withstand disturbances and to reorganize itself following disturbance-driven changes (Walker et al, as cited in Lu and Stead, 2013). “Resiliency is actually strength to absorb disturbances by stressors and achieve a new stable state which has overcome the disturbances. This new state of city is not always the same as previous state, in fact most of the time it is a new state since all the urban settlements are in a dynamic state of constant change” (Choudhary and Singh, 2015).
The idea of resiliency appeared in urban planning in 1990s (Mileti, as cited in Lu and Stead, 2013). Studies suggest that literature on resilience has given vital importance to the preparation and migratory actions at local scale in urban planning. In relation to planning six characteristics of resilience are (i) attention to the current situation; (ii) attention to trends and future threats; (iii) ability to learn from previous experience; (iv) ability to set goals; (v) ability to initiate actions; and (vi) ability to involve the public (Lu and Stead, 2013).
Regional resilience study tells us that resiliency performance in a city has two parts: preparation resilience and performance resilience. As the word suggests preparation resilience works on the issues which make the city ready in terms of managing future on the basis of anticipated risks. The preparation resilience again has two stages i.e. assessment stage and readiness stage. Assessment stage (Fig. 1) is monitoring current conditions and assessing the present, and the readiness stage is making preparation for the future based on present and past experiences. On the other hand the performance resilience is the way how the
Anchal Choudhary and Jagdish Singh, Ph.D. 67 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 city would react at the time failure Fig 1: Framework for Assessing Regional Resilience or stressed time? The performance i.e. stage has two stages response and recovery. The response means how the city will respond at the time of failure and recovery?. and how it will try to recoil back to its new stable state? (Foster as cited in Lu and Stead, 2013).
The arena of policy making for the city falls under the category of preparation resilience. In this planner’s work upon and look for all possible ways so as to prepare the best way to any type of failure. Source: (Foster as cited in Lu and Stead, 2013) Combining the six characteristics of planning and regional resilience, we have developed a framework to assess various policies that govern a city (Table 1).
3. THE STUDY AREA The study area selected is the city of Bhopal, the capital of Madhya Pradesh, with the geological co-ordinates (23°15´16˝ N, 77°24´10˝ E) in central India. Its elevation above sea level is 523 m.(http://dateandtime.info/citycoordinates. php?id=1275841). It is located on hilly topography and falls in Malwa Plateau. Bhopal has a planning area of about 806.07 sq km (area derived from GIS), and a population of 2.3 million (Census of India, 2011). The city is situated on hilly topography that is sloping downwards in north and southeast directions. The city has the spread that has been guided by hillocks of changing altitudes situated in northwest and southwest area of the city. So the morphological character of the city is shaped by these hillocks which form a continuous belt from Singarcholi to Vindhyachal range. These hillocks have been classified into the following three orders depending upon their altitudes and geographic continuity.
• First order : Singarcholi (Manwa Bhand), Lalghati, Idgah, and Fategarh are located to the north of Upper Lake. These locations have relatively high altitudes with moderate slopes. • Second order : Shamla, Dharampuri and Arera Hills are located to the southeast of Upper Lake. They are distinguished from the first order hillocks by Upper Lake and Lower Lake. The second order hills have a medium altitude, but with steeper slopes. These slopes are as high as 35 percent and have an undulating terrain. • Third order : MANIT, Char-Imli, Shahpura, Kotra Sultanabad and other hillock neighboring southeast of Upper Lake form the third order. These third order
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Table 1: Framework to Assess Various Policies that Govern a City; Planning related Overarching question Resilience Measures / indicators: (the stage characteristics capacity to) addressed by policy: The Assessment How well can and 1. Attention to current A1: Monitor current conditions stage does city assess its situation vulnerabilities to 2. Attention to trends A2: Predict regional trends and disturbances and its and future threats patterns capacity to respond to A3: Identify and assess the threats? probability of risks and disturbances 3. Ability to learn from A4: Learn from past lessons previous experience 4. Ability to set goals A5: Set up ‘priorities’ based on risk assessments and probabilities 5. Ability to initiate A6: Invest in and develop actions scientific scenarios for risk assessments A7: Collaborate decision- making between different levels of governance 6. Ability to involve A8: Communicate findings public responses (concepts, skills, actions) in planning policy The Readiness How well can and 1. Attention to current R1: Evaluate and maintain the stage does city ready itself situation conditions of flood and drought to respond to the protective facilities assessments and 2. Attention to trends R2: Forecast potential disturbances? and future threats 3. Ability to learn from R3: Learn from past lessons previous experience 4. Ability to set goals R4: Propose new standards 5. Ability to initiate R5: Authorize and mandate actions infrastructural actions R6: Co-ordinate readiness actions R7: Innovate and propose economic-benefit actions R8: Propose and elaborate actions 6. Ability to involve R9: Raise public awareness and public responses preparation education Source: Foster AND Tasan - Kok et al, as cited in Lu and Stead, 2013
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hills areas have a character of gentle slope and low amount of variation in landform.
The eastern section of the city is relatively plain without major variations. These are gradually sloping towards northeast, making bowl shape topography. Locations to southeast ahead of Shahpura hill are gently sloping towards Misrod.
Land form of Bhopal has resulted in the natural gift of water bodies towards the city. Within Planning Area of Bhopal, there are about 14 water bodies covering nearly 3,825 hectares land area constituting 4.74 percent of total land area. These are having various uses such as providing water supply, being a place for recreation, providing a place for pisciculture and fish farming, etc.
4. WATER SUPPLY IN BHOPAL Bhopal has 241 MLD supply of water consisting of 81 MLD from Upper Lake, 135 MLD from Kolar and 25 MLD from ground water. It is envisaged that by 2021 with the completion of Narmada Scheme the water production capacity of Bhopal will be 519.8 MLD. The city will have 441.83 MLD water (Table - 2) made available for domestic consumption after 15 percent deduction for unaccounted water. At present the population of Bhopal has only 67 percent of water through piped supply and the rest of the water in the wards is made available from 5,808 community stands. It is proposed that by 2021, 100 percent of the city population will be covered by piped water supply system.
As per the Manual on Water Supply and Treatment prepared by the Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization, it is required to provide per capita water supply of 150 liters per capita per day for metropolitan and mega cities. However, the National Building Code and Code of Basic Requirements of Water Supply, Drainage and Sanitation (IS:1172-1983) recommends minimum of
Table 2: Supply of Water to Bhopal
Million Litres Per Day S. No. Source Proposed Total Available Present Capacity Augmentation Water 1 Upper Lake 81 13.62 129.4 2 Kolar 135 54.48 208.8 3 Ground Water Sources 25 - - 4 Narmada Scheme - 181.6 181.6 Total 241 249.7 519.8 Net available water (15% 204.85 212.245 441.83 Unaccounted for Water) Source: Compiled by Author
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135 liters per capita per day for all residences provided with full flushing system for excreta disposal. At this rate, it is projected that by 2021, need of water supply will be 432 MLD (as the city population will reach 3.2 million) at the rate of 135 liter per person per day without accounting for losses in transmission and distribution. Further assuming that these losses will be limited to 15 percent, the gross water requirement for domestic consumption is estimated at 509 MLD for the city of Bhopal by year 2021 A.D. This is only the estimated domestic water supply demand; arrangements also need to be made for the institutional and industrial water demand. To fulfill the needs of water supply, government aims to achieve through the various policies as Jawahar Lal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, National Water Policy, and State water Policy, etc.
State Government of Madhya Pradesh has proposed in the Bhopal Development Plan- 2021, that there must be dual water supply systems: one for the potable uses as drinking water, while other for non-potable uses as gardening, washing, etc. It would be essential to incorporate a waste water recycling plant in all non- residential buildings having a discharge of over 10,000 liters per day. Sewage treatment plant, recycling plants capacity would be equal to or more than the water inflow requirements. So that major part of discharged water is treated and used for different non - portable uses. The use of water must be optimized for the various uses.
From the year 1992, under the 74th Constitution Amendment Act, the Nagar Nigam Bhopal or Bhopal Municipal Corporation (BMC) has the sole responsibility of water supply and to collect revenue. The various legal documents that govern the city of Bhopal are National Water Policy, State Water Policy, Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM), Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) Guidelines, Bhopal Development Plan - 2005, Bhopal Development Plan - 2021 and City Development Plan Bhopal (CDP Bhopal).
As shown in the Table 1, there are 17 components (A1 to A8 and R1 to R9) on which policies are evaluated. These components are evaluated on 0-2 ordinal scale. These components receive a score of 0 if they are not mentioned or identified in the policy; score of 1 if identified but not detailed out; and score of 2 if thoroughly described or detailed in the policy. So there are a total of 34 credits for each policy.
The policies selected were either the water policy or that policy which had water resource as a major component in them governing the city of Bhopal. Polices were evaluated with the procedure following three steps independently to relatively reduce the effects of personal bias and to enable the assessment of reliability. First, the whole policy was read, and each indicator in the policy
Anchal Choudhary and Jagdish Singh, Ph.D. 71 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 was searched and scored according to the evaluation criteria. Then, a keyword locator was applied to confirm that each indicator’s score was accurate and to avoid missing some information during the first reading. After evaluating all polices, the policies were re-evaluated to improve the reliability of results. After this, each indictor in the policy received a score for the final analysis.
4.1 National Water Policy This policy came in year 2002 and then in 2012 by Government of India, Ministry of Water Resources. Assessing this policy in the resiliency framework we find that head of the policy : preamble, demand management and water use efficiency, and database and information system is related to the indicator A1 (Monitor current conditions), as can be seen in the Table 1. The head of the policy - water framework law, water pricing, project planning and implementation, institutional arrangements, and trans-boundary rivers; talks of how the center, state and local governing bodies would govern and legislate on the various issues related to water resources. So it relates to indicator A7 (Collaborate decision making between different levels of governance). The head of the policy – water framework law, uses of water, adaptation to climate change, and research and training needs relates to the scientific research that is needed and being done related to water resources. So it falls under the indicator A6 (Invest in and develop scientific scenarios for risk assessment). Uses of water, demand management and water use efficiency, conservation of river corridors, water bodies and infrastructure are the heads which relates to R4 (Propose new standards). Adaptation to climate change, enhancing water available for use, management of flood and drought are the heads of the policy that relate to the A3 (Identify and assess the probability of risk and disturbances). Enhancing water available for use, management of floods and droughts are the heads that are related to the indicator A2 (Predict regional trends and patterns). Demand management and water use efficiency are the heads related to the A4 (Learn from past lessons). Conservation of river corridors, water bodies and infrastructure relates to the A8 (Communicate findings (concepts, skills, actions) in planning policy. Conservation of river corridors, water bodies and infrastructure, and institutional arrangements relates to the R9 (Raise public awareness and preparation education. Water supply and sanitation talks of implementation and is related to the R7 (Innovate and propose economic-benefit actions) and R8 (Propose and elaborate actions). The head implementation of national water policy is related to R5 (Authorize and mandate infrastructural actions). Management of floods and droughts head is related to the R3 (Learn from past lessons) and R2 (Forecast). This policy earns a credit of 20 out of 34, so achieves a resiliency of 58.82 percent or say nearby 60 percent.
4.2 STATE WATER POLICY This policy came in year 2003 and was made by the state government of Madhya Pradesh. As such water resource is a state subject under the Indian
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Constitution. Assessing this policy in the resiliency framework we find that head of the policy – information system relates to the indicator A1 (Monitor current conditions). The use of available water wealth for different purposes, project planning, drinking water and quality control, irrigation and land management are the heads of policy that relates to indicator R4 (Propose new standards). Project planning is the head of the policy that refers to indicator R6 (Co-ordinate readiness actions). Heads of the policy, ground water development, scarcity area management, science and technology are related to indicator A6 (Invest in and develop scientific scenarios for risk assessments). Head of the policy ground water development relates to the indicator A4 (Learn from past lessons). Water allocation priorities, rationalization of water rates are the heads of policy that relate to indicator A7(Collaborate decision-making between different levels of governance). Participation in water management is the head related to R9 (Raise public awareness and preparation education) and A8 (Communicate findings (concepts, skills, actions) in planning policy. Heads of the policy establishment of water zones and watershed management, participation of non- governmental institutions are related to indicator R5 (Authorize and mandate infrastructural actions). Flood control and management is the head that is related to indicator R2 (Forecast). Scarcity area management is the head that is related to indicator R3 (Learn from past lessons). Training is the head of the policy that is related to indicator R8 (Propose and elaborate actions). This policy earns a credit of 16 out of 34, so achieves a resiliency of 47 percent.
4.3 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU NATIONAL URBAN RENEWAL MISSION (JnNURM) Under the 74th Constitution Amendment Act, 1992, Government of India, under the Ministry of Urban Development,and Ministry of Housing and Poverty Alleviation launched a programme called the JnNURM in 2005 with the aim to improve urban infrastructure. The JnNURM consists of two sub-missions: the urban infrastructure and governance, and the basic services to the urban poor. This policy is not a core water policy but it has two thrust areas related to water resources out of 13. These are water supply including setting up of desalination plants, and preservation of water bodies. Assessing this policy in the resiliency framework we find that head of the policy preparing city development plan, preparing projects, mandatory reforms, optional reforms are related to indicator R4 (Propose new standards). Release and leveraging of funds, financial assistance under JnNURM, enhancing resource availability, enhancing commercial viability of projects, ensuring bank- ability of projects are related to indicator R7 (Innovate and propose economic- benefit actions). In corporation, private sector efficiencies relates to the indicator A8 (Communicate findings, concepts, skills, actions) in planning policy and R9 (Raise public awareness and preparation education). Mandatory reforms and optional reforms are the heads that relates to indicator A6 (Invest in and develop scientific
Anchal Choudhary and Jagdish Singh, Ph.D. 73 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 scenarios for risk assessments) and A8 (Propose and elaborate actions). This policy earns a credit of 7 out of 34, so achieves a resiliency of 21 percent.
4.4 Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) GUIDELINES In 2005 Government of India, Ministry of Urban Development launched guidelines for UIDSSMT with three objectives of (a) Improve infrastructural facilities and help create durable public assets and quality oriented services in cities and towns; (b) Enhance public-private-partnership in infrastructural development; and (c) promote planned integrated development of towns and cities. These guidelines subsumed the existing schemes of Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns (IDSMT) and Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP). Assessing this policy in the resiliency framework we find that heads – admissible components, inadmissible components are related to the indicator R8 (Propose and elaborate actions). Financing pattern, release of central assistance, revolving fund, incentives are related to indicator R7 (Innovate and propose economic-benefit actions). State level nodal agency, project appraisal, state level sanctioning committee are the heads related to indicator A7 (Collaborate decision-making between different levels of governance). Urban reforms is the head related to indicator R4 (Propose new standards). Monitoring, training and capacity building are the heads related to indicator R5 (Authorize and mandate infrastructural actions). This policy earns a credit of 7 out of 34, so achieves a resiliency of 21 percent.
4.5 CITY DEVELOPMENT PLAN BHOPAL (CDP BHOPAL) Under JnNURM CDP Bhopal was prepared on 28.01.2006 with a vision of a sustainable development of city of Bhopal by 2021. In the chapter - 7, Infrastructure and Environment, there is a head – water supply. This head is related to A1 (Monitor current conditions) and A3 (Identify and assess the probability of risks and disturbances). There is another head- storm water drainage, which is related to A1 (Monitor current conditions). In the same chapter the head environment is related to the A1 (Monitor current conditions). In the chapter- 12, Problems and Issues, the head- water supply is related to A1 (Monitor current conditions). In the chapter- 13, vision and goals, the head – water supply is related to the R4 (Propose new standards) and A5 (Set up ‘priorities’ based on risk assessments and probabilities). In the chapter- 14, city investment plan: strategies and action plan, there is a head water supply – strategies and action plan, this head is related to R8 (Propose and elaborate actions), R4 (Propose new standards), R5 (Authorize and mandate infrastructural actions), R7 (Innovate and propose economic-benefit actions), R8 (Propose and elaborate actions) and R9 (Raise public awareness and preparation education). There is head storm
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water drainage: strategies and action plan, this is related to the indicators R4 (Propose new standards), R5 (Authorize and mandate infrastructural actions), R7 (Innovate and propose economic-benefit actions) and R8 (Propose and elaborate actions). This policy earns a credit of 11, out of 34, so achieves a resiliency of 32.35 percent or say about 30 percent.
4.6 Bhopal Development Plan (BDP) 2005 This plan is published under the provision of Madhya Pradesh Nagar Tatha Gram Nivesh Adhiniyam 1973 by the Directorate of Town and Country Planning, Madhya Pradesh. In Chapter 2, Development Perspectives and Proposed City Structure, it has head - Water Bodies. This head refers to A1 (Monitor current conditions), R4 (Propose new standards), R5 (Authorize and mandate infrastructural actions) and R7 (Innovate and propose economic-benefit actions). In Chapter - 3, Proposed Transportation Network and Urban Infrastructure, it has a heading – Physical Infrastructure. This head refers to A1 (Monitor current conditions), A2 (Predict regional trends and patterns) A4 (Learn from past lessons, assessment stage) and R3 (Learn from past lessons, readiness stage). In Chapter - 5, Plan Implementation, it has a heading- Environment Management and Protection Strategy. This head refers to R8 (Propose and elaborate actions). This policy earns a credit of 11 out of 34, so achieves a resiliency of 32 percent.
4.7 Bhopal Development Plan (BDP) 2021 This plan is published under the provision of Madhya Pradesh Nagar Tatha Gram Nivesh Adhiniyam 1973 by the Directorate of Town and Country Planning Madhya Pradesh. In chapter - 1, Approach to Planning of State Capital Bhopal, there are maps with the heads - Hydro-geomorphology and ground water prospect map, flood hazard map and surface water bodies map. These maps are related with indicators A1 (Monitor current conditions), R1 (Evaluate and maintain the conditions of flood and drought protective facilities), A2 (Predict regional trends and patterns) and A3 (Identify and assess the probability of risks and disturbances). In chapter – 2 Study and Analysis Regional Perspective of Bhopal has the heads water resource action plan. This head talks about a water resource development plan. The various methods as rain water harvesting, groundwater recharge, lift irrigation, preventing silt load reaching larger structures downstream, minimizing soil erosion, providing water facility, etc.; through the nallah bunds, subsurface dykes, dug - cum bore well, channel treatment are proposed to be used under this head. So it is related to indicators R4 (Propose new standards) and R8 (Propose and elaborate actions). Implementation of water resource action plan is through mass awareness programs that would give importance to the conservation measures for water. So this head is related to indicator R9 (Raise public awareness and preparation education). The head Physical Features: Bhopal Planning Area
Anchal Choudhary and Jagdish Singh, Ph.D. 75 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 contains subheads, natural drainage that is related to indicator A1 (Monitor current conditions), the ground water prospects that is related to A3 (Identify and assess the probability of risks and disturbances), flood hazard related to R1 (Evaluate and maintain the conditions of flood and drought protective facilities) and A3 (Identify and assess the probability of risks and disturbances). The sub- head water bodies buffer, catchment and drainage is related with indicator A1 (Monitor current conditions). The sub-head environmental sensitivity has headings Surface Water Quality and Ground Water Quality, this is related with indicator A1 (Monitor current conditions). In the chapter - 3, proposed development plan of Bhopal for year 2021, this has a heading of Physical Infrastructure in which it has heading water supply and storm water drainage. The head water supply is related to R5 (Authorize and mandate infrastructural actions) and A1 (Monitor current conditions). Storm water drainage is the head related to A1 (Monitor current conditions) and R8 (Propose and elaborate actions). In chapter - 4 Transportation and Infrastructure Plan 2021, this has the head environmental infrastructure under which there are headings water supply related to R1 (Evaluate and maintain the conditions of flood and drought protective facilities) indicator, estimation of demand related to A1 (Monitor current conditions) and R4 (Propose new standards); storm water drainage is the heading related to A1 (Monitor current conditions) and R4 (Propose new standards). This policy earns a credit of 11 out of 34, so achieves a resiliency of 32 percent.
5. THE RESILIENCY OF WATER POLICIES Policies are made to strengthen the existing condition and to overcome failure and achieve a stable state to make a city resilient. Analyzing the policies we find that National Water Policy which is a core water policy shows a nearly 60 percent resiliency, which is the maximum among the policies assessed. The state water policy shows a resiliency of 50 percent, which is less than the National Water Policy. This indicates that national level resiliency is reduced at state level by 10 percent. The JnNURM and UIDSSMT are related to water resources but not the core water policy. Both of them show a resiliency of 20 percent. The resiliency shown by various planning policies indicate weakness in the policy. The City Development Plan (CDP) under JnNURM, the Bhopal Development Plan (BDP) - 2005 and the Bhopal Development Plan (BDP) - 2021 show equal resiliency of nearly 32 percent. This shows that there have been no major steps taken to improve resiliency in Bhopal Development Plan – 2021. It remains the same as in Bhopal Development Plan- 2005. If at policy level maximum resiliency achieved is 60 percent, then it is not possible to achieve resiliency at implementation level. Assessing resiliency component wise, we find R4 (Propose new standards) shows a coverage of 92.85 percent; then comes A1 (Monitor current conditions) and R5 (Authorize and mandate infrastructural actions) shows a coverage of 64.28 percent.
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Table 3: Assessment of Various Policies that Govern City of Bhopal
Planning Resilience Measure/ National State JnNURM Under BDP2005 BDP UIDSSMT Resiliency related characteristics indicator water policy water (2005) JnNURM-CDP 2021 (2005) achieved/ stage addressed by (capacity (2012) policy Bhopal component policy to) in the (2003) policy The 1. Attention A1 2 1 0 2 2 2 0 64.28% Assessment to current stage situation 2. Attention A2 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 21.42% to trends and future threats A3 2 0 0 1 0 2 0 35.71%
3. Ability to A4 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 21.42% learn from previous experience 4. Ability to set A5 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 7.14% goals 5. Ability to A6 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 35.71% initiate actions A7 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 42.85% 6. Ability to A8 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 21.42% involve public responses The Readiness 1. Attention R1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 7.14% stage to current situation 2. Attention R2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 14.28% to trends and future threats 3. Ability to R3 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 21.42% learn from previous experience 4. Ability to set R4 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 92.85% goals 5. Ability to R5 2 2 0 1 2 1 1 64.28% initiate actions R6 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 7.14% R7 1 0 2 1 1 0 2 50% R8 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 57.14% 6. Ability to R9 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 28.57% involve public responses Resiliency shown by the policy 58.82 47.05 20.58 32.35 32.35 32.35 20.58 Source: Evaluated by the Author
Indicator R8 (Propose and elaborate actions) has the coverage of 57.14 percent and R7 (Innovate and propose economic-benefit actions) has shown a coverage of 50 percent. Indicator A7 (Collaborate decision-making between different levels of governance) shows a coverage of 42.85 percent. Indicator A6 (Invest in and develop scientific scenarios for risk assessments), A3 (Identify and assess the probability of risks and disturbances) shows a coverage of 35.71 percent. The rest
Anchal Choudhary and Jagdish Singh, Ph.D. 77 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 of the indicators show coverage of 30 percent or less, which means that they are missing in all the policies analyzed. The indicator or component that shows 50 percent or less coverage needs urgent attention and needs to be worked upon.
6. CONCLUSIONS This paper has assessed the various policies that govern water resources for the city of Bhopal through the lens of resiliency. Resilience concept in relation to the water resources of Bhopal is weak and needs to be worked upon. Local authorities need to take measures to achieve the aimed resiliency in the arena of water resources. This will help not only to overcome situation like urban flooding and droughts in future, but also enhance the city’s economic position. Resiliency is a broad concept. However, now it is increasingly being used in urban policy documents across the globe. Definitions and interpretations of resilience are developing and gaining importance in urban planning. The concept of resiliency is important for Indian cities since it gives a new way of framing and responding to the failure.
REFERENCES Agudelo-Vera, C.M., Leduc, W.R., Mels, A.R. and Rijnaarts, H.H. (2012) Harvesting urban resources towards more resilient cities, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, pp. 3-12. Choudhary, A. and Singh, J. (2015) High Growth Inclusive Urban Settlements, pp. 153- 157, ITPI, Chennai. Desouza, K.C. and Flanery, T.H. (2013) Designing, planning, and managing resilient cities: A conceptual framework, Cities, pp.89–99. Dieleman, H. (2013) Organizational learning for resilient cities, through realizing eco- cultural innovations, Journal of Cleaner Production, pp.171-180. Fu, X. and Tang, Z. (2013) Planning for drought-resilient communities: An evaluation of local comprehensive plans in the fastest growing counties in the US, Cities, pp.60-69. Juwana, I., Muttil, N. and Perera, B.J. (2012) Indicator-based water sustainability assessment — A review, Science of the Total Environment, pp.357–371. Jyothiprakash, V. (2012) Water resource scenario and management techniques, National workshop on recent advances in water resources management, Bhopal, M.P. Lu, P. and Stead, D. (2013) Understanding the notion of resilience in spatial planning: A case study of Rotterdam, The Netherlands, Cities, pp.200-212. Meshram, D.S. (2015) High Growth Inclusive Urban Settlements, ITPI, Chennai. Miller, G.T. (2000) Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions, Brooks and Cole Publishing Company Belmont, CA. Pickett, S.T., Cadenasso, M.L. and Grove, J.M. (2004) Resilient Cities: meaning, models, and metaphor for integrating the ecological, socio-economic, and planning realms, Landscape and Urban Planning, pp.369-384.
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Assessment of Tourism Potentials in Vidarbha Region
Sanjay kumar G. Sonar, Ph.D.; Dillip Kumar Das, Ph.D.; and Isha R. Pawar
Abstract Vidarbha Region has great tourism potentials for diversified tourism development, exploration of some of the sites for tourism development can attract large numbers of foreign and domestic tourists and can help earn revenues through tourism for state government and local communities. The authors underlined that forests of Vidarbha Region are home to several wildlife sanctuaries, bird sanctuaries, national parks, and tiger reserves. With the location of six tiger reserves, Vidarbha Region has potential to become the hub of tiger tourism in India. In this paper strategic implementation approach based on the assessment of tourism potential of various tourist destinations in Vidarbha Region has been carried out and categorized as per the typology defined by the World Tourism Organization.
1. INTRODUCTION Development and change is a continuous process in all its forms in different parts of the world. The process of development has been associated with disparity in development since long and these are supposed to be interlinked. Due to disparity in intrinsic, historical and geographical conditions, certain regions remain at the farther end of the development spectrum compared to other regions. No region of the world exists without this phenomenon. Regional disparity is a ubiquitous phenomenon in both developed and developing economies. However, of later, it has become more acute and glaring. Regions with high concentration of resources are bound to achieve a higher level of economic prosperity while regions with little or no resources cannot attain that level. India and its states like Maharashtra are also not exceptions to this, though it is one of the highly urbanized states in India. Most of the urbanization has been concentrated in Mumbai-Pune-Nasik metropolitan belt whereas the regions like Vidarbha and Marathwada have remained spatially undeveloped and economically backward. This has led many planners to think regional development in a different perspective.
Vidarbha Region, though spatially undeveloped and economically backward, has great potential and scope for development in various sectors like agriculture,
Sanjaykumar G. Sonar, Ph.D.; Asstt. Professor, Town Planning Section, Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Pune Dillip Kumar Das, Ph.D.; School of Civil Engineer and Built Environment, Central University of Technology, Free State Bloemfontein, SA. Isha R. Pawar, Assistant Professor, Smt. Manoramabai Mundle College of Architecture, Nagpur
Sanjay kumar G. Sonar, Ph.D.; Dillip Kumar Das, Ph.D.; and Isha R. Pawar 79 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 industries, forests, mining, etc.; including tourism with abundant natural wealth. Vidarbha Region, with its dense forests is a home to several wildlife sanctuaries and nature parks. Besides this there is a large hidden potential for tourism activities in religious, natural, historical, social significance, archaeological sites. Exploration of these sites for tourism development can attract large number of foreign and domestic tourists. However, in the absence of information, publicity, connectivity, non-availability of infrastructure, tourism sector in Vidarbha Region is unexplored. Exploration of this tourism potential can be achieved by formulating strategic implementation approaches to tourism development by integrating socio-economic and spatial aspects of tourist destinations. In order to formulate strategic implementation approaches, assessment of tourism potential of various tourist destinations in Vidarbha Region has been carried out and categorized as per the typology defined by the World Tourism Organization.
2. LOCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE OF VIDARBHA REGION The Vidarbha Region spreads across north–eastern part of the Maharashtra State, which includes districts, such as, Akola, Amravati, Bhandara, Buldhana, Chandrapur, Gadchiroli, Gondiya, Nagpur, Washim, Wardha and Yavatmal (Fig. 1). It borders the state of Madhya Pradesh to north, Chhattisgarh to east, Andhra Pradesh to south and Marathwada and Khandesh regions of Maharashtra state to west. It occupies 31.6 percent of total geographical area of the state and holds about 21 percent of total population of Maharashtra state as per census 2011. Vidarbha Region has been divided into two revenue divisions, i.e. Nagpur Division comprising of, Bhandara, Chandrapur, Gadchiroli, Gondia, Nagpur and Wardha districts and Amravati Division comprising of Akola, Amravati, Buldhana, Washim and Yavatmal districts. The largest city in Vidarbha Region is Nagpur, second largest is Amravati Fig. 1: Location of Vidarbha Region followed by Akola, Gondia, Chandrapur and Yavatmal. Nagpur city lies exactly at the center of the country with the Zero Mile Marker indicating the geographical center of India, which is almost equidistant from Kolkata, Chennai, and New Delhi. Nagpur city is a key transport hub, where major National Highways intersect and there is no other city in Vidarbha Region with an International Airport. Nagpur is the second capital of Maharashtra state popularly called as the Orange City.
Geographically Vidarbha Region lies on the northern part of Deccan Plateau. Unlike the
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Western Ghats, there are no major hilly areas. The Satpura Range lies to the north of Vidarbha Region in Madhya Pradesh. The Melghat area of Amravati district is on southern offshoot of the Satpura Range. Large basaltic rock formations exist throughout Vidarbha Region caused by the Deccan lava trap. Gondia district is unique in Maharashtra state in the sense that the entire area of the district is occupied by metamorphic rock and alluvium. Buldhana has the Lonar crater created by impact of meteorite or comet. The eastern districts of Bhandara, Gadchiroli, Gondia, and Nagpur fall in earthquake Zone-I, which is considered safest in India, while other districts fall in Zone-II. Wainganga River is the largest of all the rivers in Vidarbha Region. Other major rivers that drain Vidarbha Region are the Wardha, and Kanhan rivers which are all tributaries of Godavari river. In north, five small rivers, Khapra, Sipna, Gadga and Dolar along with Purna, are the tributaries of Tapti river. Penganga river is another big river which originates in Buldhana district and then it flows through Washim district Kas, Kayadhu, Adan, Pus and Arunavati are main tributaries of Penganga river.
3. TOURISM POTENTIAL OF VIDARBHA REGION Situated in central India, Vidarbha Region has its own rich cultural and histori- cal background distinct from the rest of the Maharashtra state. The region is famous for growing oranges and cotton. Vidarbha Region holds two-thirds of Ma- harashtra’s mineral resources, three quarters of its forest resources and is a net producer of power. The Vidarbha Region with its dense forests (Fig. 2) is home to several wild life sanctuaries and nature parks. Besides this, there is a large hidden potential for tourism activities in religious, natural, historical, social sig- nificance, archaeological sites, Fig. 2: Forest Cover Map of Maharashtra State etc. Exploration of these sites for tourism development can attract large amount of foreign and domestic tourists.
In Vidarbha Region, 61 tourist destinations (Fig. 3) have been identified by Maharashtra Tour- ism Development Corporation (MTDC) for development pur- pose by executing various infra- structure projects. Apart from these 61 tourist destinations, there are number of tourist destinations having potential for tourism development. Such tourist destinations have been identified based on the infor-
Sanjay kumar G. Sonar, Ph.D.; Dillip Kumar Das, Ph.D.; and Isha R. Pawar 81 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 Tourist Destinations in Vidarbha Region Destinations in Vidarbha Tourist Fig. 3:
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Table 1: Classified Tourist Destinations in Vidarbha Region SI. Type of Grading of Tourism Destination No. Tourism A B C 1 Wildlife Pench, Nagzira, Bor, Chhaprala, Ambabarwa, Painganga, Wan Sanctuary Navegaon, Tipeshwar, Katepurna, Tadoba, Melghat, Karanja, Lad-Sohol 2 Historical Mansar, Narnala Balapur Fort Ambagarh Fort, Pratapgarh Fort, Manikgarh Tourism fort Fort, Bhamragarh Fort, Sindhkhed Raja 3 Religious Ramtek, Mahur, Ambhora, Adasa, Dhapewada, Dragon Temple, Kunwara Tourism Shegaon Markanda, Bhivsen, Koradi Temple, Pavni Bhadravati, Kalamb, Chandrapur, Keljhar, Mahekar, Deul gaon Raja, Karanja, Wari - Maruti Washim 4 Hill Stations Chikhaldara 5 Water Khindsi Lake, Totladoh Ambakhori, Khekranala Dam, Navegaon Khairi, Related Lonar, Dam, Chandpur, Darekassa, Hazra Fall, Itiadoh Ghodajhari Reservoir, Kalisar lake, Pujari Tola Lake, Erai Reservoir Dam, Naleshwar Lake, Dechali Fall, Laheri Fall, Kaleshwar, Salbardi, Nal – Damyanti Lake, Unkeshwar 6 Social Anandwan, Hemalkasa, Arvi, Mozari, Madhan, Walgaon, Bahiram, Significance Pavnar, Shodhgram Dhamangaon, Ghatanji, Loni Sewagram 7 Scientific Lonar Buti Bori, Durgapur, Ballarsha, Hiverkhed, Akot, Murtijapur Dattapur
mation collected from District Gazetteer, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India, Maharashtra Tour- ist Guide Book, literature review, local enquiry at various tourist destinations in Vidarbha Region. All identified tourist destinations have been categorized into typology as specified by World Tourism Organization (WTO). These tour- ist destinations have been further categorized into ‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’ Grades (Table 1) according to their national, state, regional and district level im- portance. Grade ‘A’ stands for National and State level tourist destinations, Grade ‘B’ stand for regional level tourist destinations and Grade ‘C’ stands for district level tourist destinations. Grade ‘A’ tourist destinations have been considered as explored tourist destinations; whereas, Grade ‘B’ and ‘C’ tourist destinations have been considered as unexplored tourist destinations (Table - 1).
In order to have an idea about tourism potential in Vidarbha Region, few important tourist destinations from each typology of tourism are explained in brief.
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3.1 Religious Places in Vidarbha Region Fig. 4: Temple Complex of Shegaon Shegaon (Fig. 4) in Buldhana district is famous for the Samadhi of Shri Gajanan Maharaj. Gajanan Maharaj made his divine appearance in the year 1878 and enlightened millions. He attained Samadhi on Bhadrapada Shukla Panchmi, i.e. 8 September 1910. The Samadhi Sthan (Temple) is visited by millions of devotees from far and near. Allegorically, Shegaon can be described as the Pandharpur of Vidarbha Region. Thousands of devotees pay their respects at the Samadhi every thursday, which is regarded as a special day. A beautiful temple Fig. 5: Anand Sagar – Amusement Park Complex of Lord Rama has also been constructed in the premises of the shrine. Fairs are held here on Ram Navami in Chaitra and on Rushi Panchami in Bhadrapada month of the Hindu calendar. It attracts pilgrims from all over Maharashtra state and across India. Anand Sagar (Fig. 5) area is developed by Shri Gajanan Maharaj Mandir Trust on about 350 acres of land as spiritual as well as entertainment center for devotees coming to Shegaon. It surrounds a big artificial lake. It has a meditation centre, an aquarium, temples, play grounds, lush Fig. 6: Garh Mandir at Ramtek green lawns and open theater where fountain- show is conducted for entertainment. It has been beautifully decorated with artifact and carvings all over. An amusement park has also started with a toy train encircling the entire place.
Ramtek (Fig. 6) near Nagpur City has got historic temple of Lord Rama. It is believed that Ramtek was the place where Lord Rama, the Hindu God, rested while he was in exile. The ‘padukas’ of lord Ram are believed to have been worshipped here for centuries. The present temple is believed to have been built by the King of Nagpur Raghuji Bhonsale, after his victory over fort of Deogarh in Chhindwara. This place is also famous for its relation with great poet Kalidasa. Kalidasa has written Meghdootum in hills of Ramtek. It is also known for ancient Jain temple with various ancient statues of Jain Tirthankara.
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Fig. 7: Shiv Temple at Markanda Markanda Fig. 7 in Gadchiroli District is also known as the Khajuraho of Vidarbha. This complex of 18 Shiva Temples on the bank of river Vainganga, where it changes its direction of flow to north from south believed to have been built between AD 800 and AD 1000. A large and splendid Hemadpanthi Shiv Mandir is an architectural marvel. Hanuman Murti, at Nandura is the world`s largest statue of Lord Hanuman. This statue is 105 feet tall, and the girth of the chest is around 70 feet. The base is around 30 feet, and the tail and the arm measure around 70 feet and 25 feet respectively.
3.2 Protected Forest Areas in Vidarbha Region Vidarbha Region has lush green deciduous forests which are 56 percent of the total forest area in the state. These forests are home to several wild life sanctuaries, bird sanctuaries, national parks, and tiger reserves. These attract a large number of tourists each year. There are 35 Wild Life Sanctuaries in the state out of which 15 Wild Life Sanctuaries are located in Vidarbha Region. Out of five National Parks in the state, four National Parks are located in Vidarbha Region. Out of these protected areas, some have been declared as Tiger Reserves, such as, Melghat in Amravati district, Pench in Nagpur district and Tadoba in Chandrapur District. National Tiger Conservation Authority has further declared creation of three new Tiger Reserves at Navegaon and Nagzira in Bhandara district and Bor in Wardha district. Vidarbha Region is having potential to become the hub of tiger tourism in India in the future.
The Tadoba National Park lays in the district of Chandrapur in the north-eastern part of Maharashtra state is the oldest National Park created in 1955. The Tadoba Tiger (Fig. 8) Reserve spanning 575.78 sq km, one of India’s 39 Project Tiger Reserves. The National Park consists of two forested rectangles of the Tadoba and Andhari range. Beside from tigers, Tadoba Tiger Reserve is home to rare Indian wildlife like leopards, sloth bears, gaur, wild dogs, hyenas, civet and jungle cats, and many species of Indian deer like sambar, cheetal, nilgai, and barking deer. The Tadoba Lake sustains the Marsh Crocodile, which were once common all over Maharashtra State. Tadoba is also an ornithologist’s paradise with a varied diversity of aquatic bird life.
Melghat Tiger Reserve is located on southern offshoot of the Satpura Hill Range in central India, also called as Gavilgarh Hills. Melghat Tiger Reserve was the first Tiger Reserve to be declared in the state of Maharashtra initially over an area of 1571.74 sq km which subsequently get expanded to 2029.04 sq km Melghat
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Tiger Reserve is a prime habitat of tiger along- Fig. 8: Tadoba Tiger Reserve with it is home to 648 species of flora, many species of mammals, 19 fishes, 15 snakes, 5 lizards, 250 birds and 4 turtle / tortoise species. The forest is Tropical Dry Deciduous in nature, dominated by Teak (Tectona grandis). The area is catchment to the five major rivers viz. Khandu, Khapra, Sipna, Gadga and Dolar, all of which are tributaries of the river Tapti. Nature has offered protection to Melghat in the form of rugged topography with only few entry points. The Pench National Park (Fig. 9) is one of the important Tiger Reserves in Fig. 9: Pench Tiger Reserve the region extends over an area of 257 sq km in the lower southern reaches of the Satpura Hill ranges, along the northern boundary of Nagpur district. It was declared a National Park by the government of Maharashtra in 1975 and received the official status of “Tiger Reserve of India” in February 1999. Indeed, the Pench National Park is four different forest regions in one, an extravagance of trees, shrubs, grasses, climbers, weeds and herbs, with teak being the most prominent of the tree species. The park is home to 33 species of mammals, 164 species of birds, 50 species of fish, 10 species of amphibians, 30 species of reptiles, and a wide variety of insect life. Bhamragarh Wildlife Sanctuary is home to a variety of wild animals including endangered species of leopard, jungle fowl, wild bear and sloth bear. The barking deer, blue bull, peacock and flying squirrel among other animals are also found here. The local people in and around the Bhamragarh Wildlife Sanctuary are mostly tribals belonging to the Gond-Madia tribes.
Nagzira Wildlife Sanctuary is locked in the arms of nature and adorned with a picturesque landscape, luxuriant vegetation and serves as a living outdoor museum to explore and appreciate nature. The sanctuary has a number of fish, 34 species of mammals, 166 species of birds, 36 species of reptiles and four species of amphibians. Chaprala Wildlife Sanctuary is home to a variety of wild animals including a few endangered species namely the tiger, leopard, jungle cat, sloth bear and wild dog. There are 131 species of avi-fauna recorded in the protected area of which as many as three bird species are of endangered status. There are two species of reptiles which are of endangered status: the Indian python and common Indian monitor. It is common to spot other wild animals, such as, wild boar, spotted deer, sambar, barking deer, blue bull, jungle cat, jackal, peacock,
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Fig. 10: Narnala Fort jungle fowl and flying squirrel. The Nagzira Wild Life Sanctuary and Navegaon Bandh National Park (bird sanctuary) of Gondia district are also very popular.
3.3. Historical Places in Vidarbha Region Vidarbha Region is having various historical places and one of them is Narnala Fort. (Fig. 10) It is a complex of three forts which includes Teliyagad, Narnala and Jaferabad Fort. The fort has 27 bastions (buruj), 27 gates, 27 cannon, 52 tanks and 360 watchtowers. It is built of white stone which is highly ornate Fig. 11: Balapur Fort with conventional lotus flowers, a rich cornice, Arabic inscriptions, and flanked by projecting balconies with panels of stone lattice-work displaying considerable variety of design. Most remarkable feature of the fort is the well-planned, highly efficient Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) system and drainage system. The Archaeological Survey of India has declared all these structures as protected monuments. Fort is surrounded by dense forests and breathtaking waterfalls amidst the glory of the Satpura Hills. Another important fort is Balapur Fort in (Fig. 11) Akola District. The Mughal emperors Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb started here their careers as Subhedars before they were declared emperors. Fort was built by Aurangzeb in 1690. Surprisingly, the fort is in excellent condition and is worth a visit. Most remarkable feature is during the rains, the fort gets surrounded by floodwater except at one point. Pratapgad is one of the old fort structures of Gondwan created by Gond tribes. The fort is fully covered and surrounded by the dense forest. The fort is around 16 km away from Navagon Bandh and around 12 km from Itia doh (dam). There are no much evidences of strategic importance of this fort, found. But it is said that the fort was mostly used by Gond Kings. The fort have one drinking water lake and as swimming tank cum bath lake. Sindkhed Raja, a small Taluka place in Buldhana district, situated 105 km away from district headquarters Buldhana on the State Highway No. 183, is known worldwide as the birth place of Rajmata Jijabai, the mother of the great Maratha warrior and king, Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.
3.4 Scientific Tourism in Vidarbha Region Lonar, a saltwater lake in Buldhana District is the World’s third largest crater (out of four) was formed nearly 50,000 years ago, when a two million-ton meteorite
Sanjay kumar G. Sonar, Ph.D.; Dillip Kumar Das, Ph.D.; and Isha R. Pawar 87 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 impacted the earth to create a depression 1.83 km in diameter and 150 meter deep. Today, Lonar Lake is idyllic expanse of sky blue water amidst a sprawling emerald forest, which abounds in a wide variety of flora and fauna. Many birds especially peafowl, peacocks and some migrant birds are found in and around the crater. It attracts many domestics as well as international scientific community. Dattapur in Wardha district is a famous for Center of Science for Villages (CSV). It is a NGO, started functioning in 1976 from the premises of Maganwadi in Wardha district where Mahatma Gandhi began the “All India Village Industries Association” (AIVIA ) in 1934. Late Dr. Devendra Kumar is its founder director and Dr. J.C. Kumarappa gave shape to Gandhian concept of rural economy. CSV is working on rural technology, specially doing research, training and run demonstration projects on optimized innovative technologies.
3.5 Center for Gandhian Philosophy in Vidarbha Region The Sevagram Ashram (Fig. 12) is the reason behind the destination of Sevagram being renowned – the place where Gandhiji resided for a period of thirteen years from 1936 to 1948. It is believed that when Gandhiji commenced his Pad Yatra from the Sabarmati Ashram in 1930 to Dandi, he has vowed to not step foot in Sabarmati before India attained Independence. India did not gain independence then and he was Fig. 12: Sewagram Ashram at Sewagram instead imprisoned. Upon his release, Gandhiji decided to make a village in central India his head quarters. He came to Wardha in 1934, at the invitation of Jamnalalji Bajaj. In April 1936, Gandhiji established his residence in the village Shegaon which he renamed as Sevagram, which means ‘village of service’. From then on, Sevagram has become an inspiring place. Many decisions on important national matters and movements were taken at Sevagram. It became the central place for a number of institutions for the nation building activities devised by Fig. 13: Paramdham Ashram at Pavnar Gandhiji to suit the inherent strength of this country. The ashram has many components to it. The Adi Nivas and Prayer Ground, the Ba Kuti, the Bapu Kuti and the Akhri Nivas were one of the many rooms that were used by Gandhiji and his wife Kasturba. Paramdham Ashram at Pavnar (Fig. 13) in Wardha district is well known as Center of Gandhian Philosophy. This ashram was founded by the great social reformer and activist Acharya Vinoba Bhave on the bank of the river Dham, 10 km away from
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Wardha for the treatment of leprosy patients. Vinobaji first came here in 1938, since then this Ashram has become the ground for his various spiritual- social activities and experiments viz. Kanchan-Mukti (free from money-economy), Rishi- Kheti (earning livelihood from farming with simple, cheap tools that are within the reach of the poor and also without the help of bulls or hired labour, keeping in view the idea of equality and non-violence) and so on. The well-known Satyagraha of 1940 started from this very place. This Ashram attained nationwide fame due to Vinobaji’s “Bhudan Movement”, in which he invited wealthy landlords to donate some part of their land to the landless and Harijan.
3.6 Social Upliftment Centers in Vidarbha Region Anandwan at Warora, Chandrapur district is a community rehabilitation centre for leprosy patients and the disabled people who are downtrodden sections of society. It was founded by noted social activist, Baba Amte. He developed Anandwan to be a self-contained ashram through agriculture, home-based, and small-scale industries. Baba Amte also shaped Anandwan as an environmentally aware like, energy utilization, waste recycling and minimizing usage of natural resources. Anandwan today spreads over 200 hectares and has two hospitals, a university, an orphanage, a school for the blind and a technical wing. Hemalkasa in Gadchiroli district is known for the Lok Biradari Prakalp established by the Baba Amte in 1973. His son Dr. Prakash Amte and Dr. Mandakini Amte run this nonprofit organization - Health Care for Tribal Society, Prohibition of Alcohol. Lok Biradari runs a 50 bed hospital that caters to 40,000 patients and also residential school for tribal children. They also serve Health Care and protection for the wild life and education and research activities in this region. Shodhagram is another well-known Social Upliftment Centre in Gadchiroli district. Dr. Abhay Bang and his wife, Dr. Rani Bang, live and work here and provide medical care and conduct research in 100 villages. They have developed a new approach, ‘Home-based Newborn and Child Care,’ which has significantly reduced the infant mortality rate. Lekha Mendha in Gadchiroli district has come-up as Social Upliftment Center very recently. These are two villages being acclaimed for their innovative Local Self Government and Joint Forest Management Practices by the local tribal. These villages are visited by the lot of researchers and students to understand the functioning of these villages and their local bodies and revenue generation activities undertaken by them.
3.7 Water Related Places in Vidarbha Region Situated on the outskirts of Lonar town in Buldhana district, the Lonar Crater (Fig. 14) was first discovered in 1823 by British officer, J. E. Alexander. Since that cataclysmic event, Lonar has evolved into an idyllic expanse of sky blue water amidst a sprawling emerald forest that stretches around it as far as the eye can see. Today, it attracts casual tourists as well as members of the scientific community from across the world. Apart from the scientific angle, this
Sanjay kumar G. Sonar, Ph.D.; Dillip Kumar Das, Ph.D.; and Isha R. Pawar 89 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 destination also has much to offer wildlife Fig. 14: Lonar Crater enthusiasts as it is generously endowed in both flora and fauna. The crater is home to hundreds of peafowl, Chinkara and gazelles, which browse amongst the shrubs and bushes ringing the lake. Other residents include egrets, moor hens, herons, coots, white- necked storks, lapwings, grey wagtails, grebes, black droungos, green bee-eaters, tailorbirds, magpies and robins - as well as numerous species of migratory birds that often visit the place. Navegaon, a popular forest resort in the Vidarbha Region, in the Fig. 15: Chikhaldara Hill Station eastern most part of Maharashtra State, was built in the 18th century. The picturesque lake set amidst lush green hills at Navegaon, has a watch-tower beside it. One can get a bird’s eye view of the surrounding forest and marvel at the exciting wildlife from the watch-tower. The Dr. Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary at Navegaon is home to almost 60 percent of the bird species found in entire Maharashtra state. Every winter, flocks of beautiful migratory birds visit the lake, a rare treat for the eyes. One can also join the jungle safari and stroll through the beautiful forest, crossing paths with leopards, sloth bears, gaurs, sambars, chitals and langoors. Staying in the unique tree-top house, riding a power or sail boat on the lake, are thrilling pastimes. Gomukh Temple having continuous flow of water through Gomukh is one of the ancient religious places with countless legends about it.
3.8 Hill Station in Vidarbha Region Chikhaldara in Amravati district is Vidarbha Region’s only hill station situated on the ranges of Satpura at the height of 1118 meters. Featured in the epic, the Mahabharata, this is the place where Bheema killed the villainous Keechaka in a herculean bout and then threw him into the valley. It thus came to be known as Keechakadara -- Chikhaldara is its corruption. But there is more to Chikhaldara. The sole hill resort in the Vidarbha Region has the added dimension of being the only coffee-growing area in Maharashtra state. It abounds in wildlife - panthers, sloth bears, sambar, wild boar, and even the rarely seen wild dogs. Close by is the famous Melghat Tiger Project which has 82 tigers. The scenic beauty of Chikhaldara can be enjoyed from Hurricane Point, Prospect Point, and Devi Point. Other interesting excursions include
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Gavilgad and Narnala Fort, the Pandit Nehru Botanical Gardens, the Tribal Museum and the Semadoh Lake.
4 CONCLUSIONS Vidarbha Region has lush green deciduous forests which form 56 percent of the total forest area of the state. These forests are home to several wildlife sanctuaries, bird sanctuaries, national parks, and tiger reserves. With the location of six tiger reserves, Vidarbha Region has potentials to become the hub of tiger tourism in India. Apart from its forest wealth, Vidarbha Region is also well- known for its Center for Gandhian Philosophy established by Mahatma Gandhi at Sevagram and by Acharya Vinoba Bhave at Pavnar in the form of ashrams. Dattapur in Wardha district is famous as the Center of Science for Villages from where Mahatma Gandhi began All India Village Industries Association in 1934. In addition to this, Vidarbha Region is also famous for its religious and historical background. Samadhi of Shri Gajanan Maharaj and Anand Sager at Shegaon, Shiv Temple at Markanda, Ramtek near Nagpur, Hanuman Murti, at Nandura are some of them having potential to become major tourist destinations. Unique destinations such as Chikhaldara Vidarbha Region’s only hill station situated on the ranges of Satpura Hills and the only coffee-growing area in Maharashtra and Lonar, a saltwater lake - the World’s third largest crater have the potential to attract casual tourists as well as members of the scientific community across the world. Social practices in the form of Lok Biradari Prakalp, Local Self Government and Joint Forest Management in the Vidarbha Region have become role models for others to follow. Social work carried out by Baba Amte and his Bang family and others in the Vidarbha Region have highlighted problems associated with its potential. Vidarbha Region has great tourism potential across its diversified tourist destinations, which is an excellent opportunity for tourism development. Exploration of these sites for tourism development can attract large number of foreign and domestic tourists and can help earn revenues through tourism related activities. However, in the absence of information, publicity, connectivity, non- availability of infrastructure, integrated strategic approach, tourism sector in Vidarbha Region remains unexplored.
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Nishi K. Mukerji (2011), “Nagpur/Vidarbha, the Tiger Capital of the World - A Development Paradigm”. Paper on Tourism Development Goals, Objectives and Strategies; Page No – 12,13. Report on - Tourism and Local Economic Development. Report on Industry as a partner for sustainable development of Tourism prepared by WTTC. Report on Study on Indian Tourism Vs Tourism in other Asian countries; Page No – 3,243 to 256. Report on Tourism and Heritage by Maharashtra State Government. Report on Tourism and Local Economic Development: How can businesses in travel and tourism increase the contribution of the industry to local economic development and pro-poor growth? Role of Tourism Industry in Indian Economy; Page No.- 18 to 22. The role of the Tourism sector in Expanding Economic Opportunities; Page No. – 4,6,8,9. Tourism and Sustainable Development: Lessons from Recent World Bank Experience - World Bank, University of Bath, UK and FEEM, Italy. Tourism as a Development Strategy - Senate Economic Planning Office, Policy Insights, August 2006; Page No. – 1 to 12. Tourism policy of Maharashtra 2006 - Government of Maharashtra, Department of Tourism and Cultural Affairs; Page No. 1 to 25. Tourism Satellite Account for India commissioned by – Ministry of Tourism, January 2006; Page No – 7 to 11,13,19,20. Tourism statistics in the European Statistical System, 2010. Travel and Tourism Economic Impact, Greece 2011 - World Travel and Tourism council; Page No – 6,7,8. Travel and Tourism Economic Impact, India 2011 - World Travel and Tourism council; Page No – 6,7,8. Travel and Tourism Economic Impact, Malaysia 2011 - World Travel and Tourism council; Page No – 6,7,8.
WEBSITE www.incredibleindia.org www.maharashtratourism.gov.in www.tourismindia.org www.tourism.govt.in www.tourism.nic.in
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Transformation of Neighborhood in the Context of Modern Urban Development in Bhubaneswar
Mayarani Praharaj, Ph.D.
Abstract Transformations and comparative analysis of the neighborhood development in the city of Bhubaneshwar over a period of time has been carried out in this paper. It is shown that neighborhoods developed on government lands have more open space than areas developed on private lands. In planned residential neighborhoods under government schemes, allocation of land for recreational use is found in abundance where as sufficient space for recreation is not available in private ownership lands. In addition to these factors, the present building regulations play an important role in determining the character of a neighborhood. There is a need to understand neighborhood dynamics by identifying stages in the process of neighborhood change.
1. INTRODUCTION Bhubaneswar is the state capital of Odisha, planned as a new town after the independence of India. Bhubaneswar’s transformation from an ancient town to a modern city was designed and executed by the German architect and planner Dr. Otto H. Koenigsberger in 1948. The city was bordered by forests until 1947 when it was chosen as the site for Odisha’s new capital. It was the new capital constructed on a green field site. The initial planning was done on neighborhood planning concept. In each neighborhood, rows of government quarters were built. Large government buildings and a marketplaces are located at the town center. Architect’s visualization was of a horizontal plan in consideration with budget and the general characteristics of the living style of locals.
Every city has its intimate inner pattern: the streets, squares, urban forest, water bodies and important landmarks that make cities accessible and livable. However, cities transform over time. Urban transformation is a habitual process in the evolution of cities. It is based on the relations between the cities physical, social and economic processes. It is important to differentiate between sustainable urban development and sustainable urban transformation. Sustainable urban development is primarily about development in urban areas while sustainable urban transformation is about development or change of urban areas, which can effectively direct urban development towards sustainability.
In India the transformation of cites started during the years 1947-1965. This time was very important as it was during this time that many new towns were built and
Mayarani Praharaj, Ph. D.; Department of Architecture. College of Engineering and Technology, Bhubaneswar
Mayarani Praharaj, Ph.D. 93 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 key institutions supporting urban growth for the next Fig. 1: The Neighborhood Unit as seen several decades established. By 1971, 112 new towns by Clarence A. Perry had been built, a large number of them during the 1950’s and early 1960’s, coinciding with the period of India’s early and rapid industrialization. Apart from state capitals such as Chandigarh and Bhubaneswar, the development of many of the new towns was linked to the location of heavy industries and power projects, for instance, the steel towns of Durgapur, and Rourkela, etc. According to the 2011 population Census data, urban India grew by 90 million people in the previous decade. During this period, 2,774 new towns were born with over 90 percent of the new towns belonging to the category of census towns.
Term neighborhood has been frequently referred to in the context of traditional and contemporary residential developments. The concept of neighborhood was developed by Clarence A. Perry in 1929 (Fig. 1) and this has been applied in planning of many Indian cities. This concept involves connections of various neighborhoods with the central place between residential communities. The central place is used as market and office building, school, etc., which can be accessed by pedestrian paths. The maximum distance between two nodes is half a mile.
Historical layout of housing such as Chandigarh and Bhubaneswar were designed with parallel rows to admit sunlight, fresh air and greenery of the kind which CIAM was promoting. Contemporary neighborhoods facilitate pleasant and comfortable environment while the present day neighborhoods place greater emphasis on housing designs.
2. NEIGHBORHOOD CONCEPT IN BHUBANESWAR Koenigsberger’s overall design for Bhubaneswar was based on the simple device of one main traffic artery to which the neighborhood units are attached. The Neighborhood units are connected to the main artery with the main center or centers of business and professional life. The town is divided into different units (residential neighborhoods). Initially emphasis was given to meet housing requirements of ministers and gazetted officers, ministerial and non-gazetted staff, and class IV employees. Six units were designed namely Units – I ( Bapuji Nagar), II (Ashok Nagar), III (Kharavela Nagar), IV (Bhauma Nagar), V (Keshari Nagar), and VI (Ganga Nagar). Public utilities like market, hospital were distributed (Fig. 2) in each unit. Unit - 1 is the first of the six units, which caters to the daily market, first public bank and police station along with different types of quarters
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Fig. 2: Neighborhood Facilities
for the government employees. Unit V earmarked for administrative functions. Other units were planned as residential neighborhoods. Each unit had all the major amenities. Each unit was designed to house a population of 5,000 - 6,000.
Dr. Koenigsberger suggested seven types of roads — footpaths, parkways, cycle paths, minor housing streets, major housing streets, main roads and main arteries —for seven groups of users for seven different functions. The overall widths of land earmarked for roads and streets were not determined by traffic alone, but by requirements for storm water drainage services like overhead electric lines, telephone, water and the need of adequate light and air to adjoining houses. The overall width of land allotted for road purposes was, therefore, dependent on the height of houses on both sides. An important consideration was space for avenue trees on roads and necessary provisions were made early in the land allotment scheme and in the estimates. For requirements other than traffic, the allotment of land even for the smallest housing street had been fixed at a minimum of 30 feet.
The plots reserved for government quarters exhibited a hierarchical order, with the largest plot / house size being occupied by Fig. 3: Neighborhood Plan: 1954 the higher officers and the smallest plot size occupied by the office peon. There was a strong clustering in the sectors according to occupation, education, and income.
3. NEIGHBORHOOD TRANSFORMATIONS Within the lifetime of the city as a whole, there will be constant changes of the Neighborhood and the buildings it contains. However, the city continues to exist through all these changes and the old concept of the city development will be in our memories. In Bhubaneswar Neighborhoods are classified under four categories.
• Pre independence inner city Neighborhood. • Post-Independence Neighborhood 1950.
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• Neighborhood during 1970’s. • Neighborhood after 1990’s.
New town Bhubaneswar is experiencing changing dynamics in residential areas. Commercial areas in some patches of the road side plots in the neighborhood are characterized by problems relating to limitation of space, storage, on-street loading / unloading, heterogeneous traffic predominated by slow mode vehicles and idle parking, etc. A number of incompatible land uses are found within the neighborhoods.
Local and Planning Authorities are encouraging for higher-density residential uses that supports the need to supply housing apartments with reference to permissible FAR and street width. Bhubaneswar is currently witnessing several modern buildings and high-rise apartments to accommodate the growing population. Today, the growth of the city is so fast that, the city spreads towards Khurda and Jatani.
Until 1990, most of the neighborhoods designed with horizontal development with few G+3 flats for government employees. Due to high population growth after 1990, number of private owners constructed apartment type of houses. It has been observed that there are some unauthorized constructions and conversion of residential zone to commercial in different neighborhoods. The examples are corner grocery shops, cigarette shops, vegetables and betel shops, shops for different service activities.
One of the ways of understanding neighborhoods are through the perceptions of people who ‘use’ the area in different ways? How people perceive and experience their residential environments is vital for urban planning? Cognitive maps prepared by neighborhood users of the selected study patches were analyzed.
4. NEIGHBORHOOD EVALUATION Evaluation based on interviews and discussions with the residents of different neighborhoods. Neighborhoods have been evaluated for the design period before and after 1990 i.e. the old neighborhoods and newly developed neighborhoods. Proposed intervention strategies are put forward for detailed analysis.
Street Network: the satellite images and mauza maps are used to understand basic road and street network patterns in different neighborhoods and the impact on size and scale of the neighborhood blocks. These are analyzed to find out if the patterns are similar or differ with locational differences.
Visual Impact: A visual documentation of the streets capes and housing pattern of some of these neighborhoods is undertaken, which includes housing in the neighborhood designed during 1950’s and housing designed after 1970 and 1990. This will help to identify visual attributes in different neighborhoods in the city. Besides, there are different slum pockets and encroachments on land
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Fig. 4A: 1- Pre independence inner city Neighborhood: Old Fig. 4B: 2 - Post independence Neigh- Bhubaneswar borhood (1950): Unit - 3
Fig. 4C: 3-Neighborhood during 1970’s: Nayapalli Fig. 4D: 3-Neighborhood after 1990’s: Chandrasekharpur
in the form of shops, etc.; in the neighborhoods. Demolition and relocation of shops to a central location in the neighborhoods is required. New open spaces within cities are potential sources of sustainable urban development and this need to be planned carefully. Besides there are some vacant plots in some neighborhoods which are used for new developments utilizing maximum FAR, giving rise to clusters of high rise building. This would propel the transformations of visual perception and change radically. However, buildings within heritage precincts or in the vicinity of heritage sites follow the height restrictions as per the byelaws.
City outskirts are subjected to fast growth, which is unplanned and unregulated. In order to control urban sprawl, certain growth management techniques need to be followed. Unlike the traditional neighborhood model, which evolved organically as a response to human needs, suburban sprawl is an outgrowth of modern problem solving system for living. Unlike the traditional neighborhood, sprawl is not healthy growth as it is essentially self-destructive. Even at relatively low population densities, sprawl creates traffic problems, social inequity and
Mayarani Praharaj, Ph.D. 97 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 isolation. Therefore, neighborhoods can not organize Fig. 5: Land Use of Bhauma Nagar, accessible public transport across cities. Unit 4
5. DEVELOPMENT SCENARIO OVER TIME BHAUMA NAGAR NEIGHBORHOOD A simple analysis of the neighborhood plans have been carried out. In Bhauma Nagar neighborhoods; residential layout was developed in the year 1950. Location of the area is at the central part of the city. The neighborhood had a population of 5,000 to 6,000. It was developed as a low density of 10 to 12 families per acre for dwelling area. The plot sizes vary from 8 x 12 m to 12 m x 18 m. The Fig. 6: Housing Transformation numbers of houses in this neighborhood have increased from Row Housing to due to construction of flats for government employees. Detached Housing and Flats: Bhaumanagar The roads designed at that time were very wide enough to sustain the dense population along with parking facilities. It is served by shopping facilities, schools, hospital, and a community center. Fig. 5 Major arterials pass at one end of neighborhoods. The circulation system has been designed to avoid major traffic.
The existing government quarters are of courtyard type of houses and common wall typologies are built up to the street edge. The houses were designed with rear courtyard and front courtyard. The rear courtyards provided an internal space that was private and responsive to the climate, and large enough to enable the residents to sleep outdoors during the summer nights. The quarters are in good condition and the socio - economic conditions of the people have not changed significantly over time, and the building has retained its architectural expressions. However there are modifications in the built structure to accommodate changes in family structure (Fig. 6). Number of people constructed additional houses in the backyard and also in the front yard. There were few added garages for 4 wheelers which were not provided during the initial phase of design. New market complex has already been added to the existing market (Fig. 7).
Blocks of houses have conservancy (Fig. 8) lanes (gaps between two rows of houses) behind the house that serve a dual purpose. The lanes are used for sewerage lines also to facilitate cleaning and repair works. The lanes are also
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Fig. 7: Newly Constructed Market Com- plex in Unit 4
5.1 Madhusudan Nagar
Fig. 8: Street Plan with Conservancy Lane
5.2 Nayapalli (designed after 1970)
Fig. 9: A Mixed of Different Building Types in Fig. 10: Housing Transformation in Madhusudan Unit 4 Nagar Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015
5.3 Chandrasekharpur Area (designed after Fig. 11: Land Use of Nayapalli 1990) This area has been developed after 1990. The neighborhood characterized by irregular road pattern and plot sizes are mostly irregular. The land is under G.A. Department of Government of Odisha, and also under private ownership. The BDA area comprises number of planning units with several housing schemes.
In a neighborhood, mixed land use has positive and negative environmental impacts. Non-residential activity on residential premises should be permitted selectively and carefully, taking into consideration community needs, environmental impact and provision for safe and easy traffic circulation and Fig. 12: Landuse of Chadrasekharpur adequate parking. Only selective commercial and non-residential activity should be allowed in the residential premises by considering the needs of the residents, environmental concerns, proper traffic movement and ample of parking space. Permissible use of land includes retail shops, convenience stores and any other specific use or professional activity not considered harmful for the society. The front setbacks should be used only for parking purposes. The conservancy lane may be used as a service entry for maidservants, newspaper hawkers, vegetables, and fish hawkers, etc.
The planned nature of the residential area should be preserved. Furthermore, time scales and time horizon for city planning should be properly planned. Time horizon is important to consider over which policy makers and urban planners operate, and scales over
Fig. 13: Informal Shopping Fig. 14: Poorly Maintained Conservancy Lane
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which projected population impacts of environmental decisions, degradation, climate variability and change will be considered.
An urban growth boundary (UGB) is a regional boundary set in an attempt to control urban sprawl by allowing the area inside the boundary for higher density urban development. The boundary controls urban expansion into farm and forest lands. UGB have saved a great deal of farmland from urban sprawl. Bhubaneswar Development Plan Area (BDPA) has been planned with UGB including Jatni and Khurda. Regional development will definitely control low density urban sprawl for a systematic development of different neighborhoods in the city.
6. CONCLUSIONS Observations of various stages of implementation of the neighborhood concept can help to draw many lessons, which can be used in the modification process of neighborhood planning. Bhubaneswar city is experiencing transformations in residential neighborhoods. Integration of residential units with schools and markets has become difficult in the past few years. Lack of connections between new developments is a common problem in recent urban expansion. This paper has discussed four residential neighborhoods developed during different stages of city development. The pre-independence neighborhoods, and neighborhoods developed during 1950’s have been compared with Nayapalli and Chandraseksrpur which were developed after 1970 and 1990. There are land use changes and development of apartment typologies in the neighborhoods. However, in the planned neighborhoods there is proper hierarchy of roads and road widths have significant impact on building heights. In the present day scenario, as road width is the primary factor which controls building height and FAR, new developments are largely guided by it. Neighborhoods having wider streets utilized the maximum permissible FAR and choose to redevelop, permitting buildings of higher heights, thus changing the internal streets cape, scale and degree of enclosure.
Neighborhoods developed on government land have more open space than areas developed on private lands. In planned residential neighborhoods under government schemes, there is allocation of land for recreational use whereas sufficient space for recreation is not available in privately owned lands.In addition to these factors, the present building regulations play an important role in determining the character of a neighborhood. There is a need to understand neighborhood dynamics by identifying stages in the process of neighborhood changes. Neighborhood is intended to fulfill social, community as well as retail functions. The proper balance between all facilities should be maintained for the convenience of residents. There is a need to provide green spaces between two neighborhoods and this should continue right up to the core of the city as well as the periphery. There should be proper development controls in all aspects of planning and design. Care needs to be taken for physical infrastructure,
Mayarani Praharaj, Ph.D. 101 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 12 x 3, July - September 2015 city transport planning and environmental considerations of the whole region to prevent haphazard growth and squatter settlements. Open spaces, parks, recreational areas, green belts and plantation should be properly organized in the region to provide environmental functions such as control of microclimate and environmental pollution. Besides good governance, every citizen must abide by byelaws so that the policy can be implemented adequately.
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