Humour Analysis and Qualitative Research

Issue 63: Summer 2012 social researchUpdate Humour Analysis and Qualitative Research

• Qualitative research is characterized by a heavy dependence Anindya Sen on data that are word-based (interviews, observer notes, Northern Illinois University, USA documents, manuscripts, etc.). Anindya Sen has an Ed. D. degree • Humour primarily consists of jokes (spoken or written words) in Instructional Technology and actions (describable through words) which elicit laughter from Northern Illinois University. His research interests are or generate merriment. in instructional design and • Humour analysis has inherent attributes that make it similar to technology, adult learning theories, typical qualitative research methods. qualitative and mixed methods research, and issues pertaining to • Qualitative researchers can apply humour analysis more the education of ethnic minorities. frequently as an analytical tool to investigate various cultural

E-Mail: [email protected] and social phenomena. Humour is a universal phenomenon Definitions of Humour and that is exhibited by most cultures. Theories of Humour What constitutes humour, under There are dozens of different what conditions it is considered definitions of humour. The following acceptable, what are the responses are two representative ones. to an instance of attempted humour, Crawford (1994: 57) defines humour and other related questions can shed as any communication that generates light on cultural and social beliefs a ‘positive cognitive or affective and practices. response from listeners.’ Romero and Cruthirds (2006: 59) define Humour primarily consists of jokes humour as ‘amusing communications (spoken or written words) and that produce positive emotions and actions which elicit laughter or cognitions in the individual, group, generate mirth (these actions can be or organization.’Just as with the described in words) (Critchley, 2002; definition of humour, there is no Ritchie, 2004). Given that qualitative single universally accepted, all- research is characterized by a heavy encompassing theory of humour. The dependence on data that are word- following four theories are among based (interviews, observer notes, the most commonly discussed in the documents, manuscripts, etc.), this humour literature. Update posits that humour analysis has potential as an investigative 1. The Relief Theory qualitative research tool. Cooper (2008) says that the relief http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/ 1 social research UPDATE

theory has its origins in the ideas of 4. The Comprehension- the data. In most conventional types Sigmund Freud who believed that the Elaboration Theory of qualitative research, the data are pleasure obtained from a humorous Cooper (2008) describes the collected in the form of interviews, event or utterance originated in the comprehension-elaboration theory as which are then transcribed and unconscious realms of our mind. a novel theory that tries to determine coded to identify themes. Qualitative The process of humour is a defence under what conditions individuals research frequently also involves field mechanism on the part of the ego will find an event humorous. notes of on-site observations. The and the superego to circumvent According to this theory, the degree investigator subsequently analyses reality and protect themselves from to which someone will enjoy a the field notes in conjunction with the emotional consequences of humour attempt is determined data from other sources (e.g., adverse real-life situations. Freud also by how difficult the humour is to interviews) and then develops the believed that humour (primarily in the understand and also by the amount research narrative (Creswell 2006; form of jokes) was a means by which of cognitive analysis the humour Bogdan & Biklen 2007). people could release their suppressed recipient conducts after he or she The analysis of humour can be similar aggressive and sexual instinctive has comprehended the humour to the analysis of data that are in the urges in a socially acceptable manner attempt. The post-comprehension form of interview transcripts or field (Freud 1960; Cooper 2008). Meyer cognitive analysis includes such notes. Jokes or other incidences of (2000), along somewhat similar considerations as whether or not the humour that are present in human lines, proposes that humour is a vent humour is socially acceptable under interactions can be “trapped” by through which people get relief from the circumstances or if the humour recording them in context. The the tensions that originate in their is offensive to a particular person or humorous incidents may be analysed desires or fears. group. either separately or within a thick description of the context. Interviews 2. The Superiority Theory Humour Analysis and its and field notes from qualitative The superiority theory says that Similarities to Qualitative methods may produce information humour is a manifestation of a Research about various social phenomena; feeling of superiority over others or Qualitative research has many likewise, the analysis of humour can even over one’s own former situation identifying features including, but provide information about various (Berger 1987; Cooper 2008). In other not limited to, the following: Use of situations and cultures. words, a humorous utterance can qualitative data (word, pictures, and Humour analysis is also akin to be a sign of the person “lording” photographs); inductive analysis; conventional qualitative research in it over another person whom he or holistic perspective; naturalistic other respects. As mentioned before, she considers inferior (in the case of investigation; context sensitivity; qualitative research is characterized self-deprecating humour, it can be empathic neutrality; and design by a “naturalistic” orientation to the case that the person is making flexibility (Creswell 2006; Bogdan the investigation. In other words, the humorous comment to distract & Biklen 2007). In the context of qualitative researchers usually go others’ attention away from a gaffe humour analysis and its similarities directly to a particular place or setting that he or she has committed). to qualitative research, some of the to make observations of subjects and above-listed features are particularly record data. The instance or setting 3. The Incongruity Theory noteworthy, as discussed below. in which the investigator is collecting According to Cooper (2008), The most common type of humour data is expected to be as close to incongruity theory is different from analysis deals with the analysis of the “natural” state as possible. the previous two theories in that, spoken or written jokes. Jokes consist The analysis of humour can also be while they try to explain how certain of either written or spoken words; naturalistic in its orientation. If the conditions motivate humour in therefore, analyzing jokes entails specific instances of humour (mostly people, it focuses on the object that the analysis of the words (in the jokes) are gleaned from regular is the source of the humour (joke, form of phrases or sentences). This (i.e. spontaneous and unscripted) cartoon, etc.). More specifically, this fact alone makes it easy to see why conversations, then the “data” so theory posits that for an object to humour analysis can be regarded as a procured can be classified as those have a humorous effect, it has to qualitative research tool. from a naturalistic setting. If the jokes harbour some kind of incongruity are embedded in the script of movies, within itself. The incongruity can exist In terms of data analysis, qualitative then there is still an air of “quasi- between what an individual expects research involves coding techniques naturalness” about them and that and what actually occurs (Veale, to organize the data and to allow can provide insightful information 2004). themes or patterns to emerge from

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about the type of humour that is diverse range of cultural and social (Barbour 1998; Holmes & Marra publicly acceptable in that society. phenomena. 2002). Schnurr (2008) looks at how humour is used diplomatically in Another signature feature of Humour analysis can also be the workplace by female leaders qualitative research is its reliance on applied to understand how people to balance their gender and inductive analysis. Inductive analysis behave in special situations, professional identities, thus enabling entails the gathering of data and including the possibility that there them to appear authoritative in then seeing what patterns or themes may be differences in this regard their leadership roles (but without emerge from the data. Most types between the two genders (Hay projecting an excessively masculine or of qualitative research follow this 2000; Crawford 2003). De Koning feminine image). Of course, humour script, regardless of the methodology and Weiss (2002) discuss the in the workplace has its dark side employed (be it grounded theory, important role that humour plays also, given its potential to offend phenomenology, etc.). Humour in the formation and functioning colleagues and adversely affect analysis can follow the same method of intimate relationships. On the workplace camaraderie. of inductive analysis. Instances of negative side, humour analysis can humour (e.g., jokes) are “mined” also shed light on how males can Another fascinating and insightful from conversations or printed manifest their dominance and power use of humour analysis is for cross- matter (such as movie scripts) and in social settings vis-a-vis women. cultural studies. Ziv (1988) and then analysed for common themes Pryor (1995), for instance, has shown Davies (2002) highlight the cross- or patterns. The above discussion that teasing, jokes, and remarks that cultural utility of humour analysis describes several similarities between are governed by sexual overtones are by discussing how various societies most forms of qualitative research among the most common forms of treat men, women, and children and humour analysis and it is easy sexual harassment. differently in terms of humour to see why humour analysis can be usage. They have conducted content Humour application may also be used as a special type of qualitative analysis of popular jokes across studied in the context of solemn investigative tool. different countries and they show occasions, such as death and dying, how societies use humour differently Research Implications of or to understand how people who and how these differences are Humour Analysis may suffer from depression react indirectly linked to factors such as to or use humour as a form of Qualitative research is used in many technological development and therapy, or possibly as a coping of the social sciences to understand literacy levels. people’s feelings and views about mechanism against the trials and the world in which they live and tribulations of daily life (Henman Conclusion how these views influence their 2001; Abel 2002). Maples et al. This Update’s primary thrust has behaviour. Qualitative research (2001) have drawn attention to both been to draw attention to the can be used for understanding the inherent benefits and the risks utility of using humour analysis one specific individual’s views and of using humour as a counselling as a somewhat novel (and, as reasons for his or her behaviour; it tool, especially when treating clients of today, relatively infrequently can also be used for understanding from diverse ethnic and cultural utilized) qualitative research tool for the views and behaviour of a specific backgrounds. understanding diverse cultural and group of people. Humour analysis social phenomena (be it at either The analysis of humour can be an can likewise be used to understand the individual or group level). To do interesting tool for understanding how an individual or a group of so, it has described the similarities the nuances of workplace cultures. individuals view the world, albeit that exist between conventional For instance, humour analysis can through a humorous lens. While qualitative research tools (as in be used to see how individuals (from qualitative researchers from diverse grounded theory, ethnography, different levels of the organisational backgrounds (various social sciences, phenomenology, case studies, etc.) hierarchy) interact with one another, business management, etc.) have so and humour analysis. Given the especially in terms of humour usage far sporadically used humour analysis similarities between the two, it is easy (both the production of and reaction as an investigative tool, this Update to appreciate why humour analysis to humour) (Holmes & Marra 2002; advocates that, given that humour can be regarded (and applied) as a Romero & Cruthirds 2006; Robert analysis has inherent attributes that special type of qualitative research & Yan 2007). Some studies have are so similar to other qualitative tool. examined whether or not humour research methods, it should be can break down communication Humour usage analysis can be used much more frequently utilized as barriers that generally exist between to understand both intra-gender an analytical tool to investigate a supervisors and their subordinates and inter-gender interactions in http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/ 3 social research UPDATE

a multitude of diverse contexts. Qualitative Research for Education: An 53–61. As mentioned before, several Introduction to Theories and Methods Meyer, J. C. (2000). ‘Humour as a studies have adduced evidence (5th ed.). Boston, MA, Allyn & Bacon. double-edged sword: Four functions to demonstrate that there are Cooper, C. (2008). ‘Elucidating the bonds of humour in communication.’ differences in humour usage of workplace humour: A relational Communication Theory, 10, 310-331. between the two genders, while process model.’ Human Relations, 61, Pryor, J. B. (1995). ‘The phenomenology other studies have shed light on the 1087-1115. of sexual harassment: Why does negative attributes of humour usage Crawford, C.B. (1994). ‘Theory and sexual behavior bother people in the in social communications between implications regarding the utilization workplace?’ Consulting Psychology men and women. of strategic humour by leaders.’ The Journal: Practice and Research, 47, The Update also referred to the Journal of Leadership Studies, 1 (4), 160-168. existing literature that shows how 53-67. Ritchie, G. (2004). The Linguistic Analysis useful humour analysis can be as Crawford, M. (2003). ‘Gender and of Jokes. London, Routledge. a novel qualitative research tool humour in social context.’ Journal of Robert, C. and Yan, W. (2007). ‘The to understand both intra-cultural Pragmatics, 35,1413-1430. case for developing new research on beliefs and inter-cultural differences. Creswell, J. W. (2006). Qualitative inquiry humour and culture in organizations: Various cultures use humour in and research design: Choosing among Toward a higher grade of manure.’ different ways, and humour analysis five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA, Research in Personnel and Human is a potent anthropological and Sage Publications. Resources Management, 26, 205-267. ethnographic tool to gain insight Critchley, S. (2002). On humour. London, Romero, E. J. and Cruthirds. K. W. into the mores and values of these Routledge. (2006). ‘The Use of Humour in the different cultures. Davies, C. (2002). The mirth of nations. Workplace.’Academy of Management Whether it is intra-cultural studies New Brunswick, NJ, Transaction Perspectives, 20 (2), 58-69. (for example, how blue-collar Publishers. Schnurr, S. (2008). ‘Surviving in a man’s workers use humour), the previously De Koning, E. D. and Weiss, R. L. (2002). world with a sense of humour: An described inter-cultural studies, ‘The relational humour inventory: analysis of women leaders’ use of or the large body of research on Functions of humour in close humour at work.’ Leadership, 4 (3), humour’s role in workplace settings, relationships.’ American Journal of 299-319. it is clear that humour analysis has Family Therapy, 30 (1), 1–18. Veale, T. (2004). ‘Incongruity in humour: utility as a potent investigative tool. Root cause or epiphenomenon?’ Qualitative research methods have Freud, S. (1960). Jokes and their relation HUMOUR: International Journal of become increasingly popular with to the unconscious. New York, W. W. Humour Research, 17 (4), 419–428. social scientists over the last two or Norton. three decades. As this Update has Hay, J. (2000). ‘Functions of humour in Ziv, A. (1988). National styles of humour. demonstrated, there is sufficient the conversations of men and women.’ New York, Greenwood Press. justification to encourage qualitative Journal of Pragmatics, 32 (6), 709– researchers to consider adding 742. humour usage analysis more regularly Henman, L. D. (2001). ‘Humour as a to their research repertoire. coping mechanism: Lessons from Bibliography POWs.’ Humour, 14 (1), 55–82. social research UPDATE is distributed Holmes, J. and Marra, M. (2002). without charge on request to social Abel, M. H. (2002). ‘Humour, stress, ‘Having a laugh at work: How humour researchers in the United Kingdom and coping strategies.’ Humour, 15, contributes to workplace culture.’ by the Department of Sociology at 365–381. Journal of Pragmatics, 34 (12), the University of Surrey as part of Barbour, G. (1998). ‘Want to be a 1683–1710. its commitment to supporting social successful manager? Now that’s a Maples, M. F., Dupey, P., Torres-Rivera, research training and development. laughing matter.’ Public Management, E., Phan, L. T., Vereen, L. and Garrett, 80, 6–9. Contributions to social research M. T. (2001). ‘Ethnic diversity and UPDATE that review current issues in Berger, A.A. (1987). ‘Humour: An the use of humour in counseling: social research and methodology in introduction.’ American Behavioral Appropriate or inappropriate?’ Journal about 2,500 words are welcome. All Scientist, 30 (1), 6-16. of Counseling & Development, 79 (1), UPDATE articles are peer-reviewed. Bogdan, R. C. and Biklen, S. K. (2007).

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