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&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV 78-0-521-51418-7 - Planetary Surface Processes +-D\0HORVK ,QGH[ 0RUHLQIRUPDWLRQ

Index

aa, 208–09 Apollo 17, 152, 153, 277, 322 accretion of planets, 268 heat flow, 292 acoustic fluidization, 343 Appalachian Valley and Ridge, 129 adiabat, 180, 181 Arden corona, 139 adiabatic gradient, 123, 173–74 Ares Vallis, 405 Adivar crater, 379 Ares Vallis flood, 406 Aeolis Planum, 413, 414 Argyre Basin, 455 Agassiz, Louis, 434, 439 Aristarchus crater, 216 age, solar system, 3 Aristarchus plateau, 195, 206, 216 ages of planetary surfaces, see impact craters: Artemis Chasma, 16 populations: dating Artemis Corona, 93 agglutinate, 285 Ascraeus Mons, 207 Ahmad Baba crater, 225 asteroid, 4 Airy isostasy, 87, 88 atmospheres Alba Patera, 157, 159 retention, 6 albedo, 289 Aleutian volcanic chain, 189, 195 Bagnold, R., 348, 374, 397, 401, 430 Algodones dunes, 366 Baltis Vallis, Venus, 217 alkali basalt, 184 Barringer, D. M., 223 Allegheny River, 417 basalt, 179, 196 Alpha Regio, Venus, 216 Basin and Range province, 136 Alphonsus crater, 155 batch melting, 187 Alpine Fault, 149 Beta Regio, 91 Alps, 436 Big Bear Lake, CA, 302 Amazon River, 416 Bingham, E. C., 64, 185 Amboy crater, CA, 377 biotite, 305 ammonia clathrate, 179 Blackhawk landslide, 341 Amontons, Guillaume, 68 blueberries on Mars, 304 amorphous ice, 288 Bonestell, Chesley, 328 Anderson, Don, 94 Borealis plains, 17 Anderson, E. M., 145 Boulton, G. S., 452 Andes mountains, 189, 195 Boussinesq, J., 411 andesite, 182, 184, 196, 197 Brazil nut effect, 314 anhydrite, 297, 299 Brent Crater, 241 Anorthositic Gabbro, 10 Bridgeman, Percy, 70 Antarctic ice sheet, 436, 438 Bristol Cathedral, 320 Antarctic ice streams, 444 Brown, R., 292 aplite dikes, 302 Bürg crater, 336 Apollo 11, 284 Apollo 15, 143, 144, 216, 217 Cajon Pass, CA, 291 heat flow, 292 Callisto, 4, 18, 20 Apollo 16, 98, 279 polar cap, lack of, 288

485

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486 Index

Callisto (cont.) Darcy, unit, 391 sublimation weathering, 307, 308 Darwin, Charles, 310 Valhalla basin, 20 dating planetary surfaces, see impact craters: Caloris basin, 15, 195, 227, 236 populations: dating Canyon de Chelly, 395 Davis, William Morris, 430 Canyonlands National Monument, UT, 309 Davison, Charles, 320, 322 Cargo Muchacho mountains, 313 Death Valley, CA, 427 Carolina Bays, 462 Debye length, 322 Cassini, Jacques, 27 Deccan Plateau, 194, 195 catastrophism, 268–69 Denali earthquake, 341, 342 Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, 194 Devil’s Postpile, 210 Ceraunius Fossae, 150 diamonds, 234 Ceres, 4 diapirs, 188 Channeled Scablands, 385, 406, 409 Diemos, 320 Chapman, C. R., 266 dikes, 188–92 Chase, Clem, 431 critical length, 192 chemical potential, 177 pressure vs. depth, 191 Chézy, A., 402 surface grabens, 151 Chicxulub crater, 271 velocity of fluid, 192 Chugach Mountains, 438 Discovery Scarp, 149 Clapeyron, É, 171 dislocations, 439 Clausius–Clapeyron equation, 174 drag coefficient, 350 cliff Dunes, 371–76 maximum height, 333 Barchan, 372–74 climate Barchanoid ridges, 373 carbon dioxide control, see weathering: chemical: clay, 316, 368 carbon dioxide climbing, 376 coesite, 234 falling, 376 Colorado Plateau, 335, 395 linear, 373, 374–75 Colorado River, 385, 411, 416 longitudinal, 372, 375 Columbia Plateau, 194 lunettes, 375 Columbia River, 385, 417 migration, 372 Columbia River Basalt Province, 214 modification timescale, 372 columnar joints, 141 parabolic, 372 comet, 5 reversing, 373, 375 composition seif dunes, 375 eutectic, 179 slip face, 371 icy bodies, 176 star, 372, 373, 375 rocky planets, 175–76 transverse, 372, 373, 374 solar system, 175 velocity, 372 Conel, J., 322 height dependence, 371 constitutive relations, 56 Copernicus crater, 14, 226, 285, 335, 336 Earth, 3, 22–24 Coronae, 195 atmosphere, 23 Coulomb, Charles, 68, 326, 332 carbon dioxide, 299 creep, of soil, see soil:creep center of figure offset,35 Cretaceous era, 271 conductive temperature gradient, 174 crevasse, 188, 447, 448–49 continents, 23 crust convection velocity, 124 thickness, from gravity, 98 crater clusters, 254 cryovolcanism, 169, 182–83, 218 crust, 22, 39 Culling, W. E. H., 324 flattening, 27 geoid anomalies, 99 da Vinci, Leonardo, 68 glaciers, 435 Darcy equation, 187 hypsometric curve, 39, 42 Darcy law, 393 Ice Ages, 435, 451, 460 Darcy, Henry, 388, 390 karst, 297

LQWKLVZHEVHUYLFH&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV ZZZFDPEULGJHRUJ Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-51418-7 - Planetary Surface Processes H. Jay Melosh Index More information

Index 487

large igneous provinces, 217 fluid threshold, 358, 360 linear dunes, 374 impact threshold, 358, 360–61 moment of inertia, 29 impact threshold on Mars, 360 oblateness, 27 minimum threshold velocity, 358, 359 oceanic lithosphere, 106 threshold diameter, 359 oceanic plate subsidence, 120 threshold speeds on planets, 359 oxygen, 295, 298 Van der Waals forces, 357 plate tectonics, see plate tectonics megaripples, 368, 369, 370 primordial heat, 127 Reynolds number, 351 rock cycle, 23 ridges, 369 rotational pole, 43 ripples, 367, 369 salt glaciers, 435, 445 roughness, 355 shield volcano, 206 sand stone pavement, 313 definition, 365 temperatures sand grain ice age effects, 291 weight, 349 thermal boundary layer, 124 sand shadows, 370, 371 tidal dissipation, 114 sand surface stability, 366 topographic power spectrum, 46 sand vs. dust, 349 East African Rift, 151 Stokes’ law, 351–52 East Antarctic ice sheet, 450 transient phenomena, 378–79 eccentricity, orbital, 2 transport, 348, 361–63 Egypt, 348 exceptional winds, 362 Einstein, Albert, 411 impact creep, 354, 363 Einstein–Roscoe formula, 185 kamikaze effect, 316, 368–69 ejecta blanket, 244 laminar regime, 350 El Dorado crater, 368 reptation, 354, 363 Elastic constants saltation, 353–54 bulk modulus, 56 hop length, 354, 362 Poisson’s ratio, 56 sand carpet, 361 shear modulus, 56 sand flux, 363 Young’s modulus, 56 suspension, 352–53 elevation terminal velocity, 350, 352 definition, 36 turbulent regime, 350, 351 geodetic reference, 36 Bagnold’s rule of thumb, 353 spectral power, 45 wind velocity dependence, 362 Elm, Switzerland, 341 ventifact, 365 Elsinore corona, 139 wind streaks, 377, 378 Enceladus wind structure, 356 geysers, 205 laminar sublayer, 356 reorientation tectonics, 155 near surface, 354–55 enthalpy, specific, 201 over saltation carpet, 361 entropy, 173, 177 velocity vs. height, 355 eolian processes, 349 viscous sublayer, 355, 356 abrasion by wind, 365 yardangs, 376–77 aerodynamic roughness, 361 equilibrium surface, see equipotential surface backventing, 363–64 equipotential surface, 29 deflation, 377 Eris, 3 drag coefficient, 350 Eros, 286 dunes, see dunes crater chains, 331 dust devils, 363 ponds, 323 friction Reynolds number, 357, 358 escape velocity, see velocity: escape friction velocity, 355 Eucrite meteorites, 180 hysteresis, 360 Euler, Leonhard, 130 initiation of motion, 354–61 Europa, 18, 19 dust entrainment, 363–64 chaos, 19 electrostatic forces, 360 ice shell, 19

488 Index

Europa (cont.) drainage basins, 400–01 lithospheric flexure, 97 Earth-centrism, 395 ocean, 19 efficacity, 382 ridges, 19 erosion, 396–98 solid–state greenhouse, 292 extreme events, 383–85 spectrum, 279 floodplains, 406 strike-slip faults, 149 fining-upward sequence, 411, 412 sulfur implantation, 288 floods, 404–05 tidal distortion, 33 catastrophic, 404–06 evaporite minerals, 426 discharge, 405 exosphere, 6 graded rivers, 430 Horton overland flow, 396 fayalite, 177, 299 hydraulic geometry, 409–10 feldspar, 179, 305 infiltration, 386–88 fillets, 284 capacity, 387, 418 Finger Lakes, 452 levees, 406 firn, 435, 436 long profile of rivers, 429 firnification, 293 longshore drift, 423–26 Flamsteed Ring, 320 methane wetting capacity, 387 flattening,see shape, planetary overland flow, 396–401 flexural parameter, 92, 93, 105 belt of no erosion, 397, 400, 417 flexural rigidity, 94, 132 roll waves, 397 flexure, 91–93 piracy, 399 Europa lithosphere, 97 playas, 426–27 flexural parameter, 95 rilles, 400 fourth-order equation, 94 rip currents, 426 maximum stress, 93 runoff, 386, 396 neutral sheet, 95 cinder cones, 387 plate deflection by load, 95, 96 permeable surfaces, 387 profile, 96 sediment transport, 401 fluvial processes initiation, 402 abrasion of bedload, 409 sheet flow, 396 alluvial fan, 406–07 instability, 398 alluvium, 406 stream velocity, 402–04 base level, 429 Chézy coefficient, 404 beach cusps, 426 Chézy equation, 402 bedforms, 409 Darcy–Wiesbach equation, 404 antidunes, 408 Manning equation, 402 cross-bedding, 408 Manning roughness, 403 potholes, 408 streamflow, 407 stream power, 407 streamlined forms, 405, 409, 419 channelization, 398, 399 subsurface flow, 393, see subsurface water channels, 407–15 turbidity currents, see turbidity currents braided, 412–13 wave action, 419, 423 distributary, 415 wave base, 422–23 drainage density, 417 wave swash, 426 meanders, 410–12, 414 waves, see waves Einstein tea-leaf effect, 412 Forbes, J. D., 434 helical flow, 412 forsterite, 177 network analysis, 416–18 Fort Bourbon, Martinique, 332 paleohydrologic hypothesis, 413 Fortuna Tessera, 419 river terraces, 414–15 Fourier, Joseph, 116, 290 tributary, 415 Frank, Alberta, 341 underfit, 411 Frenkel, Yakov, 65 Venusian, 415 friction velocity, 355 cross grading, 399 frost heaving, 304 deltas, 427–28 frost-heave coefficient, 303

Index 489

Froude number, 340, 397, 408 glaciers ablation zone, 435, 436, 447 gabbro, 182, 194 accumulation zone, 435, 436, 447 Gaillard, David, 333 basal melting, 437, 438 Galilean satellites, 18, 20, 288 classification, 436–38 Callisto, see Callisto cold-based, 437 Europa, see Europa crevasses, see crevasse Ganymede, see Ganymede flow velocities, 435 Io, see Io heat transfer inside, 438 Galileo Galilei, 1, 222, 349 hydrologic cycle, 434, 435–36 Galveston harbor, 363 North American, 436 Ganymede, 4, 18, 19 Piedmont, 437 grooved terrain, 20, 136, 137 rock, see rock glaciers multiring basins, 227 salt glaciers, 445 palimpsest crater, 20 surges, 435, 446 polar caps, 20, 288 terminus, 446, 453 garnet, 179 thermal regime, 437 gas giant, see Jovian planets warm-based, 434, 437–38 Gaspara Glen, J. W., 439, 440 crater chains, 331 goethite, 297 Gault, D. E., 223, 263, 264, 276, 281 grabens, see tectonics: faults: grabens geoid, 29, 37 Graham Island, 422 geoid to topography ratio, 99 Grand Canyon, 385 geologic processes, 7, 8 granite, 182, 196 Gesundheitstrasse, 449 Gratteri crater, 250 Giant’s Causeway, 210 Grätz number, 213 Gibbs, J. W., 177 gravity anomalies, 97 Gibbs’ Free Energy, 177 Bouguer, 98 Gifford, A. C., 230 free-air, 97 Gila River, 417 geoid, 99 Gilbert, G. K., 49, 193, 194, 321, 353, 382, 419, 426, stress exerted by, 98 430 Great Lakes, 452 Glacial landforms, 451–54 Great Salt Lake, 419 abrasion erosion, 452 Greenland ice sheet, 436 cirques, 451 Griffith, A. A., 142 drumlins, 453 Griggs, David, 70, 143, 149, 306 eskers, 454 Grimaldi, 11 kettle holes, 454 grooves on asteroids, see mass movement: subsidence moraines, 452–53 pits plucking erosion, 451–52 grus, 305 Roche moutonnée, 452, 453 Gusev crater, 369 rock flour, 453 gypsum, 297 U-shaped valleys, 451, 452 glacier flow, 439–46 habitability, planetary, 288 basal sliding, 446 Hadley Rille, 217 regelation, see regelation Half-Dome, Yosemite, 301 crevasse pattern, 449 halite, 296 dislocation creep, 440 harmonic analysis, 44–46 extrusion flow, 447 harmonic tremor, 197 Glen’s law, 442, 443, 448 Hartley 2, 307 non-ice solids, 443–44 Hawaii, 195 nonlinear flow laws, 441 submarine landslides, 341 plastic approximation, 443 Hawkins Salt Dome, 156 semicircular channel, 441 Heart Mountain Fault, 154 uphill motion, 447 heat capacity, 173 velocity, 448 heat generation, 116 yield stress, 443 accretion, 113–14

490 Index

heat generation (cont.) hydraulic mining, 401, 430 effect of differentiation, 118 hydrology, 383–88 gravitational energy, 113 hypsometric curves, 38–41 inverted accretion temperatures, 114 Q of Kelvin–Voight solid, 115 Iani Chaos, 405 Q of Maxwell solid, 115 ice lenses, 303, 458 radioactive elements, 118 ice sheet topography, 449–51 radiogenic, 127 ice wedge polygons, 459–61 tidal dissipation, 114–16, 128 Iceland, 314, 323, 330, 422 heat transfer icy satellites, 5 advection, 116 Ida, 286 conduction, 116, 171 crater chains, 331 cooling of oceanic plates, 120 ignimbrite, 203 conduction time constant, 119 IGY (International Geophysical Year), 447 convection, 112, 116, 171 Imbrium basin, 11, 233 adiabat, 123 impact basins, see impact craters: multiring adiabatic temperature gradient, 123 basins boundary layer, 123, 124, 171 impact craters convection cell dimensions, 122 angle, impact, 228 convective heat flux, 124 atmospheric dispersion, 254 convective velocity, 124 atmospheric entry, 254–55 critical Rayleigh number, 122 atmospheric erosion, 255 internal heating, 122 breccia, 237 Nusselt number, 122, 124–25 breccia lens, 224, 239 parameterized convection, 125 catastrophism, 268, 269 plume, 137, 180 central pits, 229 plume velocity, 125 circularity, 223 Rayleigh number, 123 complex, 224–26, 239, 240, 336–38 stress, 125 rim diameter, 226 viscosity regulation, 126 structural uplift, 225 planetary, 172 concentric craters, 228 ternary diagram, 171, 172 cratering rate volcanic, 170 Earth, 269 heiligenschein, 312 Mars and Venus, 270 Heim, A., 341, 343 Moon, 269 Hellas basin, 17, 224 satellites of Jupiter and Saturn, 270 Hellas Planitia, 438 cryptovolcanic, 223 Helmholtz, Hermann, 420 degraded, 229 hematite, 297, 298, 304 discovery, 222 hemispheric asymmetry, 35 on Mars, 223 Henry Mountains, UT, 430 downhill creep, 321 Herschel crater, 84, 86 ejecta, 224, 246 Hertz, Heinrich, 91, 94 Archean deposits on Earth, 270 Hesperia Planum, 378 asymmetric, 228 Hevelius Formation, 11 ballistic sedimentation, 247 Himalaya, 436 block size, 246 hoar frost, 293 butterfly-wing pattern, 228, 251 hoobabs, 340 curtain, 247 Hooke, Robert, 55 depth of excavation, 238 Hooke’s law, 56 fluidized, 228, 248, 249, 340 Horton, Robert, 396, 398, 416 provenance, 238 Hugoniot, P. H., 230 secondary craters, 250 Humboldt crater thickness, 245 floor uplift, 155 Venus parabolas, 378, 379 Humorum basin, 98 extinction of life, 271 Hutton, James, 23, 395, 430 herringbone pattern, 226, 250 Huygens lander, 313, 408 landscapes, 255–62

Index 491

microcraters, 224 jetting, 233 multiring basins, 11, 12, 20, 225, 226–27, 239, modification, 238–44 244 Bingham fluid model, 239 mantle uplift, 244 ring tectonics, 241 ring tectonic theory, 245 planar impact approximation, 231–33 oblique, 251 pressure decay, 233 peak ring, 226, 240, 241 residual velocity, 236 populations, 256–61 seismic shaking, 235–36 cumulative distribution, 257–60, 259, 280 shock metamorphism, 234 dating, 262–66 shatter cones, 234 equilibrium, 261, 263, 264, 280, 281, 282 shock velocity–particle velocity relation, 230 evolution, 261–62, 263, 265 spallation, 235 geometric saturation, 259, 261, 262, 265 vapor plume, 237 incremental distribution, 257 Z-model, 242–43 landscape, 255 inclination, orbital, 3 Late Heavy Bombardment, see Late Heavy intercrater plains, 14 Bombardment Inverness corona, 139 leading/trailing asymmetry, 266–67 Io, 18, 19, 170, 171 Moon post-mare, 259 caldera scarps, 333 production distribution, 260–61, 263, 265, 281 crustal resurfacing, 128 R-plot, 260 lava properties, 214 size-frequency distribution, 258, 268 mountains, 19, 159 time history, 269 resurfacing, 218 rampart craters, 248 sinking lithosphere, 160 scaling, 251–54 sulfur, 19 depth/diameter ratio, 252, 253 sulfur emission, 288 diameter, 252 thrust faults, 159 energy scaling, 252 tidal distortion, 33 melt volume, 253 volcanic plume, 203 secondary craters, 246, 250–51 volcanoes, 19 seismic shaking, 322 iridium, 271 simple, 224, 225, 239, 241 isostasy, see topography: support: isostatic simple–complex transition, 224 Airy, 89 size-frequency distribution, see impact craters: Pratt, 89 populations slumping, 337 Jeffreys theorem, 58–60, 62 terraces, 335, 336–38 Jeffreys, Sir Harold, 29, 31, 32, 47, 49, 50, 58, 60, 62, width, 338 79, 101, 128, 129, 213 transient crater, 224, 237 Jovian planets, 5 volcanism, 270–71 impact mechanics kaolinite, 298 atmospheric erosion, 237 Kaula, William, 34 ballistic sedimentation, 248 Kelvin, Lord, 79, 80, 128, 420, see Thomson, collapse timescale, 239 William contact and compression, 232, 233 Kelvin–Helmholtz instability, 420 crater growth rate, 237–38 Kepler, Johannes, 2 detached shock, 236 Kepler’s laws, 2 ejecta Kilauea caldera, 193 curtain, 237 kimberlite pipe, see volcano: maar equation of state, 230 Köfels landslide, 343 excavation, 232, 233–38 duration, 233 laccolith, 194, 207 Hugoniot equations, 230 Lachenbruch, Arthur, 459, 460 impact-explosion analogy, 230 Lake Bonneville, 419, 420, 426 impedence matching, see Impact mechanics: planar Lake Missoula, 385 impact approximation Lakshmi Plateau, 16 isobaric core, 233 Lampson, C. W., 251

492 Index

landscape evolution, 428–31 temperature, 106 erosion rates, 429 thickness, 106, 108 slope profiles on Moon, 157 concave upward, 325 thickness, from admittance, 99 convex upward, 325 Venus, 108 straight, 325, 330 Llullaillaco volcano, 344 landslides, see Mass movement:landslides loess, 453 Late Heavy Bombardment, 10, 269–70 longitude, 41 latitude, 41 IAU convention, 43 IAU convention, 43 prime meridian, 43 Laurentide Ice Sheet, 452 long-runout landslide, see mass movement: lava, 208 landslides: sturzstrom Bingham yield stress, 211, 212 Lowell, Percival, 143 block, 209 lunar grid, 13, see tectonics: faults: planetary grids channels on Venus, 415, 419 Lutecia columnar joints, 209–10, 300 crater chains, 331 effusion rate, 213–14 Lyell, Charles, 430 flow, 208–18 Lyot Crater, 461 edge shape, 210, 211 length, 213 MacDougal crater, 204 levees, 212 Mackin, J. Hoover, 429 mechanics, 210–14 Magellan, 374, 377, 415 thickness, 210 Magma hornitos, 209 ascent, 187–94 inflation, 209, 214 eruption volume, 193 levee, 212 expansion velocity, 199 pahoehoe, 209 intrusion vs. extrusion, 194 pancake domes, 215, 216 neutral buoyancy, 193, 207 pillow, 194, 208 neutral buoyancy level, 194 plateau, 217–18 percolation flow, 187–88 pumice, 198 percolation time, 187 rheology, 214 physical properties, 183–86 rootless cones, 209 pressure, 191 rubbery surface, 208 quantized volume, 191–92 silica content, 214 role of contact angle, 187 sinuous rilles, 215–17 segregation, 187 thermal erosion, 217, 412 solidification, 197 tubes, 209 solubility of water, 196 tumuli, 209 standpipe ascent model, 188, 189–90 vesicular, 198, 199 subduction zone, 195 viscosity, 213 vapor exsolution, 198 leading/trailing asymmetry, see impact craters: viscosity, 183, 184 populations: leading/trailing asymmetry role of crystals, 185 Leith, C. K., 149 role of water, 183 Libya, 348 water solubility, 196 limestone, 297 magnetite, 298, 299 limonite, 297 Malaspina glacier, 437 lineament, 143, 144 Manicouagan crater, 267 illumination effects, 143 Manning, R., 402 Linné crater, 225, 228 mare basalts, 10 lithosphere, 80, 91, 105 mare ridges, see tectonics: faults: mare ridges defined by Maxwell time, 92 Mare Serenitatis, 153 definition, 100, 106 maria, lunar, 10 Earth, oceanic, 106 asymmetry, 11 planetary curvature, 158 Mariner 9, 189, 377, 407, 417 shell approximation, 110 Mars, 3, 16–18, 382 stress guide, 105 albedo markings, 377

Index 493

atmosphere, 17 mechanism, 321 Barchan dunes, 373 debris flow, 340 blueberries, 304 rheology, 340 Borealis Plains, 17 gravity currents, 339–40 catastrophic floods, 405 hydraulic jump, 340 cinder cones, 205 landslides, 326–44 climate, 18 cohesionless material, 327–31 crater clusters, 254 cohesive material, 339 crustal dichotomy, 39 Coulomb failure law, 326 dark halos, 364 maximum cliff height, 333 duricrusts, 308 pore pressure, 327, 329 dust devils, 363, 378 rotational slumps, 335 eskers, 455 slope stability, 334 flattening, 29 sturzstrom, 340–44 geoid, 99 air lubrication, 343 glaciation, 451 domino breccia, 344 glaciers, 435, 438 friction coefficient, 343 global dust storms, 378 low friction, 341–42, 344 grabens, 150 Olympus Mons, 345 hemispheric asymmetry, 35 speed, 341 hypsometric curve, 39, 42 volume, 341 ice wedge polygons, 461 Toreva block, 335, 339 kamikaze effect, 368–69 vertical cliffs, 332–33, 334 mare ridge, 135, 152 rotational slump, 334, 339 megaripples, 369, 370 scree, 330 methane, abiogenic, 298 seismic, 321, 330 obliquity variations, 290 subsidence pits, 330–31 outflow channels, 405, 407 talus cone, 330 permafrost, 458 terracettes, 323 pit chains, 151 turbidity currents, see turbidity currents polygonal troughs, 461 Masursky, Hal, 189 sapping, 395 Mathilde, 286 shield volcano, 206 Matson, D., 292 spheroidal weathering, 301 Maxwell Montes, 16, 91 stone pavement, 313 Maxwell relation, 173 streamlined channel forms, 409 Maxwell solid, 352 Swiss-cheese terrain, 308, 462 Maxwell time, see rheology topographic power spectrum, 46 Maxwell, D, 242 topographic reference system, 38 Maxwell, J. C., 76, 352 transverse dunes, 374 Mead crater, 16, 377 underground water, 388 mean radius, 27 vapor-phase advection, 293 Meckering, Australia, 152 water, 18 melting wind streaks, 370, 377, 378 complex, 179 yardangs, 376 decompression, 174–75 Mars Global Surveyor, 458 eutectic, 178, 179 Mars Orbiter Camera, 417 flux, 174, 180–82, 207 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, 458 ice, 176 mascon, lunar, 11, 98 liquidus, 177, 180, 182 role of curvature, 110 peridotite, 181 tectonics, 157, 158 planetary, 171 maskelynite, 234 pressure-release, 174, 180 mass movement rocks, 177 angle of repose, 327–29 role of carbon dioxide, 182 avalanche chutes, 339 role of water, 182, 184 creep, 319–26, 458 solid solution, 178 diffusion model, 324–25 solid solutions, 177–79

494 Index

melting (cont.) daily, 290 solidus, 177, 180, 182 polar, 290 temperature, 171, 180 tidal evolution, 32 depression by water, 180 topographic power spectrum, 46 ice, 175 topographic reference system, 38 Mercury, 3, 14–15, 104 Moseley, Canon, 320 despinning tectonics, 154 Mount Hadley, 143, 144 flattening, 30 Mt. Fuji, Japan, 194 hot pole, 15, 290 Mt. St. Helens, 197, 204 hypsometric curve, 39, 42 Muller, S. W., 455 ice at poles, 290 multiring basins, see impact craters: multiring intercrater plains, 218 basins lobate scarps, 104, 146, 149 magnetic field, 15 nanophase iron, 285 planetary grid, see tectonics: faults: planetary Neptune, 3 grid Neptunian Planets, 5 rotation, 15, 290 Nevin, C. M., 149 temperature, 289 Newporte crater, 267 warm pole, 15 Newton, Isaac, 2, 25 Merrill, R. B., 276 Newton’s gravitational constant, 2, 27 Meteor Crater, AZ, 223, 224, 233, 248 Nile River delta, 427 meteoroid flux, see impact craters: populations: Nippur Sulcus, 137 production distribution Nirgal Valles, 395 meteors, see impact craters: atmospheric North Africa, 348 entry North American glaciers, 436 methane, 298 Novaya Zemlya, 341 Midwest USA rivers, 410 Nusselt number, see heat transfer: convection Mimas, 84 Miranda, 139 obliquity, 3 coronae, 138 oceanic lithosphere, 160 Mirny station, 450 Odysseus crater, 84, 86 Mississippi River, 37, 410, 413, 416, 417 olivine, 176, 177, 179, 180, 298 Mogollon rim, AZ, 315 Olympus Mons, 17, 189, 205, 335, 376 Mohr, Otto, 144 aureole, 344, 345 molecular velocity, see velocity: molecular Oort cloud, 5 Molokai, 344 Opportunity rover, 304, 363, 408 moment of inertia, 29, 35 opposition effect, 312 principal, 35 opposition surge, 311 Mono Craters, 215 orbits, planetary, 3 Moon, 3, 4, 10–14 orders of relief, 25, 45 center of figure offset, 34 Orientale basin, 11, 225, 226, 239, 244 cinder cones, 205 orthoclase, 297 hemispheric asymmetry, 35 Ovda Regio, 129 horizon glow, 322 oxbow lake, 406, 411 hypsometric curve, 39, 42 impact velocity, average, 285 Pallas, 5 lineaments, 155 Panama Canal, 333 mare basins, 217 parachutes, 349 opposition effect, 311 pattern formation, 366 orbital evolution, 114 patterned ground, 459–62 origin by giant impact, 269 Penck, Walther, 430 regolith, see regolith, lunar penitents, 307 rille percolation flow, 187–88 arcuate, 150 peridotite, 180, 181 sinuous, 216, 412 period, orbital, 2 straight, 150 permafrost, 454–62 temperature active zone, 457, 458

Index 495

block fields, 462 Q, quality factor, 114 definition, 455 Kelvin–Voight solid, 115 ice–wedge polygons, 459–61 Maxwell solid, 115 icings, 457 Qattara Depression, 377 Mars, 458 north–south asymmetry, 462 racetrack playa, 427 patterned ground, 459–62 rainsplash, 397 pingos, 458 Ramberg, Hans, 136 solifluction, 458 Rayleigh distillation, 187 talik, 456 Red Wing Creek crater, 267 thermal regime, 456 regelation, 434, 439, 444–46 thermokarst, 462 regolith permeability, 187, 388, 390, 391 bearing strength, 277 depth dependence, 392 biological importance, 294 fractures, 391 definition, 276 Perrault, Pierre, 393 density, 277 Phobos, 341 depth, 283 crater chains, 151, 330, 331 growth rate, 281 orbital decay, 114 formation, 280–84 Phoenix lander, 304, 458, 461 gardening, 285 phreatic explosion, see volcano: maar heat transfer, 293 Pincacate Mountains, Sonora, 204 lateral mixing, 277, 284–85 pingo, 458 lunar, 13, 276–88, 294 planetesimal, 267 agglutinate, 285 plastic material, 64 density, 278 plate tectonics, 22, 107, 160–61, depth, 277 195 gardening, 284 oceanic plates, 120 grain size, average, 285 outer rise, 95 growth rate, 281 strain rates, 128 meteoritic contamination, 277 subduction zones, 90, 160 nanophase iron, 285 playas, 426–27 radiation, 287 Playfair, John, 399 thermal conductivity, 291 plumes, 195 maturity, 279, 286 Pluto, 3 neutrons, thermal, 288 plutonic rocks, 207 particle size, 277 porosity, 388, 390 radiation effects, 286–88 depth dependence, 392 stone pavements, 313, 314, 315 Mars, 392 deflation, 313 Moon, 392 upward migration, 314 Powell, J. W., 385 surface texture, 311–16 Prandtl, L., 354 elephant hide, 277, 320, 323 Pratt isostasy, 87, 88 fairy-castle structure, 311–12 pressure, 54 mudcracks, 315–16 lithostatic, 59 opposition effect, 312 principal stresses, 55 temperatures Prinz, 216 depth dependence, 290, 291 Prometheus Patera, Io, 206 skin depth, 290 Prometheus Plume, Io, 199 solid-state greenhouse, 292 Ptolemaeus crater, 155 thermal inertia, 293 pumice, 199 thermal rectification, 291, Pumpelly, Raphael, 363, 364 292 pyrite, 299 vapor-phase advection, 293 pyroclastic flow, 199, 203 reorientation of satellites by impacts, pyrolite, 179 267 pyroxene, 176, 179 Reynolds number, 351, 404 pyroxene absorption bands, 279 rheidity, see rheology

496 Index

rheology, 56, 64 semimajor axis, 2 Bingham, 185–86, 239, 338, 340 semiminor axis, 2 Bingham fluid, 450 serpentinite, 298 Bingham stress–strain rate, 186 shape, planetary Bingham yield stress, 186, 210 center of figure offsets, 35 creep, 74–80, 439 flattening, 27, 28 dislocation climb, 439 Kaula scaling law, 34 dislocations, 439, 440 oblateness, 27 Griggs experiment, 75 spherical, 26 ice, see glacier flow tidal deformation, 30 non-ice solids, 444 triaxial, 30, 31 time dependence, 75 Sharp, R. P., 365, 366, 381 Kelvin experiment, 80 Sharpe, C. F. S., 319, 320, 323 Kelvin–Voight model, 80 Shasta terrain, 341 lava, 186 Shewmon’s Rule of Thumb, 444 lithosphere, see lithosphere Shields criterion, 397 Maxwell time, 78, 127 shock metamorphism, see Impact mechanics: shock planetary structure, 105–07 metamorphism pseudoviscous flow, 74 Shoemaker, E. M., 222, 248, 262, 276, 281, 282, 385 rheidity, 78 Shreve, R., 343, 418 solution creep, 445 Siberian flows, 195 stress–strain relation, 57 siderite, 299 viscoelasticity, 76–80 Sierra Nevada, 401, 430 viscous, see viscosity Sif Mons, 194 rhyolite, 184, 197 silica, 298 Ries Crater, 223, 229, 241 sill, 194 Ringwood, A. E., 179 sinuous rilles, 215–17 rock cycle, 395 slopes rock glaciers, 438–39 angle of repose, see mass movement: angle of rotation, principal axis, 36 repose excited states, 36 angle on the Moon, 328 Explorer I, 36 definition, 40 Mars, 36 Hurst exponent, 40 Vesta, 36 median differential slope, 41 roughness, see topographic roughness profiles, see landscape evolution: slope profiles Roza flow, 214 vertical cliffs, 332–33 rubble piles, 67 SNC meteorites, 235 snow metamorphism, 436 Sagan, Carl, 1, 24 Socompa volcano, 344 San Andreas Fault, 149, 154 soil San Francisco Bay, 401 creep, 326 sand castles, 331 electrostatic levitation, 322 Sand Hills, NE, 453 mechanics, 320–23 sand transport, see eolian processes terracettes, 323–24 sapping, 394–95 thermal creep, 322 Saskatchewan glacier, 441 lunar, see regolith, lunar Saturn, 3 Mars schizosphere, 141 oxidation, 286 Schröter, J. H., 223 peroxides, 286 Schröter’s Rule, 245 terrestrial, 276, 311 Schröters Rille, 411 formation rate, 310 Schumm, S., 413 horizons, 295, 311 Sculpured Hills, 277 organic carbon, 310 Sedna Planitia, 419 thickness, 310 Seine River, 393 solar wind, 286 Selu Corona, 138 solid-state greenhouse, 292 semiarid USA rivers, 410 South Platte River, 413

Index 497

South Pole Aitken basin, 11 in a stack of thin layers, 59 space weathering, 279 in an elastic layer, 59 spectral power, 45 limit theorems, 61 spherical harmonic functions, 44 location of maximum, 60 spheroidal weathering, see weathering: physical: second stress invariant, 55 spheroidal shear from flowing water, 397 spider structure, 234 tectonic, see tectonics: stress sources Spirit rover, 363, 368, 369 Strindberg crater, 225 stagnation pressure, 254 sublimation, see weathering: sublimation steins latent heat crater chains, 331 carbon dioxide, 307 stishovite, 234 ice, 306 Stokes, G. G., 351 subsurface water, 388–95 Stokes’ law, 351–52 aquifer, 390 Stone Mountain, GA, 301 capillary fringe, 388 strain, 52–53 Darcy law, 390 stream Darcy velocity, 391 networks, 416 depletion of aquifers, 393–94 strength drawdown cone, 389 brace construction, 70 Earth abundance, 392 brittle–ductile transition, 73 energy per unit mass, 389 broken rock, 67 hydraulic conductivity, 390 Byerlee’s law, 72 hydraulic head, 389 cohesion, 73, 331 percolation flow, 390–92 Coulomb, 326 piezometric surface, 388–90 effect of pore pressure, 73, 327, 329 sapping, 394 Frenkel limit, 66 springs, 389, 395 frictional, 67–69, 328 water table, 388–90 ideal plasticity, 70 Sudan, 348 impact crater cohesion, 338 Sudbury crater, 267 linear law, 71 Sunbury, PA, 129 long-term, 333 suncups, 307 Lundborg, 70, 71 Surtsey island, 422 of rocks, 74 Surveyor Program, 276 planetary profiles, 81 Sykes crater, 204 pressure dependence, 74 role of defects, 66 tectonics size dependence, 142 boudinage, 135–36 strength profile, 80–82 Ganymede, 136 tensile, 73 brittle–ductile transition, 140 ultimate, 64, 65, 66 buckling, 133 stress, 53–55 elastic, 130–32 beneath loads, 61 embedded layer, 131 buckling, 129, 131 Europa, 133 buoyancy, 111 Indian plate, 133 Castigliano’s Principle, 60 multilayer, 132 convection, 112, 125 viscous, 132 deviatoric, 55 convection, 112 flexural, 93 definition, 104 from gravity anomalies, 98 diapirs, 136–38 from phase changes, 111 domes, 156 from surface loads, 110 ductile flow, 140, 141 from volume change, 111 faults, 145 Griffith crack, 142 Anderson theory, 143–49 horizontal, at failure, 148 brittle–ductile transition, 141 in a despun planet, 109 conjugate planes, 145 in a planetary interior, 63 definition, 143

498 Index

tectonics (cont.) terrae, lunar, 10 detachment, 134, 152–53 terrestrial planets, 5 dip, 147–48 Terzaghi, K., 326 flower structure, 153 Tethys, 84 graben dip, 151 Texas Canyon, AZ, 301 graben refraction, 157–58, 159 Tharsis Rise, 17, 29, 105, 156, 195, 217 grabens, 152, 227 tectonics, 157 high fluid pressure, 153 volcano heights, 189 mare ridges, 135, 152, 153 Theophilus crater, 225 strike-slip component, 152 thermal conduction, see heat transfer: conduction mascon, lunar, 158 thermal conductivity, 106, 117, 290, 291 Mohr circles, 144 lunar regolith, 291 normal, 146, 147 thermal convection, see heat transfer:convection planetary grid systems, 155 thermal diffusivity, 117, 214, 290 Riedel shears, 152 thermal expansion coefficient, 111, 173 slickenside, 145 thermal inertia, 293 strain ellipsoid theory, 149 thermal rectification, 291 strength paradox, 153–54 thermokarst, 462 strike-slip, 149 tholeiitic basalt, 184 strike-slip fault paradox, 157 Thomson, J. J., 302, 411 thrust, 146–48 Thomson, William, 79, 420 thrust fault, 149 tidal deformation, 31 transpression, 152 Moon, 32 flexural domes, 155–57 tidal dissipation, 30, 114–16, 128 folding, 128–35 Earth rotation, 31 fault bend, 134 Q, 114 fractures, 139 tidal flexing, 19 Griffith cracks, 142–43 Timocharis crater, 244, 246 Io’s sinking lithosphere, 160 Titan, 4, 20–22, 348, 382, 408, 431 joints, 139, 141–43, 300 atmosphere, 20 sheeting, 301 channels, 407 lineaments, 143, 155 frost-shattering, 304 localization, 139–40 glaciers, lack of, 435 mascons, 157 linear dunes, 374 necking, 135 longitudinal dunes, 375 neutral sheet, 133 methane, 21, 455 planetary expansion or contraction, 111 methane lakes, 425 plate tectonics, 160–61 seasons, 290 plates, 107–08 stone pavement, 313 rates, 127–28 subsurface methane, 394 role of planetary curvature, 110 surface temperature, 21 schizosphere, 141 Xanadu, 21 shrinking Earth, 128 Titus–Bode law, 3 stick-slip, 140 topographic diffusion coeficient, 325 strain-softening, 140 topographic roughness, 40–41 stress sources, 112 Kaula’s second law, 46 despun planet, 109 topography reoriented planet, 109 collapse without strength, 51 tidal deformation, 109 dynamic, 90–91 tensile cracks, 142 friction limit, 68 tensile fractures, 142 isostatic compensation, 89 Venus, 108 maximum in solar system, 69 tektites, 255 strength limit, 63 Tempel 1, 289 support, 58, 100 temperature flexure, 91–93 effective, 289 isostatic, 87–90 terracettes, 323–24 viscous relaxation, 82–87

Index 499

of craters, 84, 85 pyrite, 299 on Venus, 86 sulfur, 299 Trans-Neptunian Objects, 3 wind streaks, 377 Triton, 4 yardangs, 377 geysers, 205 vesicles, 199 seasons, 290 Vesta, 5, 169, 180 Tsilokovsky crater, 255 crust formation, 188 tuff magma percolation time, 188 airfall, 202, 203 Viking, 286, 313, 368, 417, 458 welded, 202, 203 viscosity, 56, 57–58, 351 tuff ring, see volcano: maar basaltic melts, 183 Tunguska explosion, 254 Bingham, 186 turbidity currents, 339, 340, 428 dependence on crystal content, 185 Tycho crater, 14, 226, 285, 336 derived from topographic relaxation, 83 Tyndall, John, 434 effective, 75 gas, 352 Ubehebe crater, 204 pressure independence, 352 undrained depressions, 395, 428 granitic melts, 183 Uranus, 3 Jeffreys equation, 213 Urey, Harold, 299 magma, 183 Utopia basin, 17 Newtonian, 57 of paint, 185 Valhalla basin, 20, 227, 245 of the Earth, 83, 84 Valles Marineris, 17, 342 of the Moon, 84 Varenius, 169 self-regulation, 125–26 Variegated Glacier, 446 silicate melts, 184 velocity volcanic ash, 198, 199, 206, 378 escape, 6 volcanic bombs, 199 molecular, 6 velocity, 201 volcanic ejecta, 200–02 volcanic eruptions Venera 13, 313 deep-sea, 197 Vening-Meinesz, Felix, 108, 152 explosive, 195–204 Venus, 3, 15–16, 170 fire-fountain, 197 “snow” on mountaintops, 299 gas-rich, 196 carbon dioxide, 299 Impact-induced, see impact craters: volcanism channels, 407, 415, 419 mechanics, 194–204 cinder cones, 205 quiescent, 197 coronas, 138, 157 Venusian, 197 arachnid, 157 volume rate of, 170 nova, 157 volcano crater clusters, 254 accordant summits, 189, 190 dark halos, 364 caldera, 204, 207 fold belt, 129 cinder cone, 205 geoid anomalies, 99 lunar, 205 hypsometric curve, 39, 42 composite, 206–07 isostatic compensation, 99 ejection height, ballistic, 199 pancake domes, 215, 216 ejection height, buoyant, 199 parabolas, 378 ejection speed, 200–02 shield volcano, 205, 206 eruption mechanics, 200, 203 splotches, 255 explosive eruption, 198 stone pavement, 313 fire-fountain, 205 topographic power spectrum, 46 Hawaiian, 193 topographic reference system, 38 laccolith, see laccolith topography, 16 maar, 204–05 transverse dunes, 374 magma chamber, 193, 194, 205, weathering 207 oxidation of iron, 298 plume, 203

500 Index

volcano (cont.) spheroidal, 302 buoyant, 203 sulfur, 299 pyroclastic flow, 199, 339 Urey reaction, 299 sector collapse, 344 desert varnish, 309–10 shield, 205–06 duricrust, 308–09 spatter rampart, 206 physical, 300–06 volume chemical potential, 305 expansion coefficient, 120 cracks, 300 expansion of water, 302 crystallization pressure, 303, 304 sphere, 27 frost shattering, 303, 304 triaxial ellipsoid, 27 grus, 305 Vostok station, 450 insolation weathering, 306 Vredefort crater, 267 pressure of reaction, 305 rock disintegration, 306 Warrego Vallis, 400 salt weathering, 302, 305 Wasatch Mountains, 420 sheeting joints, 301 water spheroidal, 301 expansion on freezing, 302 stress corrosion cracking, 301 waves, 420–26 supersaturation, 304 amplitude, 422 thermal stress, 306 breaking, 423 radiation, 287, 288 energy, 421 space weathering, 279, 285–87 energy flux, 421 sublimation, 307, 308 generation, 420 Weertman, Johannes, 188 gravity, 420 Wessex Cliff, 277 group velocity, 421 Westerly granite, 140 particle orbits, 422 Wiesbach, J., 403 phase velocity, 420, 421 Wild 2, 307, 333 refraction, 423–26 Willis, Bailey, 128, 129 weathering, 293–311 wind tunnel, 348 cavernous, 308–09 wollastonite, 299 honeycomb, 309 wrinkle ridges, see tectonics: faults: mare ridges tafoni, 308 wüstite, 298 chemical, 295–300 carbon dioxide, 299 Xanadu, 21, 413 carbonation, 299 Xanthe Terra, 405 clathrates, 297 hydration, 297 Yakima Fold Belt, 152 hydrolysis, 298 Yellowstone, 195 iron oxidation, 295 Yukon Territory, 462 oxidation, 295, 299 Yuma, AZ, 313 reactions, 296 Yuty crater, 249 serpentinization, 298 solution, 297 Zagros Mountains, 445